How the cross cultural mgt proposition becomes imperative for multinational organizations?

Please elaborate with examples of existing multinational and any upcoming multinational in Pakistan?

What Is Cross Culture Management:

Cross-cultural management concerns the interaction of differing cultures in a business environment. When businessmen and women meet people from other cultures, varying approaches to this cultural management allow for enhanced understanding and cooperation. Why the Need? Different cultures bring different sensibilities, values and expectations. In many cases, these various world views affect perceptions as to how business is ethically and respectfully conducted. Knowledge of specific courtesies, protocols and business logic add fluency to these relations and enhance potential partnerships.

Courses:
Many educational institutions and companies encourage their students or members to gain training in the area of cross- cultural management. Courses are often crafted to introduce specific cultures to the classroom. Examples of this

might be German, Japanese, or Islamic culture and business culture. Each is exceptionally unique and allows the student to gain marketable skills. Training Language is one of the most vital tools for communication. Cross-cultural management coursework often incorporates language acquisition. Other courses will inform management students of social taboos and specific customs as they relate to various cultures. Since some business travelers encounter "culture shock," cross-cultural management training equips individuals to alleviate the difficult transitions experienced by foreign colleagues and business partners. MNCS: Multinational corporations seek to reduce legal and commercial risk in order to develop sustainable competitive advantages. There are various factors that affect investment decisions of companies and countries engage in a type of race to attract more FDI, which help them have high economic growth and sustain strong economic performance. How do countries improve their competencies in these factors?

Since MNCs put much more emphasis on this topic as they want to minimize the uncertainty and know that existing mechanisms will work when it is needed. As opposed to the existence of uncertainty in different investment environments with different regulatory frameworks and large political risks, [38] MNCs expanded and are still expanding their operations in different parts of the world. They expanded to Asian region, taking advantage of the low wage levels and benefiting from the liberalization of the economies of these countries [39] while countries such as Brazil, Indonesia, and Mexico have been able to maintain a significant level of FDI inflows as a result of large domestic markets, rich natural resources, and relatively growing economies even with rather restrictive foreign investment regimes. [40] Having realized the impact on the development of the country, developing countries try to attract much more FDI than they used to do [41] and they try to increase pull factors to attract investment growing markets and production bases, widening pools of talent (e.g. 1/3 of global tertiary technical students now in China, India and the Russian Federation), cost advantages, natural resources. EXAPMLES OF GROW UP ECONOMY CARICOM represents the countries of the English speaking Caribbean but has begun to expand contacts as well with Caribbeancountries of other languages and cultures. Democracy is a requirement formembership in CARICOM and theinstitution has initiated actions in a range ofdemocracy-related fields. The

organization had had no experience with electoralobservation until recent observations in Guyana, Suriname and Haiti, explainedAssistant Secretary General Albert Ramdin. Ramdin outlined the new threats todemocracy in the region stemming from changes in the global economic andpolitical environment. He cited, for example, threats to the banana industry inthe Caribbean, new restrictions and supervision of the financial services industryand the proliferation of cross-border activities such as illegal arms trafficking,drug trade, and contraband. In terms of economic and commercial factors, the size and the growth prospects of the domestic market, the status of communications and transportation infrastructure and the financial stability of the market constitute important elements of FDI decision making The prime objective of the research was to study the diffusion process and impact of the global business culture being brought by globalization on local business culture, which has longstanding roots. Several variables like age, education, income, marital status, family living pattern and background of the respondents were seen in the context of global business culture in order to measure the impact and duration of change. Some intervening variables likestress, motivation and rewards, achievement and encouragement, planningand decision making, performance appraisal system, politics, training and development, acceptance and adoption towards change, level of understand ing other culture, loyalty and commitment and perception, were also analyzed in pursuit of the study objectives. The study was conducted in 100 export based textile organizations by selecting five personnel of upper and middle levels from each organization, who selected randomly. Quantitative approach used in this study to assess the impact of the global culture on local business. A random sampling design was used for the selection of employees from all the organizations. Pre-testing was carried out to examine the workability of the measuring instrument. The data were analyzed by appropriate statistical techniques including univeriate, biveriate, and multiple linear regression analysis through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Findings showed that several independent and intervening variables effect on behavior of people who were working in export base textile organizations. Findings revealed that employees, under global business culture, have become more planed, systematic and scientific in their attitudes. This was also emerged from analysis that survival in business organizations demands adoption and changes in behaviour. It is suggested that government should formulate comprehensive policies to create strong relationship between social scientists and business managers for maximum productivity from the global culture. It is also suggested that business organizations must incorporate monetary and non monetary benefits to the employees who adopt modern values for organizational benefits and also disseminate it.

Specifically the following are objectives: To assess the impact of global business culture on the behavior of personnel of local business organization. To study the social impact and the social cost of the adoption of modern business culture. To examine the level ofsatisfaction among the employees of local business organizations with the modern business values. To examine the duration of change regarding adoption and the diffusion process. Globalization and Modern Values In order to understand what the globalization is, this is better to look at multinational corporations (MNCs). By the support of host governments, MNCs have their own political, social, and economic structure; and are directly influencing the work and working style of host countries (Katz and Derbishire, 2000). Many evidences from business can be drawn, such as garments, callhouses, softwaredevelopment houses, couriers, logistics, and surgical instruments support this claim. Hence globalization is a process of interdependencies among people of different countries. That is further multiplied with rapid adoption of technology, mass media, tourism, and migration. An individual who works in a multinational organization or simply in any organization that has some direct relationship with some other country (like export based organizations) does not develop a formal work relationship with that country only, but also accepts the manner, system, and structure of that country. Acceptance of these new manners drives him into a state of change. Age/Experience The demographic factor like age has a vital influence on the behavioral change of individuals. The age of an individual plays an important role in all dimensions of human life Education / Knowledge Education always socialized human beings and has been considered as the most powerful factor affecting social change. Change is actually inherent in life but the kind of change, which occurred through education, is deliberate. A cursory look at the history of societal development reveals that promotion of education is a precondition for progress and prosperity. Education remains the fundamental building

block of sustainable socioeconomic and demographic development Performance Appraisal System A very unique feature of modern management is performance appraisal system. In other words can be called it a merit (that is also a common word now in Pakistani society) that has to be achieved if one wants to get some growth and development. This merit sets the criteria of standards or expected performance and employees are supposed to chase these standards by performing best to their potential. Ultimately the actual performance is matched with the standard performance and certain decisions about the compensation of the employee are made. In the local value system the rewards and compensations are made partly on performance appraisal and mainly on many other irrelevant factors like nepotism, favoritism, baksheesh, caste system, and many others

Understanding of other Cultures Globalization supports to understand other cultures in order to develop integration among the nations (Fons, 1990). The importance of understanding the other cultures realized when one looks at business organizations. Rugman (2000) reported thatmore than 85% of all automobiles sold in North America are built in North American factories owned by General Motors, Ford, DaimlerChrysler, or European or Japanese . MNEs. This is due to the reason of certain comparative advantages that one country has over others (Ostry, 2001); which attract the migrants (Fred 1971, Richard, 2000). It clearly reflects that existence or survival of business organizations without understanding the other cultures seems difficult. Resultantly a system of standards with universally accepted business values is in the process of convergence. The pace and duration of shift from traditional or primitive business values to modern and rational business values depend on the social, economic, political, religious, and family structure. The section describes that personnel working in export based textile organizations are willing to understand other cultures; the positive attitude may further lead towards the adoption of the cultures.

Multi National Corporation: A corporation that has its facilities and other assets in at least one country other than its home country. Such companies have offices and/or factories in different countries and usually have a centralized head office where they co-ordinate global management. Very large multinationals have budgets that exceed those of many small countries: Existing multinational : As we are the best examples during the happen Iin Pakistan. Developing countries that try to expand exports and improve the efficiency of domestic industries rely on multinational corporations as the source for industrial technology. The problem faced by many of these countries is that their protectionist laws concerning foreign investment and technology transfer, while appropriate for an earlier phase of industrialization, are no longer viable. The paradox faced by these countries is that technological self-reliance requires their continued dependence on multinationals. Pakistan's experiences with resolving this problem are discussed. Pakistan, like many other developing countries, has so far failed to develop indigenous engineering capabilities, and has not succeeded in adapting its enterprises to meet local needs. The Pakistani government needs to encourage better relationships with multinational corporations. Multinational corporations (MNCs) are increasingly turning to transnational strategic alliances (TSAs) as a means of remaining competitive by extending the reach of their marketing without overextending their managerial resources. MNCs are using TSAs in order to take advantage of the limited window of opportunity that now characterizes new product development and marketing. TSAs are formed by two or more businesses in two or more countries that integrate deliverable capabilities and resources, including products, production facilities, and distribution and marketing channels, to exploit existing marketing opportunities. Cross-cultural conflict refers to the different forms of Culture or cultural elements, or between the opposing exclusion. The underlying causes of cultural conflict is different from the cradle of cultures of different clash of civilizations. The cultural conflict in today's society is mainly the three major clash of civilizations, that the United States-based Christian civilization, Confucianism

dominated Chinese civilization, as well as the Arab countries based Islamic civilization. Cross-cultural core of the conflict lies behind the mission of cultural, strategic, economic interests, profit level, short-term, medium-and long-term goals are inconsistent, culture is one in which the interface and the carrier. Cross the companies, from different cultural backgrounds in the political, economic, and personal beliefs, values are different, their work, enthusiasm, organization and coordination and leadership awareness of the terms of reference will have a different nature is difficult to avoid the formation of cultural conflict . These conflicts will penetrate into the corporate strategy, organization, management, human resources, Research and development, and other management work, once the lack of effective co-ordination will be a serious obstacle to enterprise development. As a result, an increasing number of multinationals beginning to recognize the existence of cultural conflict and the importance of objectivity, focus on strengthening cross-cultural management research and practice.

upcoming multinational corporation: The oil companies in the CEE-region.. As we this examples hoe to upcoming mnc in pkaits by this procedure ,, and how tu create revenue from other company. uring the socialist regime in the CEE countries1 governments strived to make their own refineries sovereign and the oil industry as a whole was considered a priority. This resulted in independent national oil companies that focused on the entire value chain and were far from meeting any efficiency benchmark when compared to their "western" counterparts. Firstly they were not able and secondly they did not have to. The regional oil industry was inefficient in design. None of the countries were connected via pipelines. The infrastructure had a hub-andspoke design ensuring dependence on the former Soviet Union. Each country had separate deals with Moscow, the prices were not based on market drivers, but rather crude oil was the clearing currency between Moscow and the COMECOM countries. On the other hand fuel prices were controlled by the states and were kept artificially low before the price deregulations in the early 1990's.

Regardless of common past, the oil compames in CEE countries had different vertical integration structures. In some countries the oil companies were separate entities, while in others even the energy and gas sectors were integrated with the oil sector. Throughout the years these countries had started transitions in different times due to various political or economical reasons and therefore their oil industry restructuring and privatizing was at different stages at a certain point in time. After the shifts to the market economy, many state owned later privatized oil companies have proved that they cannot stand on their own feet and be competitive in the international markets. A number of these companies were poorly managed that has led to high debts and obsolete technologies. They had two choices: either to attain financial resources to strengthen the domestic presence, restructure the companies and improve efficiency or do so with external help - through acquisition. This kind of environment laid grounds for a consolidation trend in the sector throughout the CEE region.

2. Why political stability is necessary for the growth of business in Pakistan? Example no.1

Because the race between India and Pakistan (two countries that account for 93% of total military expenditure in South Asia) is responsible for this cruel irony," says report Promoting Economic Cooperation in South Asia. India, ranked at 142 in terms of per capita income, ranks first in the world in terms of arms imports. Pakistan is not far behind, being ranked 119 in terms of per capita income and 10th in the world in terms of arms imports. The deadly nuclear dimension that since 1998 has been added to India-Pakistan arms race is seen by the respective governments to reinforce national security through a presumed 'deterrence'." Apart from danger of an accidental nuclear war, current structure of India Pakistan tension is such that a terrorist attack can induce military mobilisation and repeatedly bring both countries to a point at which nuclear button could be deliberately pressed by one, then other side, Bank report said. "Peace and economic cooperation with Pakistan are necessary for India not only to secure its strategic economic interests but also to maintain its secular democratic polity," report argues. "A high-growth, open economy framework for India today is inseparable from a liberal democratic political structure. The existing social forces of Hindu nationalism, intolerant of minorities, will undermine India's secular democratic structure as much as its economic endeavour". ontinued tension between India and Pakistan will only fuel extremist religious forces in both countries, to detriment of their economy and polity. "Pakistan, by contrast, is faced with economic crisis whereby it is unable to sustain high GDP growth due to an aid-dependent economic structure, inadequate export capability, and recurrent balance-of payments pressures." The persistent high levels of poverty in Pakistan and continued tension with India fuel forces of religious extremism, it said, noting: "Armed militant groups have now emerged as rival powers to that of the state within its territorial domain, thereby threatening structure of the state as well as fabric of society." "Peace with India will mean a substantially improved environment for much needed foreign and domestic investment. This could play an important role in accelerating, sustaining GDP growth and poverty reduction in Pakistan. It is clear that through peace, both India and Pakistan can reap economic benefits for their people and secure respective democratic structures against forces of religious extremism," it said. National security of both countries is threatened not by neighbour across the border but by internal social forces of intolerance, violence, poverty. A new structure of peace would reduce danger of cataclysmic destruction from nuclear war and also provide two nations with economic and political stability. Thus, by providing increased security of life and livelihood to both countries, national security in their respective nations will be enhanced. Example 2: Any objective assessment of the true state of the Pakistan economy at this

juncture will throw up many paradoxes and contradictions. The economic managers of the past eight years are claiming enormous success in achieving economic recovery, attracting foreign investment and building up large foreign exchange reserves. But critics point to high inflation, rising unemployment and growing inequalities, and also emphasize that the growth achieved in recent years is not sustainable. There is always some gap in the achievements claimed by different governments and the assessment of their critics, but we have hardly ever seen as wide a gulf as exists today in perceptions about the state of the economy. This is why it is important to make an objective assessment. Such an assessment would naturally lead to the identification of the critical elements that are required for sustainable growth and for the inclusive development necessary for improving the quality of life of the common man. The new government which will take over after the general elections in 2008 will not find it easy to deal with the multiplicity of problems it will inherit from the past double-digit food inflation, rising trade deficit, energy crises and growing unemployment. But it must move quickly to address the structural weaknesses that have to be overcome if a sustainable growth rate of over 7 percent is to be achieved in the coming years:

In the short run, special attention must be paid to the agriculture sector and within agriculture to high-value food crops like pulses, edible oils, and vegetables, especially to the supply chain of transport, storage, processing and marketing. Improvements in these sub-sectors will not only sustain the growth rate but also help to curb inflation.

In the medium term, serious deficiencies in infrastructure must be addressed especially electricity, port facilities and railways.

In the industrial sector, new sub-sectors with comparative advantage and export potential must be identified to reduce Pakistans dependence on the textile sector for its exports and to provide gainful employment to people in rural areas.

The domestic saving rate must be increased to reduce Pakistans dependence on external flows. Currently, while the investment rate has increased to 23 percent, the domestic saving rate is only 17 percent. New institutions that can channel pension funds and attract equity, in the housing sector, for example, would be needed.

Ecologically sound development policies must be followed to preserve and

develop the countrys land, water and forest resources to, inter alia, counteract the impact of global warming.

Finally, Pakistans best resource for sustained growth is its human capital. Every secondary school in Pakistan should become a skill training center. Moreover, improved primary health care can ensure that the time for which almost every breadwinner in a poor family is sick is halved from 60 to 30 days in a year. While sustaining the growth rate is important, it is even more critical that the growth is inclusive and benefits the poorer segments of the population. The poor have not been able to benefit significantly from the recent spurt in economic growth due to several negative factors, including a skewed pattern of land distribution, lack of skills or income generating assets like livestock, adverse terms of trade for agriculture, oppressive governing structure at the local level, and discrimination against many poor households due to ethnic or sectarian differences. Today, 60 percent of the people do not receive clean drinking water and 80 percent live in unhygienic conditions. A viable poverty reduction strategy will have to be implemented to reverse the vicious circle of these unfavorable social and economic factors through a series of measures and policies that include the following elements:

Enhanced ownership of or access to land for the poor in rural areas through feasible land reforms and allotment of new land mainly to poor households;

Enhanced ownership by the poor of livestock through provision of micro-credit on a substantial scale;

Greater home ownership for low-income households; Further improvements in the agricultural terms of trade to ensure that the prices that farmers pay for agricultural inputs do not rise faster than the prices that farmers, especially small farmers, receive for their output;

Reasonable and stable food prices; Higher proportion of direct taxes in total tax revenues; Enhanced real wages for workers in urban and rural areas; and Special attention to education and skill development in low-income households. Finally, an open democratic system is more responsive to the needs and aspirations of the poor. As a famous writer said: No democracy with a free press has ever experienced a major famine. Unless people are governed with their consent and on the basis of a fair social contract between the state and society, longer-term political stability cannot be assured.

Major Issues of e Business in Pakistan A vision of wired Pakistan (widespread connectivity) (Hussain, 2001) has becomebuzzword among almost every literate and even illiterate Pakistani and itis being used as a status symbol. People talk about IT to learn more and thus be part of newly emerging cyber community. It cannot, however, be taken for granted, because the risks involved in ITadoption process are evident from finding of Sauer (1993) that 70% of IS projects are failing. Thus zest and zeal of community need to be administered at all bureaucratic,political, educational, social and cultural levels besides streamlining the technology. EBusiness in Pakistan like other developing countries is facing different challenges in process of computerization, because digitization is a socio-technical and multidisciplinary activity, though computerization is comparatively easy in developed countries because of the availability of technical, financial and human infrastructure but it is difficult in developing. nations like Pakistan due to non availability of required resources, infrastructure and skills. With this context, e Business in Pakistan is facing many challenges (e.g. governmental, organizational and technological), that is why growth and pace of e Business is slow. According to Moreno (2001) low computer education, technology sensitization, lack of basic understanding of how-to use Internet, high cost of computers, lack of understanding of English language, unstable political and legal environment, poor regulatory framework for e Business and brain drain are notable barriers of e Business in Pakistan. The most fundamental need of e Business is provision of infrastructure to encourage Transactions, which is a challenge for the developing countries to overcome. The infrastructure needs to have sufficient bandwidth, it needs to be able to support high traffic, and provide secure and reliable connections. The availability of sufficient infrastructure and consistency of electric power within the country plays significant role in the e Business.

3.Why ethics and social responsibility is an inevitable for every commercial organization in Pakistan? Establishing strong ethical credentials While some firms consistently fail to consider ethical factors, others have given themselves a competitive edge by establishing strong credentials in this area. For instance, in the nineties Toyota boosted its global standing with pioneering work on the hybrid Prius model. Coca-Cola thought it commercially worthwhile to take a minority stake in the UK fruit drinks firm Innocent, which boasts that it gives away a tenth of all its profits. And McDonalds is investing heavily in activities aimed at associating it with ethical and environmental awareness as it

rebuilds its brand and attempts to overcome decades of negative publicity. The round table discussions highlighted that the link between ethics and business has become far clearer in recent years, as companies realise that corporate interests must be aligned with the broader concerns of society if they are to survive. In a successful company, ethics are embedded in decision making and long term strategy. Doing the right thing is not an afterthought thats bolted on to the mainstream activities that generate its profits. Successful, sustainable firms aspire to integrate ethics into all aspects of strategy. Win-win situation The shift is not complete by any means, though. Companies that dont deal directly with consumers can still be tempted to risk a good reputation for quick profits. But even firms that arent directly consumer facing must consider the effects of negative reporting about their activities or of falling foul of legislation. And the steady growth in the use of ethical criteria by institutional investors means that lapses in corporate social responsibility can dent a public companys share price or a private firms prospects of finding investment. With ethics now centre stage globally, theres a chance to create a win-win situation in which companies can find out how a sustainable approach benefits the bottom line, thereby convincing even the most profit hungry of investors. This is what UK retailer Marks & Spencer did with its Plan A environmental marketing initiative, what the UKs Cooperative Group has consistently done and what BP attempted with its Beyond Petroleum rebranding campaign. Encouraging businesses to listen to public opinion is a step in the right direction. But inevitably there have been accusations that their stated commitment to corporate social responsibility may be opportunist or only skin deep. Accusations of green wash abound, with environmentalists arguing that firms have seen the new interest in ecological issues as simply another chance to market products as environmentally friendly to gullible consumers. One problem for businesses is that, although some ethical issues are straightforward, many are highly debatable. Are nuclear power stations bad and wind turbines good, for example? Should an armaments business quit markets where bribery is rife or simply behave better than its rivals? And terms such as predatory lending, excessive risk

taking and greed are all notoriously hard to define. Another problem, which was highlighted by the financial crisis in the West, is that shareholders cannot be relied upon to defend their own interests. The fashionable drive to maximise shareholder value has seen investors and business leaders combine in a quest for short term advantage. Far from being champions for sustainable business, the equity markets have imposed huge pressures on senior managers for quick returns. Today it could be seen that one of the duties of a tough CEO is to resist such pressure by delivering more realistic financial results in the short term, if need be. This hardly squares with current remuneration practices, of course especially in investment banking. thical responsibilities So what are the special responsibilities of accountants in making business more ethical? Countering bribery is an obvious starting place. CIMA members are bound by strict standards in the CIMA code of ethics. Because of this, they are valued by organisations as a bulwark against morally questionable practices. They can be instrumental in countering the development of a culture that normalises the payment of bribes. Management accountants have a further important responsibility: the delivery of accurate management information is vital to understanding a firms overall sustainability, gauging its environmental impact and showing how effective its governance systems are, for example. They have a key role in compiling the so called connected reports that Accounting for Sustainability is advocating with increasing force. Some accountants may feel that being a cheerleader for a cause such as sustainability clashes with the dispassionate role of the traditional finance function. Undeniably, people with professional accountancy qualifications are valued because of their ability to stand above the fray and perform impartial analyses. But, as this paper has argued, its wrong to believe that ethical principles conflict with the long term viability of a business. Social responsibility : computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR) published a position paper titled "Serving the Community: A Public Interest Vision of the National Information Infrastructure." CPSR, a national nonprofit organization with a history of addressing issues of computing technology and its societal impacts, was in the unique position of being

able to articulate concerns about the national information infrastructure (NII) from a public-interest perspective while drawing from the technological expertise of its members. Since the mid-1980s and into the 1990s, CPSR had taken positions on such topics as privacy, civil liberties, and free speech, with respect to electronic information. The 1993 position paper urged the adoption of several policy and design guidelines that CPSR believes would serve the public interest in the development of a new national information infrastructure. Ethics and responsibility in journalism: An Islamic perspective: t is my contention that mass media appear to be more practical than abstract and philosophical. However, both news and entertainment convey, reinforce, and are based on certain beliefs and value system. The epistemological and the ethical foundations of contemporary mass media practices are deeply rooted in the western ideologies and philosophies. The major motive behind all mass media structures, practices and processes is based on sales values and governed by the market mechanism.1 Media code of ethics and watchdog mechanism are ignored by the media practitioners because they contradict the prevailing social order and hinder the pursuit of private good. The situation in Muslim countries, or of Muslim media practitioners, is no different from that of the western media. Various forms of mass media ethics pertaining to the rights, responsibilities, freedom, and regulation of the press have been debated in European cultures since the introduction of the press in the 15th and early 16th centuries. Most of these debates focused on two areas: professional ethics related to the training of media professionals; and normative philosophical theories of public communication which bear on the professional obligations of media practitioners. The new information technologies of our time have tremendously increased the power and function of the mass media, and at the same time have put enormous pressure on media scholars to rethink and redefine the parameters of ethics for journalists and media practitioners. On the one hand these new technologies are democratizing the process of communication by encouraging communication between individuals, on the other hand they also provide opportunities for the rich and elite to monopolize the information and manipulate it and thus control others' destinies without their consent or even against their will. This, as an eminent

communication scholar Everett Rogers notes, is an epistemological turning point in media analysis and the new communication technologies are the driving force behind this revolution.2 It is not likely that the tension between the forces of the free market place of ideas and those advocating the responsible behaviour of media practitioners is going to be resolved. There are two main reasons: because the forces of the free market place of ideas dominate the economic and consequently the political structures, and because those who advocate responsible behaviour for journalists constitute a minority and have no or only an insignificant role in the decision making process pertaining to media management and ownership. They, in the words of John C. Merrill, are the 'fossilized academics' and are an endangered species themselves.3 Merrill has divided existing media codes of ethics and responsibility into three types: that which is legally defined or determined by governments; that which is professionally defined or determined by the press itself; and that which is pluralistically defined or determined by individual journalists themselves.4 Merrill sees the third theory as the only one that is valid, meaningful, and in harmony with the values and goals of western societies, especially American society.5 In attempting to compare existing codes of ethics, Thomas W. Cooper has provided a national, ideational, historical, and linguistic context. Placing these codes within a spectrum of emphasis, Cooper illustrated some of the most important polarities by which most of the codes can be explained from 'informal' to 'formal', from 'minimal' to 'ideal', from 'material' to metaphysical', the 'inihibitive' to the 'inspirational', etc.6 While obviously there is no attempt, by western scholars, to compare these codes within the Islamic framework, Claude-Jean Bertrand has noted that the West is more concerned with ethical issues in the context of a 'free press', 'and the rest of the world is more interested in issues regarding 'justice'.7 Herbert Altschull has used loose categories of market oriented countries, Marxist, and advancing nations, and has described the articles of faith that form the basis of media codes of ethics.8 There may be numerous contexts and methodological devices by which codes may be classified. However looking at the three perspectives discussed in this article, (John C. Merrill, Thomas Cooper, and Herbert Altschull) one may conclude that most western nations, including the newly liberated nations of East Europe, are increasingly inclined towards a market based theory of responsibility in mass media which is in fact a theory of individual pluralism. Or in clearer terms: the code of ethics is what an individual journalist, or a particular media

institution, or a particular society deems fit for the material benefit of the journalist, or the press, or of the society as a whole. Thus the meaning and values assigned to concepts such as news, truth, objectivity, freedom, people's right to know, and facts, may change according to particular circumstances or according to the needs and priorities of a particular society at a particular time. This is the most that one can get from reviewing the existing literature on media ethics from western scholars' theses on this issue. Individual codes of ethics may vary from nation to nation only with respect to national priorities, linguistic constraints, cultural diversity, or the type of political structure. Despite efforts to draw up an internationally agreed code of ethics, in practical terms there exist different codes of journalistic ethics in many nations of the east, west, north and south. The process of mass communication is dictated by a journalist's own vision of what can be most readily sold to the public, and in what form. That is why there are 'codes without conduct, technology without humanity, theory without reality [practice], global change without personal change, and personal ethics, without world awareness.'9 An Islamic perspective In practice today there is no journalistic code of ethics based on the principles of Islam, and few scholars have attempted to define an Islamic framework for mass media ethics.10 However, their thinking did not go beyond academic discussions. That is why the Muslim Ummah of more than one billion has no control over sources of information and the way it want to disseminate news despite having more than 600 daily newspapers, about 1500 weeklies, 1200 monthly news and views magazines, and about 500 miscellaneous Muslim publications. It is difficult for a researcher to find a well defined Islamic code of journalistic ethics. One can find press codes in Pakistan, Turkey, Indonesia, Egypt, maybe in Iran, and a few more Muslim countries, but most of these reflect, to a great extent, the same secular bias that is part of the existing code of ethics in most other countries. The first Asian Islamic Conference organized by the Mecca-based World Muslim League in Karachi, Pakistan, in 1978 decided that co-ordination should be developed between Muslim journalists to offset and counter the Western monopoly of the mass media and its anti Islamic propaganda. The first International Islamic News Agency (IINA) was established by the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1979 with its headquarters in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, but as Schleifer has noted, 'The most poorly served IINA objectives is its very first one - to consolidate

and safeguard the rich cultural heritage of Islam... A more significant limitation to IINA coverage, from a Muslim perspective, is the relatively low amount of intrinsically Islamic news content.'12 The first International Conference of Muslim Journalists held in Jakarta, Indonesia, in 1981 endorsed a covenant for Muslim media professionals emphasizing that: Islamic rules of conduct should form the basis for all Muslim media practitioners in their journalistic endeavours, and Muslim media should work towards achieving integration of the Muslim individual's personality. It was stated that the consolidation of faith of the Muslim individual in Islamic values and ethical principles should be the main obligation of Muslim media.13 However, none of the above mentioned efforts could lead to the development, and more importantly, the practice of an Islamic code of ethics among the Muslim journalists. The reasons being: lack of support from Muslim governments; lack of interest and enthusiasm by Muslim journalists themselves; and lack of support from Muslim scholars as well Muslim society in general. Even the many Islamic magazines and newspapers have not been able to demonstrate that what they practice is inherently different from the secular media. As Schleifer has observed: 'The reverse-secularism of Western and Islamic Movement journalism insists that religion is worthy of reporting only in the political domain, and a political domain of confrontation. The specific danger of "Islamic journalism" to date is that the journalist substitutes the life and activities of the various Islamic movements for the life and activities of the much broader Islamically conscious society... of which the political movements are but a small part. When the "Islamic journalist" substitutes the life and drama of Islamic movements for the life and drama of Islamic society, he not only over politicizes Islam but he invariably becomes side-tracked into the same sort of surface reporting of organized political life in the Muslim world that characterizes the secular press and ends up even reporting poorly on many political and public developments of profound importance to Muslims.'14 The above statement is a true reflection of many Muslim magazines such as Impact International of London, The Minaret and The Message, both of the USA, Takbir of Pakistan, Radiance of Delhi, and even AlDawah of Egypt. It is evident that an Islamic code of journalistic ethics is inevitable if Muslims wish to have their own information system and also wish to see it play an important and effective role in the flow of news and information across the continents. Basis for an Islamic Code of ethics:

ince a journalist's foremost concern is the dissemination of news, we have to agree upon a definition of news that is permissible within the framework of Quran and Sunnah. Not only that, we have also to consider a process of news gathering, news making and news disseminating that is acceptable within an Islamic framework. And in order to compete with the existing information orders we have to provide theoretical foundations and arguments as well a driving force that will ensure its implementation among Muslim journalists throughout the world. Before defining news and attempting to develop an Islamic code of ethics, let us briefly discuss the basis of the Islamic moral system because it plays a very important role in the realization of the Islamic worldview within which a Muslim journalist has to operate and which is inherently different from the secular or Western worldview. The central force in the Islamic moral system is the concept of Tawhid the supremacy and sovereignty of one God. Tawhid also implies unity, coherence, and harmony between all parts of the universe. Not only this, but the concept of Tawhid signifies the existence of a purpose in the creation and liberation of all human kind from bondage and servitude to multiple varieties of gods. The concept of the hereafter becomes a driving force in committing to one God, and the inspiration as well definitive guidelines are provided by the traditions and the life of the Prophet (PBUH). A journalist who uses his/her faculty of observation, reason consciousness, reflection, insight, understanding and wisdom must realize that these are the Amanah (trust) of God and must not be used to injure a human soul for the sake of self-promotion or for selling the news, rather, as Dilnawaz Siddiqui has noted these are to be used in arriving at truth.15 A journalist must not ignore God's purpose in creating this universe and various forms of life. Explaining the implications of Tawhid, Hamid Mowlana has noted that the responsibility of a Muslim journalist and the Muslim mass media system would be: 'to destroy myths. In our contemporary world these myths may include power, progress, science, development, modernization, democracy, achievement, and success. Personalities as they represent these must not be superhumanized and superdefined... Under the principle of Tawhid another fundamental consideration in communication [another important duty of Muslim journalists] becomes clear: the destruction of thought structures based on dualism, racialism, tribalism, and familial superiority... One of the dualisms according to this principle, is the secular notion of the separation of religion and politics.'16

Another guiding principle in the development of an Islamic code of journalistic ethics is the concept of social responsibility. As mentioned earlier, the social responsibility theory on which secular or Western media practices are based is rooted in pluralistic individualism. Whereas the Islamic principle of social responsibility is based on the concept of amar bi al-Maruf wa nahi an al-munkar or commanding right and prohibiting wrong'. This implies that it is the responsibility of every individual and the group, especially the institutions of social or public communication such as the press, radio, television, and cinema, to prepare individuals and society as a whole to accept Islamic principles and act upon them. Throughout Islamic history many institutions as well as channels of mass communications such as mosques, azan, and Friday khutba have used this concept of social responsibility to mobilize public opinion and persuade individuals to work for the collective good of society in general and for their own individual pursuit of good in this world and the hereafter. The Islamic revolution in this country has demonstrated well the strength of such uses of non-traditional means of public communication. However, in a highly individualistic society of ours the press seems to play the opposite role of amar bi Munkar wa nahi an al Maruf. Whether Muslim or non Muslim, the media are more interested in conflict, contention, disorder, and scandal than in peace, stability, continuity, and moral conformity. Unless Muslim media practitioners accept social responsibility as a cornerstone of their profession, no Islamic code of ethics can even be realised. These are few suggestions towards realizing the goal of developing a workable code of media ethics within an Islamic framework. To begin with, an active forum of Muslim media practitioners and academicians could be created to exchange information about codes of journalistic ethics in Muslim countries, and also to cooperate and co-ordinate with non-Muslim media practitioners, associations and organizations that have a concern about media, culture and religion. Such forum could later play a key role in the formation of an international institute for media training and research for Muslim journalists.