A woman ls Lhe full clrcle

WlLhln her ls Lhe power Lo creaLe nurLure and

Lransform

ulooe MotlecbllJ

Education remains the key to both economic and political
empowerment.
Barbara Jordan

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Socioeconomic Characteristics
11
ndia`s Population Reality: Reconciling Change and Tradition
Most ndians live in small villages and enjoy Iew oI the amenities
associated with modern liIestyles (see Figure A). Bartering goods and
services is common, so much everyday commerce is missed by oIIicial
statistics. Among those who use cash, rural residents spend
more than one-halI oI their money on Iood.
Although ndia has participated in the communications revolution,
access to telephones and computers within the home has been very
limited, especially in rural areas. n 2001, about 11 percent oI ndian
households had a telephone (including cell phones), but this varied
Irom 23 percent in urban areas to 4 percent in rural areas. Many ndians
have access to public telephone services, but the advent oI cell
phones could bring access to millions more within a relatively short
time. Although still concentrated in urban areas, the number oI cell
phone subscribers (including businesses) has surged in recent years,
Irom 4 million in 2000 to 76 million in 2005.1
Despite the growing importance oI the computer industry to
ndia`s economy, Iew ndians have access to a computer at home.
n 2001, less than 3 percent oI ndians in urban areas, and less than
1 percent in rural areas, had a computer at home. Even Iewer had
nternet connections. nternet access is burgeoning outside the
home in urban areas, however, in 'cybercaIes, schools, and businesses.
Some multinational technology companies see ndia as a
potentially lucrative market Ior personal computers, especially as
hardware prices decline and nternet access expands.2
One consumer item that clearly stands out is television, owned by
one in three households. n major cities cable TV is now available,
bringing an assortment oI channels such as Sony, ZEE, and STAR
TV with their Western movies and global news programs; but a wide
variety oI religious programming, cricket, and ndian 'Bollywood
Iilms seem the most popular by Iar.
Roughly halI oI households in both rural and urban areas have
some means oI private transportation, although bicycles predominate.
There has been a surge in the number oI privately owned vehicles
in recent years, but car ownership is uncommon, especially in
rural areas. By 2003, the number oI registered cars and vans (including
jeeps, used primarily in rural areas) rose to 8.6 million, up Irom
1.2 million in 1981 (see Figure B). The Iact that Delhi`s 1.1 million cars
represent 17 percent oI the nation`s total while the state has but
1.3 percent oI the country`s population illustrates the dominance oI
the major metropolitan areas in car ownership. Maharashtra state,
containing Mumbai, is second in car ownership, with 831,000 cars in
2003. The total number oI cars in ndia, 6.6 million, contrasts sharply
with the number in the United States that year: 226 million. Ownership
oI two-wheel vehicles has grown more rapidly than Iour-wheel
vehicles in the past decade.
References
1. nternational Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication/
ICT Indicators (2006), accessed online at www.itu.int/TU-
D/ict/statistics/,
on Aug. 8, 2006.
2. Aruna Chandra, Tim Fealey, and Pradeep Rau, 'National Barriers to
Global
Competitiveness: The Case oI the T ndustry in ndia, Competitiveness
Review 16, no. 1 (2006): 12.
Box 3
ndian Lifestyles: An Urban/Rural Dichotomy
Percent of households
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Computer
Car, jeep, van
Telephone
ReIrigerator
Scooter, motorcycle,
moped
Television
Running water
Electricity
Urban
Rural
Figure A
Household Amenities, Urban and Rural ndia, 2001/2002
Sources: Registrar General and Census Commissioner, ndia, Census of
India, 2001
special tabulations; and National Sample Survey Organization, National
Sample Survey,
2002 59th round.
Figure B
ncrease in Private Motor Vehicles in ndia,
1996-2003
Source: Ministry oI Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, ndia.
able places near railway lines or drainage canals. They
may obtain some services, such as electricity and sanitation,
and may eventually be annexed as an integral part
oI the city. n other cases, city governments may remove
the slums, relocating residents to the city Iringe and
allocating them about 250 square Ieet (20 to 25 square
meters) oI land per household. These relocated slums
oIten develop into Iull-scale towns with brick houses
and shops. Some slums simply become too large to
move and become permanent parts oI the city.
Millions of vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
1996
Two-wheel vehicles
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
Cars, jeeps, taxis
2002 2003
Socioeconomic Characteristics
ndia`s society is deeply rooted in religion, language,
and tradition. Religion and conIlicts among religious
and cultural groups are Iundamental Iorces in ndian
liIe that bear on economic and educational disparities,
the division oI political power, the traditional role oI
women, and on the demographic proIile oI the country.
At the 2001 Census, just over 80 percent oI ndians
practiced Hinduism, one oI the world`s oldest religions.
Muslims are second, with 13 percent. The balance consists
oI Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and others,
such as Parsis.
The ongoing conIlicts between the Hindu majority
and Muslim minoritywhich occasionally erupt in
violenceIuel Iears about the long-term eIIects oI
demographic changes that could shiIt the balance oI
the two groups in some states. Muslims have higher
Iertility and are growing at a slightly Iaster rate than
Hindus. While a relatively small minority nationally,
Muslims make up one-quarter or more oI the population
in Kerala, West Bengal, Assam, and Jammu and
Kashmir, as shown by 2001 Census results. With higher
Iertility and a more rapid growth rate, the Muslim
percentage is slowly increasing nationally. Between
1991 and 2001, the Muslim percentage in ndia
increased Irom 12 percent to 13 percent. The Muslim
percentage increased slightly more in many states, Ior
example, it rose Irom 23 percent to 25 percent in Kerala,
Irom 28 percent to 31 percent in Assam, and Irom
18 percent to 19 percent in Uttar Pradesh.
Hinduism has been a uniIying Iorce throughout
ndia`s history. With its many holy days, Iestivals, and
caste system, it deIines liIe Ior the great majority oI
ndians. Several other religions, although with much
smaller percentages oI the population, have also had
an important inIluence in some regions. Sikhs, Ior
example, whose religion branched oII Irom Hinduism,
are native to Punjab state. They are generally credited
with turning that region`s marginal crop land into
'ndia`s granary.
The importance oI Hindu traditions is maniIested
in ndia`s deeply rooted caste system, which continues
to play a key role in the organization and stratiIication
oI ndian society. The system, which was largely based
upon occupation, has Iour main divisions: Brahmin
(priests, teachers), Kshatriya (kings, warriors), Vaishya
(merchants, landowners, craItsmen), and Shudra (laborers,
artisans). The 'Untouchables are the lowest caste,
who usually perIormed menial jobs. Mahatma Gandhi
attempted to remove discrimination against this group
by reIerring to them as arifans or Children oI God.
12 www.prb.org Population Bulletin Vol. 61, No. 3 2006
ndia`s Population Reality: Reconciling Change and Tradition
Today, Untouchables are called by the label they themselves
preIer, Dalits, or 'the oppressed.
The discriminatory aspects oI the caste system have
been under assault since ndia`s independence in 1947,
but the system has been diIIicult to dislodge, particularly
because oI its deep roots in ancient texts at the
basis oI Hinduism, such as the Vedas, and the belieI
that the creator oI the universe, Brahma, also created
the Iour main divisions. Still, the ndian government
has attempted to lower caste boundaries and to redress
the eIIects oI discrimination against the Dalits. n 1947,
well beIore the landmark civil rights laws in the United
States, ndia established a system whereby a percentage
oI public-sector jobs and university slots were reserved
Ior certain castes oI Dalits. The castes identiIied were
known as Scheduled Castes (SCs) and recognized only
among Hindus and Sikhs. The reservation oI jobs and
university seats was also extended to speciIic tribal
groups (scheduled tribes or STs) that had suIIered Irom
discrimination. STs were not necessarily Hindu or associated
with a caste, but had a long history oI poverty
and low educational attainment.
n 2006, 15 percent oI job vacancies and university
seats were reserved Ior SCs and nearly 8 percent Ior STs.
The reservation policy is not without controversy, in part
because oI concerns that STs and SCs are not adequately
prepared Ior these positions, and that they prevent morequaliIied
candidates Irom getting jobs or university seats.
Many ST and SC youths grow up in poverty, with limited
educational resources, and Iind it hard to compete
with more-educated students in the university setting.
A recent Times of India article noted that 2,000 oI the
9,000 places reserved Ior SC/STs in prestigious Delhi
University remained unIilled at a time when ndia is trying
to expand the number oI qualiIied graduates.14 But
the signiIicance oI these groups is apparent when we
consider that they represent one-Iourth oI the country`s
population. n addition to SCs and STs, a large group oI
lower castes who had not previously beneIited Irom the
scheduled caste system, other backward classes (OBCs),
are now seeking similar accommodation.15
While the caste system has not been eliminated, it
plays a somewhat reduced role among the educated
elite. t is quite common to see the phrase 'caste no
bar in advertisements in the matrimonial section oI
newspapers placed by the parents oI prospective brides
and grooms.16
Literacy and Education
Mass education and literacy are a hallmark oI modern
society. n ndia, the goal oI Iree and compulsory education
through age 14 is provided Ior under Article 45 oI
the Constitution. Literacy is deIined as the ability to read
and write any language, regardless oI level oI education.
n the census, literacy is based on the response oI whoever
answers the enumerator`s questions, nearly always
a male household head. Thus, the census Iigures may
overstate the Iunctional literacy levels oI the population.
n 1999, there was a network oI more than 1.1 million
educational institutions, Irom primary through preuniversity
level, with more than 5.4 million teachers
and a student enrollment oI 186 million.17 Still, the
national literacy rate at the time oI the 2001 Census
had reached only 65 percent75 percent Ior males and
54 percent Ior Iemalesa gender gap oI 22 percentage
points. Among the states, literacy Ior both sexes in 2001
was highest in Kerala at 91 percent oI the population
above age 6 and lowest in Bihar at 47 percent. For
Iemales, the highest literacy was also in Kerala, 88 percent,
and the lowest in Bihar, 33 percent.
Given the low literacy among ndians at independence,
the government has made great progress in educating
the population, particularly in the past two
decades.18 The percentage oI the population who were
literate rose Irom 16 percent to 65 percent between
1951 and 2001, but this total belies the substantial and
persistent gap between men and women (see Figure 7).
Between 1981 and 1991 the number oI illiterate ndians
declined, and they were outnumbered by literates
Ior the Iirst time in ndia`s history.
Women`s Roles and Marriage
The gender gap in literacy highlights another important
aspect oI ndian society and tradition: the generally low
status oI women. Within a Iamily, girls receive less
nutrition and medical care than boys, undermining
their health and sometimes leading to premature death.
Surveys show that girls are less likely than boys to be
immunized against major childhood diseases.19 And, as
literacy Iigures demonstrate, girls were traditionally less
likely to go to school.
Marriage is universal in ndia.20 Most ndian marriages
are arranged by parents, leaving little choice to
the couples themselves. Unlike contemporary Western
cultures, marriage is seen as more oI a Iamily or social
duty than a romantic liaison, and the selection oI mate
and marriage ceremonies are important social and religious
events.
The practice oI dowry was outlawed in 1961, yet it
remains widespread and appears to be gaining importance
as a status symbol among wealthier ndians. The
amount oI the dowry can become a contentious issue
Ior a new bride when her inlaws Ieel it was insuIIicient
and pressure the bride to secure more Irom her parents.
Population Bulletin Vol. 61, No. 3 2006 www.prb.org 13
ndia`s Population Reality: Reconciling Change and Tradition
Dowry-related violence is a major problem in ndia and
is grossly underreported. n extreme cases, brides are
hounded until they commit suicide; or young wives are
murdered in suspect 'kitchen Iires, Ireeing the husband
to seek another bride with another dowry.21
While the universality oI marriage has not changed,
age at marriage has risen signiIicantly. The minimum
legal age at marriage was set at 18 Ior women and 21
Ior men in 1929, but most ndian women married
beIore age 17 until Iairly recently. n 1961, about
20 percent oI girls ages 10 to 14 and 71 percent oI
women ages 15 to 19 had already been married. By
2001, a remarkable social transIormation had taken
place. The rate Ior 10-to-14-year-olds had dropped to
near zero and the rate Ior the 15-to-19 group had Iallen
by nearly two-thirds.
The age at marriage aIIects Iertility, because it aIIects
the number oI years a woman is at risk oI getting pregnant.
A rising age at marriage is associated with lower Iertility,
because women spend Iewer years exposed to the
risk oI pregnancy. The shiIt in marriage patterns oI recent
decades Iavors Iurther decline in ndia`s birth rate.
The decline in adult mortality can have the opposite
eIIect on Iertility rates. With increased longevity Ior
both men and women, Iewer women die or are widowed
at younger ages, exposing them to the risk oI
pregnancy Ior longer periods. The major Iactor in
ndia`s Iertility decline in recent decades, however, has
been an increase in the use oI Iamily planning. ndians
have been slow to adopt Iamily planning, and the issue
has been Iraught with political and social controversy, as
explained in the next section. But contraceptive use and
Iamily planning are gaining wider acceptance, especially
among more-educated women.

@he world has recognlzed Lhe vlLal lmporLance of educaLlon as a maln aspecL of human securlLy and as a
means Lo empower women Accordlng Lo Lhe unu Puman uevelopmenL 8eporL women ln Afrlca
represenL 32 per cenL of Lhe LoLal populaLlon conLrlbuLe approxlmaLely 73 percenL of Lhe agrlculLural
work and produce 60 Lo 80 percenL of Lhe food ?eL Lhey earn only 10 percenL of Afrlcan lncomes and
own [usL 1 per cenL of Lhe conLlnenLs asseLs @hese numbers lndlcaLe Lhe Lremendous challenges
women face on Lhelr road Lo gender equallLy uesplLe repeaLed efforLs made by governmenLs nCCs
and mulLllaLeral developmenL agencles Lhe ma[orlLy of women ln Lhe developlng world are sLlll
relegaLed Lo mlcro enLerprlses and lnformal Lasks

The Government oI ndia had ushered in the new millennium by declaring the year 2001 as
'Women's Empowerment Year' to Iocus on a vision 'where women are equal partners like men'.
The most common explanation oI 'women's empowerment' is the ability to exercise Iull control
over one's actions. The last decades have witnessed some basic changes in the status and role oI
women in our society. There has been shiIt in policy approaches Irom the concept oI 'welIare' in
the seventies to 'development' in the eighties and now to 'empowerment' in the nineties. This
process has been Iurther accelerated with some sections oI women becoming increasingly selI-
conscious oI their discrimination in several areas oI Iamily and public liIe. They are also in a
position to mobilize themselves on issues that can aIIect their overall position.
LmpowermenL would become more relevanL lf women are educaLed beLLer lnformed and can Lake
raLlonal declslons lL ls also necessary Lo senslLlze Lhe oLher sex Lowards women lL ls lmporLanL Lo usher
ln changes ln socleLal aLLlLudes and percepLlons wlLh regard Lo Lhe role of women ln dlfferenL spheres of
llfe Ad[usLmenLs have Lo be made ln LradlLlonal gender speclflc performance of Lasks A woman needs
Lo be physlcally healLhy so LhaL she ls able Lo Lake challenges of equallLy 8uL lL ls sadly lacklng ln a
ma[orlLy of women especlally ln Lhe rural areas @hey have unequal access Lo baslc healLh resources and
lack adequaLe counsellng @he resulL ls an lncreaslng rlsk of unwanLed and early pregnancles Plv
lnfecLlon and oLher sexually LransmlLLed dlseases @he greaLesL challenge ls Lo recognlze Lhe obsLacles
LhaL sLand ln Lhe way of Lhelr rlghL Lo good healLh @o be useful Lo Lhe famlly communlLy and Lhe
socleLy women musL be provlded wlLh healLh care faclllLles

SuggesLlons
credit policies reduce the Ilow oI credit to small-scale enterprises thus reducing the employment
opportunities Ior women. There is a need to have women-Iriendly economic policies that can
enhance their social and economic position and make them selI-reliant.
There is no doubt about the Iact that development oI women has always been the central Iocus oI
planning since ndependence. Empowerment is a major step in this direction but it has to be seen
in a relational context. A clear vision is needed to remove the obstacles to the path oI women's
emancipation both Irom the government and women themselves. EIIorts should be directed
towards all round development oI each and every section oI ndian women by giving them their
due share.

ducation's importance has been emphasized by a number oI international conventions, including
the Universal Declaration oI Human Rights and the Programme oI Action oI the 1994
nternational ConIerence on Population and Development.
2
The Fourth World ConIerence on
Women, held in Beijing in 1995, recognized that women's literacy is key to empowering
women's participation in decisionmaking in society and to improving Iamilies' well-being.
3
n
addition, the United Nations has articulated the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which
include goals Ior improved education, gender equality, and women's empowerment (see Box 1 at
end oI article). The MDGs emphasize education's essential role in building democratic societies
and creating a Ioundation Ior sustained economic growth.
4

Education contributes directly to the growth oI national income by improving the productive
capacities oI the labor Iorce. A recent study oI 19 developing countries, including Egypt, Jordan,
and Tunisia, concluded that a country's long-term economic growth increases by 3.7 percent Ior
every year the adult population's average level oI schooling rises.
5
Thus, education is a key
strategy Ior reducing poverty, especially in the MENA region, where poverty is not as deep as in
other developing regions.
6
According to the United Nations Population Fund, countries that have
made social investments in health, Iamily planning, and education have slower population
growth and Iaster economic growth than countries that have not made such investments.
7

n the increasingly open global economy, countries with high rates oI illiteracy and gender gaps
in educational attainment tend to be less competitive, because Ioreign investors seek labor that is
skilled as well as inexpensive. Various global trends pose special challenges to women who are
illiterate or have limited education. Economies' export orientation and the growing importance oI
small and medium-sized enterprises create opportunities Ior women, but women need the
appropriate education and training to take Iull advantage oI these opportunities.
n addition, the beneIits oI Iemale education Ior women's empowerment and gender equality are
broadly recognized:
O As Iemale education rises, Iertility, population growth, and inIant and child mortality Iall
and Iamily health improves.
O ncreases in girls' secondary school enrollment are associated with increases in women's
participation in the labor Iorce and their contributions to household and national income.
O Women's increased earning capacity, in turn, has a positive eIIect on child nutrition.
8

O Children especially daughters oI educated mothers are more likely to be enrolled in
school and to have higher levels oI educational attainment.
O Educated women are more politically active and better inIormed about their legal rights
and how to exercise them.
ultural and Economic Factors That Reinforce the Gender
Gap
MENA countries generally have lower levels oI women's education and labor Iorce participation
than other regions with similar income levels. The interaction between the region's economic
structure and its conservative culture, in which traditional gender roles are strongly enIorced, is
largely responsible.
9
Men in the MENA region are more likely to have direct access to wage
employment and control over wealth, while women are largely economically dependent upon
male Iamily members.
The region's oil-based economy, which produced tremendous wealth in some MENA countries,
reinIorces the region's gender roles. n a number oI MENA countries, the use oI capital-intensive
technologies that require Iew workers, along with relatively high wages Ior men, have precluded
women's greater involvement in the labor Iorce.
10
Women's employment options have been
limited to a small number oI socially acceptable occupations and proIessions, such as teaching
and medicine. n the GulI states, jobs not considered appropriate Ior MENA women, such as
waitressing, are oIten Iilled by imported Iemale laborers Irom South and East Asia.
Gender discrimination in the MENA region is sometimes codiIied in law, Irequently in Iamily
laws or civil codes. n many countries in the region, women must obtain permission Irom a male
relative, usually a husband or Iather, beIore seeking employment, requesting a loan, starting a
business, or traveling. Such laws oIten grant women a smaller share oI inherited Iamily wealth.
As a result, Iamilies tend to make greater investments in education Ior boys than Ior girls.
The results oI Egypt's 2000 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) provide insights into
Iamilies' preIerences Ior investing in their children's education. Women with children ages 6 to
15 were asked, "I parents have one son and one daughter and can send only one child to the
university, which child should they send?" While 53 percent oI the women said that the decision
should depend on the children's capabilities, 39 percent said that the son should go to the
university, compared with only 8 percent who said that the daughter should go. The survey also
Iound that mothers oI children who had never attended school were more likely to cite the cost oI
education as a reason Ior not educating their daughters than Ior not educating their sons.
11

However, the situation in the region is slowly changing. Women activists, who generally come
Irom the educated segments oI society, are challenging the status quo; demanding equality in the
Iamily and society; and calling Ior women's economic, political, and social empowerment. The
trend's intensity varies by country but is visible even in relatively conservative nations. n
addition to Iacing political pressure Ior reIorm, countries are dealing with economic changes that
are creating an impetus Ior women to become more active outside the home. As the region's cost
oI living rises rapidly, Iamilies are increasingly Iorced to depend on the additional income that
Iemale Iamily members can provide.
Education's Effects on Reproductive hoices and
Employment
Education helps women take advantage oI opportunities that could beneIit them and their
Iamilies, preparing women Ior the labor Iorce and helping them understand their legal and
reproductive rights.
Fertility
Education is the single most important determinant oI both age at marriage and age at Iirst birth
in MENA countries, since women in the region tend to give birth soon aIter marriage. Among
married Egyptian women ages 25 to 29, Ior instance, those with no education had married at age
18, on average, and had their Iirst child by age 20; those with a secondary or higher education
married at an average age oI 23 and had their Iirst child by age 25.
12
Turkey's 1998 DHS showed
that 22 percent oI girls 15 to 19 years old who had no education or who had not completed
primary school were already mothers or pregnant, compared with only 2 percent oI girls who had
completed secondary or higher education.
13

Educated women generally want smaller Iamilies and make better use oI reproductive health and
Iamily planning inIormation and services in achieving their desired Iamily size; Moroccan
women with at least some secondary education had, on average, halI as many children as women
with no education (see Figure 2). Women with more education also tend to have healthier
Iamilies. n Egypt, Ior example, children born to mothers with no Iormal education were more
than twice as likely to die as those born to mothers who had completed secondary school (see
Figure 3). According to the 2000 DHS, Egyptian women with less education were less likely to
receive antenatal care: Only 34 percent oI Egyptian mothers with no education received antenatal
care, compared with 75 percent oI those with a high school or college degree.
14


igure 2
ontraceptive Use and Fertility in Morocco, by Women's Education, 1995

Source: ORC Macro, Morocco DHS, 1995.

Figure 3
hild Mortality Rate in Egypt,
by Mother's Level of Education

Source: ORC Macro, Egypt DHS,
2000.

Most women in the MENA region know something about modern contraception, but more-
educated women tend to know about a wider range oI available methods and where to get them.
n Egypt, 69 percent oI married women ages 15 to 49 who had completed secondary school
reported seeing Iamily planning messages in newspapers or magazines, compared with 32
percent oI those who had completed only primary school.
15
Women with more education are also
more likely to discuss Iamily planning issues with their husbands.
Women's ability to choose the number and timing oI their births is key to empowering women as
individuals, mothers, and citizens, but women's rights go beyond those dealing with their
reproductive roles. Women should be able to IulIill their aspirations outside the home, to the
beneIit oI themselves, their Iamilies, and their countries. Opening economic opportunities to
women has Iar-reaching eIIects, but those beneIits can be reaped only iI women receive at least a
basic education.
Employment
As women's educational attainment in MENA countries has increased, more women have moved
into the job market. But women's participation in the labor Iorce is still low: Only 20 percent oI
women ages 15 and older in MENA countries are in the labor Iorce the lowest level oI any
world region. The highest levels oI native Iemale labor Iorce participation in MENA countries
are Iound in Lebanon, Morocco, Turkey, and Yemen, where women constitute more than 25
percent oI the labor Iorce. But those rates are lower than rates Iound outside the region. n
France, Ior example, women make up 45 percent oI the labor Iorce; in ndonesia, which is home
to the world's largest Muslim population, women make up 38 percent oI the labor Iorce.
16
The
lowest rates oI labor Iorce participation are seen among women native to the countries oI the
GulI Cooperation Council, a group oI six conservative monarchies; reported national rates are
inIlated by the large number oI Ioreign Iemale laborers in those countries.
Women who live in countries with a large agricultural sector, such as Egypt, ran, Syria, and
Yemen, tend to work mainly in that sector, although some MENA countries have been more
successIul in getting women into nonagricultural occupations. Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey, Ior
example, have been able to engage women in the countries' export-manuIacturing sectors.
Most oI the MENA women who work outside the agricultural sector are college-educated
proIessionals employed mainly in government (except in Lebanon, where the majority oI the
Iemale labor Iorce is Iound in the private sector).
17
A smaller share oI women work in Iactories,
but many lack the educational qualiIications oI Iactory workers in countries such as China,
Vietnam, and the nations oI the Iormer Soviet bloc.
The current high unemployment rates among men in MENA countries make it harder Ior women
to compete in male-dominated job markets, and women's unemployment rates are higher than
those oI men in the region. n Saudi Arabia, where Saudi women account Ior only 7 percent oI
the labor Iorce, the unemployment rate Ior women in 1999 was 16 percent, more than double the
unemployment rate Ior men.
18
n 2000, the unemployment rate among urban ranian women was
25 percent, compared with 16 percent Ior men; in rural areas oI the country, women's
unemployment reached 20 percent, versus 17 percent Ior men.
19
mproving the quality oI
education, providing more vocational training, developing job-creating programs, and removing
obstacles to women's entrepreneurship can help alleviate the high rates oI Iemale unemployment.
ngoing oncerns
MENA countries have made signiIicant strides in making education available over the past Iew
decades, but challenges remain. Access to education has improved, and the illiteracy rate among
the region's young adults (people ages 15 to 24) is halI that oI the adult population (people ages
15 and up). More women are now pursuing higher education, reIlecting their ability to graduate
Irom secondary school. n some countries, such as the oil-rich GulI states, women make up a
larger share oI university enrollment in part because many young men Irom those countries go
abroad Ior college and graduate school.
But illiteracy remains high in some countries, there are still wide gender gaps in parts oI the
region, and the quality oI the education is a major concern throughout the region.
lliteracy
MENA countries' illiteracy rates are oIten higher than those oI non-MENA countries with
comparable or lower per capita incomes (see Figure 4). There are over 75 million illiterate adults
in the region, more than halI oI whom live in Egypt, raq, and Morocco. Around 13 million
young adults are illiterate; Iully one-third oI them live in Egypt, which has both a high illiteracy
rate and a large population. As in other parts oI the world, illiteracy rates in the MENA region
are higher among rural than among urban populations (see Figure 5 Ior an example).

igure 4
Female lliteracy Rates and per apita
ncome in Selected ountries, 2000

Source: UNESCO nstitute Ior Statistics,
"Literacy Statistics" (www.uis.unesco.org,
accessed March 11, 2003); and World
Bank, World Development ndicators 2002.

Figure 5
Egyptians Who Have Never Attended
School, by Sex and Residence, 2000

Source: ORC Macro, Egypt DHS, 2000.

Although all MENA governments require that all children receive at least Iive years oI schooling
and all provide Iree education at least through high school, the rapid growth oI school-age
populations in the region is posing a challenge Ior many governments. Between 1986 and 1996,
Ior example, the number oI ranians between ages 5 and 19 grew by 20 percent, or nearly 4
million, straining the capacity oI the country's schools.
20
n Egypt, despite the government's
success in reducing the adult illiteracy rate Irom 60 percent in 1980 to 50 percent in 1995, the
increase in the population's size meant that the number oI illiterate Egyptians grew Irom 16
million to 19 million. A similar trend has been visible in Morocco.
21

Gender Gaps
Women in MENA countries are twice as likely to be illiterate as men are and make up two-thirds
oI the region's illiterate adults. The gender gaps in education vary greatly across countries in the
region but are generally wider in countries where overall literacy and school enrollment are
lower. n Yemen, Ior example, the illiteracy rate among young women (54 percent) is triple that
oI young men (17 percent). But countries that make political and Iinancial commitments to
reducing illiteracy, as Jordan and Tunisia have, generally see signiIicant improvements in
reducing illiteracy and narrowing the gender gap (see Figure 6).
22


igure 6
48ing the Cender Cap in Literacy in
14rdan and 1uni8ia, 197 and 2

Source: UNESCO nstitute Ior Statistics,
"Literacy Statistics" (www.uis.unesco.org,
accessed March 11, 2003).

Gender gaps in literacy and school enrollment generally persist regardless oI rural or urban
location. Gender gaps in school enrollment are especially wide in Egypt, raq, Turkey, and
Yemen. Closing gender gaps in education would beneIit countries' economies. One study
estimated that the region's average annual growth in per capita gross national product would
have been nearly a Iull percentage point higher between 1960 and 1992 iI MENA's gender gap in
education had shrunk as quickly as East Asia's did.
23

"uality of Education
t is not enough to make education more widely available; the quality oI the education also needs
to be improved. Arguing that the poor quality oI education in MENA countries has led to a
signiIicant mismatch between the labor market's needs and graduates' skills, the 2002 Arab
Human Development Report points out that education in the region oIten Iails to teach students
to analyze inIormation or think innovatively. The report also warns that education systems may
split into two tiers, with high-quality private education available only to the wealthy minority
and low-quality public education the sole option Ior most citizens. Such a trend would turn
education into a "means oI perpetuating social stratiIication and poverty" rather than a means oI
increasing social equality.
24

Gender sensitivity is a key aspect oI the quality oI education. Educational systems should be
sensitive to the speciIic needs oI girls and women. Yet the curricula and teaching materials
and the media, which has a powerIul role in shaping people's knowledge and opinions in the
MENA region oIten reinIorce traditional roles that may deny women opportunities Ior Iull and
equal participation in society. As radio, television, and the nternet reach more people in the
region, it becomes even more important that students learn to analyze and judge the media's
messages Ior themselves.
The Need for Action
EIIorts to improve Iemale education in MENA countries need to go beyond rhetoric and should
involve policies and programs with measurable results. Governments can start by making the
MDGs part oI national development plans and monitoring progress toward those goals (see Box
1 at end oI article). Governments also need to make an extra eIIort to ensure that education is
more accessible to low-income Iamilies and rural populations, with special attention to the
quality oI the education provided and the need Ior girls to complete school.
Richer countries both inside and outside the region are encouraged to help resource-poor
countries improve their educational systems and collect data on their progress. mproving access
to and the quality oI education is the most rewarding investment a country can make. nvesting
in Iemale education will accelerate the MENA region's economic and social development by
enhancing human capital, slowing population growth, and alleviating poverty.

Farzaneh (Nazy) Roudi-Fahimi is a policy analyst at PRB. Valentine Moghadam is proIessor
oI women's studies and sociology at llinois State University.

References
1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), rab uman Development Report
2002 (New York: UNDP, 2002): 54.
2. United Nations (UN), &niversal Declaration of uman Rights (New York: UN, 1948);
and UN, International Conference on Population and Development Programme of ction
(New York: UN, 1994): para. 4.18.
3. UN, Platform of ction, ourth World Conference on Women, Beifing, China, 4-15
September 1995 (New York: UN, 1996): para. 69; and UN, The Beifing Declaration
(New York: UN, 1996): paras. 13, 14, and 17.
4. UN, "Millennium Development Goals: About the Goals," accessed online at
www.developmentgoals.org/Aboutthegoals.htm, on May 15, 2003.
5. United Nations Educational, ScientiIic, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) nstitute
Ior Statistics, inancing Education Investments and Returns, nalysis of the World
Education Indicators, 2002 Edition. Executive Summary, accessed online at
http://portal.unesco.org/
uis/TEMPLATE/pdI/wei/WEExecSummaryEng.pdI, on April 1, 2003.
6. Willem van Eeghen and Kouassi Soman, "Poverty in the Middle East and North AIrica"
(1997), accessed online at www.worldbank.org/
mdI/mdI1/menapoor.htm, on Jan. 6, 2003.
7. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), State of World Population 2002. People,
Poverty, and Possibilities (New York: UNFPA, 2002).
8. Daisy Dwyer and Judith Bruce, eds., ome Divided. Women and Income in the Third
World (StanIord, CA: StanIord University Press, 1988).
9. Valentine M. Moghadam, Women, Work, and Economic Reform in the Middle East and
North frica (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998).
10. Valentine M. Moghadam, Moderni:ing Women. Gender and Social Change in the Middle
East, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2003); and Massoud Karshenas
and Valentine M. Moghadam, "Female Labor Force Participation and Economic
Adjustment in the MENA Region," in The Economics of Women and Work in the Middle
East and North frica, ed. Mine Cinar (Amsterdam, Netherlands: JA Press, 2001): 51-
74.
11. Fatma El-Zanaty and Ann Way, Egypt Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2000
(Calverton, MD: Ministry oI Health and Population |Egypt|, National Population
Council, and ORC Macro, 2001): tables 15.10 and 15.3.
12. El-Zanaty and Way, Egypt DHS, 2000: tables 4.9, 5.9, and 8.4.
13. Turkey Demographic and Health Survey 1998 Final Report (Ankara, Turkey, and
Calverton, MD, USA: Hacettepe University, nstitute oI Population Studies, and ORC
Macro, 1999): table 3.9.
14. El-Zanaty and Way, Egypt DHS, 2000: tables 9.9 and 11.5.
15. El-Zanaty and Way, Egypt DHS, 2000: table 5.5.
16. United Nations, The Worlds Women 2000. Trends and Statistics, accessed online at
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/
ww2000/table5d.htm, on March 27, 2003.
17. nstitute Ior Women's Studies in the Arab World, "Female Labor Force in Lebanon," l-
Raida 15, no. 82 (1998): 12-23.
18. Kevin R. Taecker, "Myths and Realities About Unemployment in Saudi Arabia," Saudi-
merican orum Essay 11 (March 30, 2003), accessed online at www.saudi-american-
Iorum.org/Newsletters/
SAFEssay11.htm, on April 1, 2003.
19. UNFPA et al., "Simaie Jameeat va Salamat dar Johmorie Eslamie ran," Mehrmah 1379
(Tehran, ran: UNFPA, 2000): table 3.4.
20. Statistical Center oI ran, Iran Statistical Yearbook 1379 (Tehran, ran: Statistical Center
oI ran, 2001): table 2.2.
21. UNESCO, &NESCO Statistical Yearbook 1999 (Paris: UNESCO, 1999): table .2.
22. May Rihani and Cynthia Prather, Strategies for emale Education in the Middle East and
North frica (Amman, Jordan: United Nations Children's Fund, 1993).
23. World Bank, Engendering Development Through Gender Equality in Rights,
Resources, and Joice (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2001): 90-91.
24. UNDP, rab uman Development Report 2002: 53-54.

Box 1
The Millennium Development Goals and Female Education
The U.N. Millennium Summit, held in September 2000, produced a set oI eight Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) covering a range oI development issues, including reducing child
mortality, Iighting various inIectious diseases, eradicating illiteracy, and empowering women.
The MDGs and their associated targets and indicators were designed as benchmarks Ior
monitoring progress in developing countries and to provide a Iramework Ior sustaining
development and eliminating poverty. The international community recognizes that unless girls'
education improves, Iew oI the MDGs will be achieved. Two oI the goals deal speciIically with
Iemale education and women's empowerment.
O Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education. Target: Ensure that, by 2015, all
children, boys and girls alike, will have access to a Iull course oI primary education.
ndicators Ior this goal: the net enrollment ratio in primary education; the proportion oI
pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5; and the literacy rate oI 15-to-24-year-olds.
O Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Target: Eliminate gender
disparities in primary and secondary education, preIerably by 2005, and at all levels oI
education no later than 2015. ndicators Ior this goal: the ratio oI girls to boys in primary,
secondary, and tertiary education; the ratio oI literate Iemales to males among 15-to-24-
year-olds; the share oI women in wage employment in the nonagricultural sector; and the
proportion oI seats in national parliament held by women.
Source: United Nations, "About the Goals" (www.developmentgoals.org/
Aboutthegoals.htm, accessed April 1, 2003).
PRB's Middle East and North Africa Program
The goal oI the Population ReIerence Bureau's Middle East and North AIrica (MENA) Program
is to respond to regional needs Ior timely and objective inIormation and analysis on population,
socioeconomic, and reproductive health issues. The program raises awareness oI these issues
among decisionmakers in the region and in the international community, in hopes oI inIluencing
policies and improving the lives oI people living in the MENA region.
MENA program activities include producing and disseminating both print and electronic
publications on important population, reproductive health, environment, and development topics
(many publications are translated into Arabic); working with journalists in the MENA region to
enhance their knowledge and coverage oI population and development issues; and working with
researchers in the MENA region to improve their skills in communicating their research Iinding
to policymakers and the media.
MENA Policy BrieIs:
"Women's Reproductive Health in the Middle East and North AIrica" (February 2003)
"Finding the Balance: Water Scarcity and Population Demand in the Middle East and North
AIrica" (July 2002)
"ran's Family Planning Program: Responding to a Nation's Needs" (June 2002)
"Population Trends and Challenges in the Middle East and North AIrica" (October 2001)
These policy brieIs are available in both English and Arabic and can be ordered Iree oI charge to
audiences in the MENA region by contacting prbordersprb.org.


Education: A SociaI Right and a
DeveIopment Imperative
Education`s importance has been emphasized by a
number oI international conventions, including the
Universal Declaration oI Human Rights and the
Programme oI Action oI the 1994 nternational
ConIerence on Population and Development.2
The Fourth World ConIerence on Women, held in
Beijing in 1995, recognized that women`s literacy
is key to empowering women`s participation in
decisionmaking in society and to improving Iamilies`
well-being.3 n addition, the United Nations
has articulated the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs), which include goals Ior improved
education, gender equality, and women`s empowerment
(see Box 1, page 2). The MDGs emphasize
education`s essential role in building democratic
societies and creating a Ioundation Ior sustained
economic growth.4
Education contributes directly to the growth
oI national income by improving the productive
capacities oI the labor Iorce. A recent study oI 19
developing countries, including Egypt, Jordan, and
Tunisia, concluded that a country`s long-term economic
growth increases by 3.7 percent Ior every
year the adult population`s average level oI school-
EMPOWERING WOMEN, DEVELOPING
SOCIETY:
FemaIe Education in the MiddIe East and North Africa
by ar:aneh Roudi-ahimi and Jalentine M. Moghadam
Countries and territories included in the Middle East and North AIrica as deIined here are listed in Table 1 (page 4).
P O P U L A T I O N R E F E R E N C E B U R E A U
0
20
40
60
80
100 Oman
1970 1980 1990 2000
Iran
AIgeria
Egypt
Morocco
Percent of women 15 to 24 years old who are literate
i g u r e 1
Literacy Rates Among Young Women in
SeIected Countries, 1970-2000
S O U R C E : United Nations Educational, ScientiIic and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) nstitute Ior Statistics, 'Literacy Statistics
(www.uis.unesco.org, accessed March 11, 2003).
ing rises.5 Thus, education is a key strategy Ior
reducing poverty, especially in the MENA region,
where poverty is not as deep as in other developing
regions.6 According to the United Nations Population
Fund, countries that have made social
investments in health, Iamily planning, and education
have slower population growth and Iaster economic
growth than countries that have not made
such investments.7
n the increasingly open global economy,
countries with high rates oI illiteracy and gender
gaps in educational attainment tend to be less
competitive, because Ioreign investors seek labor
that is skilled as well as inexpensive. Various
global trends pose special challenges to women
who are illiterate or have limited education.
Economies` export orientation and the growing
importance oI small and medium-sized enterprises
create opportunities Ior women, but women
need the appropriate education and training to
take Iull advantage oI these opportunities.
n addition, the beneIits oI Iemale education
Ior women`s empowerment and gender equality
are broadly recognized:
As Iemale education rises, Iertility, population
growth, and inIant and child mortality Iall and
Iamily health improves.
ncreases in girls` secondary school enrollment
are associated with increases in women`s participation
in the labor Iorce and their contributions to
household and national income.
Women`s increased earning capacity, in turn, has
a positive eIIect on child nutrition.8
Childrenespecially daughtersoI educated
mothers are more likely to be enrolled in school
and to have higher levels oI educational attainment.
Educated women are more politically active and
better inIormed about their legal rights and how
to exercise them.
CuIturaI and Economic Factors That
Reinforce the Gender Gap
MENA countries generally have lower levels oI
women`s education and labor Iorce participation
than other regions with similar income levels. The
interaction between the region`s economic structure
and its conservative culture, in which traditional
gender roles are strongly enIorced, is largely responsible.
9 Men in the MENA region are more likely to
have direct access to wage employment and control
over wealth, while women are largely economically
dependent upon male Iamily members.
The region`s oil-based economy, which produced
tremendous wealth in some MENA countries,
reinIorces the region`s gender roles. n a
number oI MENA countries, the use oI capitalintensive
technologies that require Iew workers,
along with relatively high wages Ior men, have
precluded women`s greater involvement in the
labor Iorce.10 Women`s employment options have
been limited to a small number oI socially acceptable
occupations and proIessions, such as teaching
and medicine. n the GulI states, jobs not considered
appropriate Ior MENA women, such as
waitressing, are oIten Iilled by imported Iemale
laborers Irom South and East Asia.
Gender discrimination in the MENA region
is sometimes codiIied in law, Irequently in Iamily
laws or civil codes. n many countries in the
region, women must obtain permission Irom a
male relative, usually a husband or Iather, beIore
PRB MENA PoIicy Brief 2003
B o x 1
The MiIIennium DeveIopment GoaIs and FemaIe Education
The U.N. Millennium Summit, held in September 2000, produced a set oI
eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) covering a range oI development
issues, including reducing child mortality, Iighting various inIectious
diseases, eradicating illiteracy, and empowering women. The MDGs and
their associated targets and indicators were designed as benchmarks Ior
monitoring progress in developing countries and to provide a Iramework Ior
sustaining development and eliminating poverty. The international community
recognizes that unless girls` education improves, Iew oI the MDGs will
be achieved. Two oI the goals deal speciIically with Iemale education and
women`s empowerment.
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education. Target: Ensure that, by
2015, all children, boys and girls alike, will have access to a Iull course oI
primary education. ndicators Ior this goal: the net enrollment ratio in primary
education; the proportion oI pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5;
and the literacy rate oI 15-to-24-year-olds.
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Target: Eliminate
gender disparities in primary and secondary education, preIerably by 2005,
and at all levels oI education no later than 2015. ndicators Ior this goal: the
ratio oI girls to boys in primary, secondary, and tertiary education; the ratio
oI literate Iemales to males among 15-to-24-year-olds; the share oI women in
wage employment in the nonagricultural sector; and the proportion oI seats
in national parliament held by women.
S O U R C E : United Nations, 'About the Goals (www.developmentgoals.org/Aboutthegoals.htm,
accessed April 1, 2003).
2
PRB MENA PoIicy Brief 2003
seeking employment, requesting a loan, starting
a business, or traveling. Such laws oIten grant
women a smaller share oI inherited Iamily wealth.
As a result, Iamilies tend to make greater investments
in education Ior boys than Ior girls.
The results oI Egypt`s 2000 Demographic and
Health Survey (DHS) provide insights into Iamilies`
preIerences Ior investing in their children`s
education. Women with children ages 6 to 15
were asked, 'I parents have one son and one
daughter and can send only one child to the university,
which child should they send? While 53
percent oI the women said that the decision
should depend on the children`s capabilities, 39
percent said that the son should go to the university,
compared with only 8 percent who said that
the daughter should go. The survey also Iound
that mothers oI children who had never attended
school were more likely to cite the cost oI education
as a reason Ior not educating their daughters
than Ior not educating their sons.11
However, the situation in the region is slowly
changing. Women activists, who generally come
Irom the educated segments oI society, are challenging
the status quo; demanding equality in the
Iamily and society; and calling Ior women`s economic,
political, and social empowerment. The
trend`s intensity varies by country but is visible
even in relatively conservative nations. n addition
to Iacing political pressure Ior reIorm, countries
are dealing with economic changes that are creating
an impetus Ior women to become more active
outside the home. As the region`s cost oI living
rises rapidly, Iamilies are increasingly Iorced to
depend on the additional income that Iemale
Iamily members can provide.
Education's Effects on Reproductive
Choices and EmpIoyment
Education helps women take advantage oI opportunities
that could beneIit them and their Iamilies,
preparing women Ior the labor Iorce and
helping them understand their legal and reproductive
rights.
Fertility
Education is the single most important determinant
oI both age at marriage and age at Iirst birth
in MENA countries, since women in the region
tend to give birth soon aIter marriage. Among
married Egyptian women ages 25 to 29, Ior
instance, those with no education had married at
age 18, on average, and had their Iirst child by age
20; those with a secondary or higher education
married at an average age oI 23 and had their Iirst
child by age 25.12 Turkey`s 1998 DHS showed
that 22 percent oI girls 15 to 19 years old who
had no education or who had not completed primary
school were already mothers or pregnant,
compared with only 2 percent oI girls who had
completed secondary or higher education.13
Educated women generally want smaller Iamilies
and make better use oI reproductive health and
Iamily planning inIormation and services in achieving
their desired Iamily size; Moroccan women with
Women's
education
Secondary
or higher
Primary
No education
Percent of married women
using contraceptives Births per woman
1.9
2.4
4.0
66
63
44
S O U R C E : ORC Macro, Morocco DHS, 1995.
3
i g u r e 2
Contraceptive Use and FertiIity in Morocco, by Women's
Education, 1995
No education Some primary Complete
primary and
some secondary
Complete
secondary and
higher
Deaths of children under age 5 per 1,000 live births
9
77
55
3
i g u r e 3
ChiId MortaIity Rate in Egypt, by Mother's LeveI of
Education
S O U R C E : ORC Macro, Egypt DHS, 2000.
4 PRB MENA PoIicy Brief 2003
at least some secondary education had, on average,
halI as many children as women with no education
(see Figure 2, page 3). Women with more education
also tend to have healthier Iamilies. n Egypt, Ior
example, children born to mothers with no Iormal
education were more than twice as likely to die as
those born to mothers who had completed secondary
school (see Figure 3, page 3). According to
the 2000 DHS, Egyptian women with less education
were less likely to receive antenatal care: Only
34 percent oI Egyptian mothers with no education
received antenatal care, compared with 75 percent
oI those with a high school or college degree.14
Most women in the MENA region know
something about modern contraception, but
more-educated women tend to know about a
wider range oI available methods and where to
get them. n Egypt, 69 percent oI married
women ages 15 to 49 who had completed secondary
school reported seeing Iamily planning
messages in newspapers or magazines, compared
with 32 percent oI those who had completed only
primary school.15 Women with more education
are also more likely to discuss Iamily planning
issues with their husbands.
Women`s ability to choose the number and timing
oI their births is key to empowering women as
individuals, mothers, and citizens, but women`s
rights go beyond those dealing with their reproductive
roles. Women should be able to IulIill their
aspirations outside the home, to the beneIit oI
themselves, their Iamilies, and their countries.
Opening economic opportunities to women has Iarreaching
eIIects, but those beneIits can be reaped
only iI women receive at least a basic education.
Employment
As women`s educational attainment in MENA
countries has increased, more women have moved
into the job market. But women`s participation in
the labor Iorce is still low: Only 20 percent oI
women ages 15 and older in MENA countries are
Data not available.
a Gross enrollment ratio is the number oI students, regardless oI age, enrolled in school, divided by the total number oI people in the appropriate age range
Ior that level oI schooling.
b Data on labor Iorce participation may include Ioreign workers.
c Data shown in this column might be diIIerent Irom those given in previous MENA policy brieIs because new data have become available or diIIerent
sources have been used.
d Palestine inclues the Arab population oI the West Bank and Gaza.
Percent of PopuIation
Over Age 15 Who
Are IIIiterate, 2000
FemaIe MaIe
Number of PeopIe Over
Age 15 Who Are IIIiterate
(thousands), 2000
FemaIe MaIe
Percent of PopuIation
Ages 15 to 24 Who
Are IIIiterate, 2000
FemaIe MaIe
T a b l e 1
SeIected Socioeconomic Indicators in the MiddIe East and North Africa
MDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRCA 42 22 50,057 26,671 23 11 8,585 4,573
Algeria 43 24 4,211 2,360 16 7 530 227
Bahrain 17 9 32 25 1 2 1 1
Egypt 56 33 12,253 7,374 37 24 2,500 1,678
ran 31 17 6,696 3,819 9 4 655 296
raq 77 45 5,070 3,057 71 41 1,593 962
Jordan 16 5 220 78 1 1 3 5
Kuwait 20 16 103 130 7 8 15 19
Lebanon 20 8 246 91 7 3 23 9
Libya 32 9 533 168 7 <0.5 43 1
Morocco 64 38 6,286 3,702 42 24 1,265 750
Oman 38 20 246 155 4 <0.5 9 1
Palestined 16 6 136 48
Qatar 17 20 21 57 3 7 1 3
Saudi Arabia 33 17 1,723 1,092 10 5 187 101
Syria 40 12 1,879 566 21 5 376 85
Tunisia 39 19 1,307 621 11 3 106 27
Turkey 24 7 5,453 1,539 6 1 392 81
United Arab Emirates 21 25 117 345 6 13 10 29
Yemen 75 33 3,525 1,444 54 17 874 292
Number of PeopIe Ages
15 to 24 Who Are IIIiterate
(thousands), 2000
FemaIe MaIe
PRB MENA PoIicy Brief 2003
in the labor Iorcethe lowest level oI any world
region. The highest levels oI native Iemale labor
Iorce participation in MENA countries are Iound
in Lebanon, Morocco, Turkey, and Yemen, where
women constitute more than 25 percent oI the
labor Iorce. But those rates are lower than rates
Iound outside the region. n France, Ior example,
women make up 45 percent oI the labor Iorce; in
ndonesia, which is home to the world`s largest
Muslim population, women make up 38 percent
oI the labor Iorce.16 The lowest rates oI labor Iorce
participation are seen among women native to the
countries oI the GulI Cooperation Council, a
group oI six conservative monarchies; reported
national rates are inIlated by the large number oI
Ioreign Iemale laborers in those countries.
Women who live in countries with a large
agricultural sector, such as Egypt, ran, Syria, and
Yemen, tend to work mainly in that sector,
although some MENA countries have been more
successIul in getting women into nonagricultural
occupations. Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey, Ior
example, have been able to engage women in the
countries` export-manuIacturing sectors.
Most oI the MENA women who work outside
the agricultural sector are college-educated
proIessionals employed mainly in government
(except in Lebanon, where the majority oI the
Iemale labor Iorce is Iound in the private sector).17
A smaller share oI women work in Iactories, but
many lack the educational qualiIications oI Iactory
workers in countries such as China, Vietnam, and
the nations oI the Iormer Soviet bloc.
The current high unemployment rates
among men in MENA countries make it harder
Ior women to compete in male-dominated job
markets, and women`s unemployment rates are
higher than those oI men in the region. n Saudi
Arabia, where Saudi women account Ior only 7
percent oI the labor Iorce, the unemployment rate
Ior women in 1999 was 16 percent, more than
double the unemployment rate Ior men.18 n
S O U R C E S : UNESCO nstitute Ior Statistics, 'Literacy Statistics (www.uis.unesco.org, accessed March 11, 2003); United Nations Development
Programme, uman Development
Report 2002; UN Statistics Division, The Worlds Women 2000. Trends and Statistics (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/ww2000/table5d.htm,
accessed Aug. 23, 2003); F. Roudi-
Fahimi, 'Women`s Reproductive Health in the Middle East and North AIrica (2003); and C. Haub, 2003 World Population Data Sheet.
Gross EnroIIment Ratio (%)a
Primary Secondary
FemaIe MaIe FemaIe MaIe
TotaI
FertiIity
Ratec
Women as
Percent of
Labor Forceb
91 100 62 71 20 73 20 3.3 MDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRCA
107 116 73 68 16 2.8 Algeria
103 103 105 98 60 12 19 65 17 2.6 Bahrain
96 103 83 88 15 20 74 21 3.5 Egypt
85 88 75 81 47 18 11 75 12 2.0 ran
91 111 29 47 34 17 75 18 5.4 raq
101 101 89 86 51 20 22 76 21 3.7 Jordan
95 93 57 55 68 14 43 83 25 4.0 Kuwait
97 101 79 72 52 8 27 76 28 2.4 Lebanon
117 115 48 23 78 21 3.7 Libya
88 101 35 44 44 25 30 79 28 2.7 Morocco
71 74 67 69 58 16 16 79 14 4.1 Oman
109 107 86 80 47 10 67 13 5.7 Palestined
104 105 92 86 73 35 92 13 3.5 Qatar
56 23 15 80 11 5.7 Saudi Arabia
105 113 41 46 14 21 83 20 3.8 Syria
115 120 80 76 48 20 24 73 24 2.1 Tunisia
96 105 48 67 41 15 26 72 27 2.5 Turkey
99 99 80 71 20 31 92 12 3.0 United Arab Emirates
61 96 25 69 21 22 29 82 27 7.0 Yemen
5
Percent of PeopIe
Ages 15 and OIder
in Labor Forceb
FemaIe MaIe
PubIic Education as
a Share of TotaI
Government
Expenditure (%)
Women as a
Share of
University
EnroIIment (%)
2000, the unemployment rate among urban
ranian women was 25 percent, compared with 16
percent Ior men; in rural areas oI the country,
women`s unemployment reached 20 percent, versus
17 percent Ior men.19 mproving the quality
oI education, providing more vocational training,
developing job-creating programs, and removing
obstacles to women`s entrepreneurship can help
alleviate the high rates oI Iemale unemployment.
Ongoing Concerns
MENA countries have made signiIicant strides
in making education available over the past Iew
decades, but challenges remain. Access to education
has improved, and the illiteracy rate among
the region`s young adults (people ages 15 to 24)
is halI that oI the adult population (people ages
15 and up). More women are now pursing higher
education, reIlecting their ability to graduate
Irom secondary school. n some countries, such
as the oil-rich GulI states, women make up a
larger share oI university enrollment in part
because many young men Irom those countries
go abroad Ior college and graduate school.
But illiteracy remains high in some countries,
there are still wide gender gaps in parts oI
the region, and the quality oI the education is a
major concern throughout the region.
lliteracy
MENA countries` illiteracy rates are oIten higher
than those oI non-MENA countries with comparable
or lower per capita incomes (see Figure 4).
There are over 75 million illiterate adults in the
region, more than halI oI whom live in Egypt,
raq, and Morocco. Around 13 million young
adults are illiterate; Iully one-third oI them live in
Egypt, which has both a high illiteracy rate and a
large population. As in other parts oI the world,
illiteracy rates in the MENA region are higher
among rural than among urban populations (see
Figure 5 Ior an example).
Although all MENA governments require that
all children receive at least Iive years oI schooling
and all provide Iree education at least through high
school, the rapid growth oI school-age populations
in the region is posing a challenge Ior many governments.
Between 1986 and 1996, Ior example,
the number oI ranians between ages 5 and 19
grew by 20 percent, or nearly 4 million, straining
the capacity oI the country`s schools.20 n Egypt,
despite the government`s success in reducing the
adult illiteracy rate Irom 60 percent in 1980 to 50
percent in 1995, the increase in the population`s
size meant that the number oI illiterate Egyptians
grew Irom 16 million to 19 million. A similar
trend has been visible in Morocco.21
Gender Gaps
Women in MENA countries are twice as likely to
be illiterate as men are and make up two-thirds
oI the region`s illiterate adults. The gender gaps
in education vary greatly across countries in the
region but are generally wider in countries where
6 PRB MENA PoIicy Brief 2003
RuraI Urban
Male Female
23
45
12
22
Percent of Egyptians ages 6 and older
i g u r e 5
Egyptians Who Have Never Attended
SchooI, by Sex and Residence, 2000
S O U R C E : ORC Macro, Egypt DHS, 2000.
Morocco
$3,450
Egypt
$3,670
Syria
$3,340
ran
$5,910
Honduras
$2,400
ndonesia
$2,830
Philippines
$4,220
Uzbekistan
$2,360
Percent of women ages 15 and older who are illiterate
64
56
40
31
25
1
5
1
i g u r e 4
FemaIe IIIiteracy Rates and per Capita Income in SeIected
Countries, 2000
S O U R C E : UNESCO nstitute Ior Statistics, 'Literacy Statistics (www.uis.unesco.org, accessed March
11, 2003); and World Bank, World Development Indicators 2002.
overall literacy and school enrollment are lower.
n Yemen, Ior example, the illiteracy rate among
young women (54 percent) is triple that oI
young men (17 percent). But countries that
make political and Iinancial commitments to
reducing illiteracy, as Jordan and Tunisia have,
generally see signiIicant improvements in reducing
illiteracy and narrowing the gender gap (see
Figure 6).22
Gender gaps in literacy and school enrollment
generally persist regardless oI rural or urban location.
Gender gaps in school enrollment are especially
wide in Egypt, raq, Turkey, and Yemen.
Closing gender gaps in education would beneIit
countries` economies. One study estimated that
the region`s average annual growth in per capita
gross national product would have been nearly a
Iull percentage point higher between 1960 and
1992 iI MENA`s gender gap in education had
shrunk as quickly as East Asia`s did.23
"uality of Education
t is not enough to make education more widely
available; the quality oI the education also needs
to be improved. Arguing that the poor quality oI
education in MENA countries has led to a signiIicant
mismatch between the labor market`s needs
and graduates` skills, the 2002 rab uman
Development Report points out that education in
the region oIten Iails to teach students to analyze
inIormation or think innovatively. The report also
warns that education systems may split into two
tiers, with high-quality private education available
only to the wealthy minority and low-quality public
education the sole option Ior most citizens.
Such a trend would turn education into a 'means
oI perpetuating social stratiIication and poverty
rather than a means oI increasing social equality.24
Gender sensitivity is a key aspect oI the quality
oI education. Educational systems should be sensitive
to the speciIic needs oI girls and women. Yet the
curricula and teaching materialsand the media,
which has a powerIul role in shaping people`s
knowledge and opinionsin the MENA region
oIten reinIorce traditional roles that may deny
women opportunities Ior Iull and equal participation
in society. As radio, television, and the nternet
reach more people in the region, it becomes even
more important that students learn to analyze and
judge the media`s messages Ior themselves.
The Need for Action
EIIorts to improve Iemale education in MENA
countries need to go beyond rhetoric and should
involve policies and programs with measurable
results. Governments can start by making the
MDGs part oI national development plans and
monitoring progress toward those goals (see Box 1,
page 2). Governments also need to make an extra
eIIort to ensure that education is more accessible to
low-income Iamilies and rural populations, with
special attention to the quality oI the education
provided and the need Ior girls to complete school.
Richer countries both inside and outside the
region are encouraged to help resource-poor countries
improve their educational systems and collect
data on their progress. mproving access to and
the quality oI education is the most rewarding
investment a country can make. nvesting in
Iemale education will accelerate the MENA
region`s economic and social development by
enhancing human capital, slowing population
growth, and alleviating poverty.
References
1 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), rab
uman Development Report 2002 (New York: UNDP, 2002): 54.
2 United Nations, &niversal Declaration of uman Rights (New
York: United Nations, 1948); and United Nations, International
Conference on Population and Development Programme of
ction (New York: United Nations, 1994): para. 4.18.
3 United Nations, Platform of ction, ourth World Conference
on Women, Beifing, China, 4-15 September 1995 (New York:
United Nations, 1996): para. 69; and United Nations, The