THE ROMAN INVASIONS AND NORTHERN FRONTIER

Romans knew little of Britain. However, the Island provided gold, tin, copper, and valued slaves. Besides, it could be used as a refuge for Caesars enemies. Julius Caesar also ambitioned for a higher position, in fact he wanted to gain popularity. Therefore, and after several attempts to take over Britain, a Roman force led by him established a base camp on the north of Thames into Hertfordshire, the territory of Catuvellauni. Julius thought that he had achieved enough, and when he returned to Rome he won his public recognition. But, it was not until nearly a century that Romans conquered Britain. The delay of the conquest was due to the treaties between Romans and British leaders such as Cunobelinus of the Catuvellauni. But, the disputes between some tribes provoked the final conquest of the Island by Rome. The Atrebates had been pressed from the south by the Catevellauni, thus Verica, the king of the Atrebates, fled to Rome asking for help. Roman government took advantage of the situation and decided to conquer Britain on the pretext of assisting Verica. In 41 AD, Claudius replaced his nephew Caligula as a ruler of the Roman Empire. Claudius purpose was to enlarge the empire, therefore in 43 AD Roman legions commanded by him landed on Kent coast and advanced to Thames. Colchester was taken, and Midlands and Wales were dominated. Furthermore, Britains first military frontier road was built, Fosse Way, a line from Lincoln to the south of Devon coast. Moreover, the subject Britons rose against their Roman masters because of their injustice, corruption, the unfair taxation and the massive redistribution of the land. The Roman vassal Prasutagus, king of Iceni, disagreed with the law by which the lands of vassal kings without son passed directly to veteran Romans, therefore he had willed his estates to his wife Boudica, the queen of Iceni. Nevertheless, when Prasutagus died, Roman officials seized his

domains, took the lands of the Iceni and raped his daughters. The Iceni exploded in rebellion, but the British were slain and Boudica escaped to the woods, where it is believed she poisoned herself. Moreover, Roman military and naval forces landed in the North in the 50s and 60s. In Scotland, Cerialis, a Roman general, separated the Venicones of Fifeshire from the Caledonian hill people by a line of forts and watchtowers known as The Gask Ridge Limes. Julius Agricola, who was made consul and governor of Britain in 77, committed genocide on the Caledonians in the battle of Mons Grapius in 83. It is believed Julius provoked the battle by denying the Caledonian access to the coastal lowlands to their east and northeast, just as the Gask Ride Forts blocked the glens. He continued his advance to the shores of Moray and modern Iverness. Agricola was recalled to Rome, but Roman legions remained in Scotland. During the first 70 years of Roman occupation of Britain, in the wildest frontier of the empire, the Brigantes of Yorkshire ravaged tribesmen from the north and threatened from the south. In this turmoil emperor Hadrian would change the History of Roman Empire because of his policy. He decided to build a wall to separate the Barbarians from the Romans, which was named Hadrians Wall. In 138, Antoninus Pius planned to build another wall, the Antonine Wall, which became the northern frontier of the Roman Empire.

The romanisation of British Isles

Romans built roads, towns, forts, villas, public baths, ports and sites for entertainment such as circuses and amphitheatres. The new network of roads connected to every town and harbour in Britain, and favoured the speed of goods and troops. Moreover, towns were the centre of influence and administration. Londinium ( London) became the capital of the Roman Britain because of its location near the Thames river, which made it an important port for trade between Britania and Roman provinces on the Continent.

Society, Economy, Art, Education and Religion

Roman civilisation in Britain was kind of tolerant. There were Roman citizens and slaves, however non Italians could gain the privilege of Roman citizenship. The British benefited from a range of economic and social opportunities offered by Roman occupation. Moreover, although Romans brought their cults to Britain, Christianity flourished under their occupation. As to Education, the descendants of the old tribal chiefs were the only one allowed to it, they were given lessons about Latin, Literature, and Art by tutors in elegant salons. Regarding Art, the Romans brought the mosaic, which was used to decorate the floors of town houses, country villas and to pave the bath houses. With regard to Economy, the link between urban and rural life was very strong; industrial raw material and agricultural production was taken into towns to be processed into items, which were put on sale into the markets. People who administrated the civitas obtained benefit from their business. Agricultural economy was based on villas developed in the lowlands of south and east, while in the high country of north and west, lands were valued in mineral resources.

The End of the Roman Empire

Barbarians assailed Britain from north, east and west. The Count of the Saxon Shore was defeated and killed. In 401, Stilicho and his army left Britain to defend Italy, the heart of Empire itself, now the central government in Rome was weak and barbarians attacks were frequent and strong. Villas and fields were abandoned, therefore trade declined. Centralized government had broken down completely, and Celtics broke away with any relationship with Rome.

The Great Migrations and invasions

There was a period of massive migrations across the North and Irish sea. Germanic migrants settled in the southern and eastern Britain. In the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxons invaded the Isles. The Anglo- Saxon people came from areas outside the Roman Empire, exactly from the West Germanic ancestry. Celtics attempted to put up resistance under their legendary hero, king Arthur, but the Saxons advanced to the borders of Wales, Devon and Cornwall, and even to the modern Edinburg in north east. About 600 the Saxon Britain was organised into small kingdoms; The East Angle, Kent, Sussex and Essex in the south east, being Northumbria the most important until Mercia and Wessex were taken in the 7th century. All these kingdoms were converted to Christianity. Around 789 Danish and Norwegian Vikings had attacked the entire coastline of Britain and Ireland. In 836 they settled in Ireland and Scottish Isles. Vikings built fortified bases, Rochester and London were attacked and the raiders plundered the south coast as far as Cornwell. The Vikings sacked the monasteries, some monks were murdered and others were taken as slaves, and the treasures of wealthy monasteries were taken away by the barbarians. Alfred the Great, the king of Saxons, pushed the

Danes to eastern England the Danelaw, and there they settled and imposed their legal customs. The Vikings also shared out land in the Saxon kingdoms of East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. Alfred defeated the Danes led by their king Guthrum, who was forced to be baptised. The Danes swore to leave Alfreds kingdom, and in 880 the Danes moved to East Anglia where they eventually settled and shared out land in peace. But, the Vikings forced the Saxons to unite, and Edgar, Alfreds grandson, was proclaimed the first king of England. Danes customs and laws were recognised and respected, but the monarchy, supported by the Church, was the unifying force. The country was divided into shires in the Wessex land, Hundred Courts were created to keep peace, but Edgars son Ethelred was defeated by the Danes under Canute. Once Ethelreds son died in 1016, Canute became the only king converted to Christianity. England was now part of a great Scandinavian Empire, although Saxons continued to handle Administration, monasteries and the coinage.. For a quarter of century, under its Danish kings, the country was given peace.