DENIM The word Denim is believed to have evolved from a French fabric known as serge de Nmes.

The cloth from Nmes was a twill woven cloth made of a silk-wool blend; however; the fabric mix of this cloth casts some doubt on this origin since Denim has always been made from cotton. Since the mid1950s Denim Garments has become a mainstay in the wardrobe of American youth. Denim represents a rugged cotton twill textile, in which the weft passes under two or more warp fibers, producing the familiar diagonal ribbing identifiable on the reverse of the fabric, which distinguishes denim from cotton duck. Denim was traditionally colored blue with indigo dye to make blue jeans though jean represents a different, lighter cotton textile. Although Denim jeans are favorites among the American youth, it has changed style and significance throughout the years. Globally, Denim designers are experimenting with fabric and garment details including embellishments in order to add value to its garments. PROCESS FLOW

WEAVING The process of producing a fabric by interlacing warp and weft threads is known as weaving. The machine used for weaving is known as weaving machine or loom. Weaving is an art that has been practiced for thousands of years. The earliest application of weaving dates back to the Egyptian civilization. Over the years, both the process as well as the machine has undergone phenomenal changes. As of today, there is a wide range of looms being used, right from the simplest handloom to the most sophisticated loom. BASIC WEAVE DESIGNS There are three basic weaves: 1) Plain weave 2) Twill weaves 3) Satin Weave Most of the other weaves are derived from these three basic weaves.

FINISHING OF DENIM Finishing is the process done on denim fabric; causing them to change in appearance, texture and performance. The term finishing covers all those treatments that serve to impart to the textile the desired end-use properties. These can include properties relating to visual effect, handle and special characteristics such as waterproofing and non-flammability. Finishing treatment is done to achieve the ultimate customer requirements. These are mostly value added processes. Finishing may involve Mechanical Finish Chemical Finish MECHANICAL FINISHING: Mechanical Finishing is defined as any operation performed to improve fabric appearance or function by physical manipulation. Steam or water may accompany the physical manipulation; however, chemicals other than lubricants are seldom used. Fabric luster, smoothness, softness, residual shrinkage and hand are examples of the properties that can be altered by mechanical finishing. Compacting (Shrink-proofing) Calendaring Raising (Napping, Sueding) Shearing Polishing Corduroy Cutting CHEMICAL FINISHING: Among chemical treatments one can further distinguish between treatments that involve a chemical reaction of the finishing agent with the fiber and the chemical treatments where this is not necessary (e.g. softening treatment). Some finishing treatments are more typical for certain types of fibers like easy care finishes for cotton antistatic treatment for synthetic fibers and mothproofing and anti-felt treatments for wool. In case of fabric the finishing treatment often take place as a separate operation after dyeing. In more than 80% of cases the finishing liquor, in the form of an aqueous solution/dispersion, is applied by means of padding techniques. The dry fabric is passed through the finishing bath containing all the required ingredients, and is then passed between rollers to squeeze out as much as possible of the treating solutions before being dried and finally cured. Washing as final step, tends to be avoided unless absolutely necessary. Following are some of the Finishes: Flat finish (singeing mercerizing- padding- sanforizing) Regular finish (singeing padding- sanforizing) Coating DENIM WASHES ARE OF TWO TYPES: 1. Mechanical washes - Stone wash - Microsanding 2. Chemical washes - Denim bleaching - Enzyme wash - Acid wash Other chemical washes: Ozone fading

 Snow wash Over dye Sun washing BACK STAINING OR RE-DEPOSITION: The dye removed from denim material after the treatment with cellulose or by a conventional washing process may cause "back staining or "redeposition. Re-coloration of blue threads and blue coloration of white threads, resulting in less contrast between blue and white threads. REMEDY OF BACK STAINING --- Adding dispersion/suspension agent to wash cycle. - Intermediate replacement of wash liquor. - Using alkaline detergent like sodium per borate with optical brightener as after wash. INSPECTION Quality is ultimate concern; every single yard of the denim goes through inspection department and rated by a point count system to ensure that quality is up to standard before packing. Defective fabric pieces are rejected and sold as seconds and relatively minor defective points are marked clearly using stickers to alert cutters. Defects Removable defects Non-Removable defects REMOVABLE DEFECTS Removable defects are those defects which are removed by washing and by cutting. Defects are: _ OIL STAINS Fabric gets spots of oil lubrication from any part. _ SLUBS It is the collection of the threads at the surface of the fabric. Similarly fibers present in the form of bunch at the fabric are called slubs. This defect is removed by combing. _ HOLE When fabric passes through temple it produces holes on the fabric due to its wiry surface. NON REMOVABLE DEFECTS Those defects which cannot be removed by mending and these are count in fabric grading. These are: JALA In warp and weft direction there is a gap, it looks like that some warps or wefts are missed. CRACKS During weaving when m/c stops and again starts running then there is a gap between the two wefts. It seems like that the beating is not done properly. PATTI It is the dark color or thick weft lines in the fabric. DOUBLE PICK The two or more threads are inserted at the same place. It is somewhat emboss and occur at the full length of the fabric. BROKEN PICK If the double or thick yarn is inserted 1/4 or width of the fabric then it is known as cut or broken pick. BROKEN END When the warp end is broken. KNOT

It comes due to knotting of broken warp end. WRONG DENTING When more yarns are passed through dents. TIGHT END When warp end becomes tight due to tension in dyeing. COARSE END It comes when warp end is coarse. MISS PICK If the weft yarn is missing from any place of fabric then it is known as miss pick. REED MARKS The lines are formed on the fabric due to reed movement and this defect is called reed marks. STARTING MARKS That mark which is due to the beating motion of the loom is called starting mark. A GRADE FABRIC If 30 points come in meter fabric it is considered as A grade fabric. B GRADE FABRIC If more than 30 points comes in fabric then it is considered as B grade fabric. Skewness in twill Fabric The skewness in denim fabric, particularly in twill weave creates a serious problem in subsequent garment manufacturing and its washing. Leg twist is a major problem in denim manufacturing. Due to this problem the leg is rotated in the opposite direction of the twill of the fabric after laundering. Leg twist is assumed to be happen due to the directional yarn stresses. These are inherent in regular twill weave fabrics and developed during weaving. During washing the yarn stresses is relaxed which change the regular position of interlacement between warp and filling yarns. Due to this reason the legs are twisted. Normally leg twist not shown on garment stage. It only observed after laundering of the garment. Although leg twist appears after first laundering and it increases progressively with repeated launderings. Shrinkage: Denim twill fabric is with a warp yarn consisting essentially off 20-95% cotton and balance0 -5% other synthetic fibre based on the end use and the fill yarn consisting essentially of 20 -100% cotton and from 0-2% of other synthetic fibre. Warp yarn having been sized. The finished woven fabric will have a warp shrinkage varying from 5 -12% and 3-5% in the filling direction. If the term pre-shrunk is used then the warp shrinkage will be 3-5% and weft shrinkage will be 0-3%. TESTING The fabric shrinkage is determined by measuring the dimensions of the fabric before and after three wash/ dry cycles. The wash/ dry cycle consists of washing the fabric according to the desired look (process recipe) and drying in a conventional tumble dryer to a maximum dryness at a final maximum Temperature of 71C. Usually drying time of 30 minutes is required.

GLOSSERY Abrasion The process of making garments look worn and aged by scraping or rubbing the surface of the fabric causing abrasion. Acid Wash The finish that gives indigo jeans sharp contrasts by soaking pumice stones in chlorine and letting the stones create the contrast. Bartack Stitching that reinforces places on jeans such as flies and pocket openings. Bleach A chemical used to make denim fade. Broken twill denim was first used by Wrangler in 1964 as a way to combat the twisting effect characteristic of regular twill denim (at the time considered a "fault" by many). Cotton After blooming, this plant turns from white to purple, providing the well-known textile that withstands high temperatures, accepts dyes well, and increases in strength when wet. The quality of cotton is determined by the length of fibres; the longer the fibres, the higher the quality. Crocking A term used to describe how dye rubs off fabric on skin or other fabric. Denim The word denim is believed to be a derivative of the French term, serge de Nmes, rugged cotton twill textile, in which the weft passes under two or more warp fibers, producing the familiar diagonal ribbing identifiable on the reverse of the fabric distinguishing denim from cotton duck. Double Needle A common seam on jeans where two stitches run parallel to each other for reinforcement. Enzymes Proteins that speed up chemical processes. They are used in textile processing, mainly in the finishing of fabrics and garments. Enzyme Wash A more environmentally sound way to create a stone wash, organic proteins are used to eat away at the indigo. Finishing The overall processes performed on a garment giving it its unique look. Five Pocket Jeans Most frequent design for denim: two back pockets, two front pockets and a coin pocket inside the right front pocket. Hand The term used to describe how denim feels. Indigo A blue dye obtained from indigo plants. The chemical structure was synthetically produced in 1987. Indigo's inherent features are good colorfastness to water and light and a continual fading. This allows the blue color in jeans to always look irregular and individual. Jean Possibly derived from the French work "genes", it was first used to describe the type of pant worn by Genoan sailors. Laundry A facility that takes unwashed jeans and processes them; i.e. stone wash, sandblasting, finishing, etc. It is essential in creating commercial denim and has become as important as fabric development. Laser technology, initially used by the military, has developed dramatically in the last few years as a textile treatment with laser finishes. Used with automated Tonello machines, lasers can be directed vertically or horizontally and used to create both-specific detailing or a textured all-over effect. The frequency of the laser is set to erode the indigo surface in order to either alter the color or burn through the cloth. Laser treatments are used exclusively in the upper end of the denim market and are considered a more environmentally acceptable process than the traditional methods of finishing. Left-Hand Twill A weave in which the grain lines run from the top left-hand corner of the fabric towards the bottom right. Usually in piece-dyed fabrics, left-hand twill fabrics are woven from single piled yarns in the warp. They often have a softer hand feel to them after washing. Loop Dyed One of three major industrial methods of dyeing indigo yarn. Open-End Spinning A spinning process in which individual fibers are fed into a high-speed rotor shaped like a cup where they begin to accumulate. The yarns produced using this method is not as strong as the ring-spun yarns of the same size.

Overdye A dying process in which additional color is applied to create a different shade or cast on the garment. Oxidation In denim manufacturing, when indigo yarn comes out of the dip and joins oxygen, penetrating the fibre. Pigment Dyes Dye that lack the ability to grab onto the fibers and must be held to the fabric with resins. Pima Cotton Originally grown in the 1900's in Peru, Pima Cotton is known for its long fibres, making it a very high quality, luxurious cotton. Pima Cotton was brought to America and got its name from the Pima Indians, who harvested this particular type of cotton. Polyurethane Provides a chemical resistance in the washing and dying process in order to achieve the desired denim wash/ color. It is the basis of a novel type of elastomeric fiber known generically as spandex. It is a man-made fiber (segmented polyurethane) able to stretch at least 100% and snap back like natural rubber. Pumice Stone Lightweight and strong, this stone is used in the process of stone-washing apparel. Right hand twill, also know as "z twill", was made famous as Levi's jeans standard fabric and now is the most common twill weave used for denim fabrics. Right hand twill can be recognized by the upward direction of the diagonal twill on the face of the fabric as it runs from lower left toward upper right. Right hand twill is known to have a flatter and smoother surface compared to other twill fabrics. Ring Dyeing Describes a quality unique to indigo dye in which only the outer ring of the fibers in the yarn is dyed while the inner core remains white. Rivet A metal accessory that is used for reinforcement of stress points as well as nonfunctional ornamentation. Sanding Process that makes the surface of a garment soft by rubbing aggressively with paper containing small loose grains of worn rock. Selvage The edge of a fabric that is woven so that it will not fray or ravel. Old 28 to 30 inch shuttle looms produce denim where selvages are closed, whereas on the larger modern weaving machines the weft yarn is cut on every pick, creating what is called a fringe selvage. SPI Stitches per Inch SPI for Denim garments is around 7 8 as Fewer stitches per inch generally will give a more contrast stitch appearance. Spraying & Staining: Spraying color can be added at various stages in the finishing cycle, either by hand or by automated robot. The effect adds to the aged look of a garment by introducting stained areas, color contrast or blotched tints. These appear more natural following laundry treatment. Overdyeing and tinting is carried out in giant washing machines, where a dirty or stained effect is achieved via the use of a pigment dye. The more subtle and sophistocated effects are hand-applied to individual areas. Stone Washing Process that physically removes color and adds contrast using pumice stones. The longer the denim and stones are rotated the lighter the color becomes and more contrast occurs. The denim is then rinsed, softened, and tumble-dried. Sulphur Bottoms: Many manufacturers apply a sulphur dye before the customary indigo dye. This is known as Sulphur Bottom Dyeing. It can be used to create a grey or yellow vintage cast. Warp: Yarn that runs parallel to selvedge. In denim, its dyed indigo. Weft The un-dyed crosswise filling yarns used in denim weave. Weight: Denim is traditionally graded by its weight per yard of fabric at a 29-inch width. Early jeans were nine-ounce Levis, increasing to 10-ounce in 1927. Lee Cowboy Pants were introduced in the much heavier 13-ounce weight, and most modern jeans are now 14 ounces. Whiskering Term used to describe a denim that has a fading of the ridges in creases in the crotch area and back of the knees giving the appearance of aged denim.