Defining the source area of water supply springs

R. Kreye, M. Wei and D. Reksten November 1996

Hydrology Branch Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Kreye, R. Defining the source area of water supply springs Includes bibliographical references: p. ISBN 0-7726-2903-X 1. Springs British Columbia. 2. Water-supply British Columbia. 3. Watersheds British Columbia. I. Wei, M. II. Reksten, D. III. BC Environment. Hydrology Branch. IV. Title. GB1198.4.C3K73 1996 551.498 C96-960161-1

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Defining the source area of water supply springs

R. Kreye1, M. Wei and D. Reksten, Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks

Executive summary
Springs are an important source of water supply in British Columbia (BC), and yet little is known about their occurrence, source areas, or sensitivity to impacts from land use activities. An important step in protecting and managing the spring supply is defining the springs source area. Spring source areas can be identified and defined using topography, geology, water table contours, water chemistry, spring discharge hydrographs, water balance calculations, and tracer tests. Due to limited data availability for most springs in BC, a combination of these techniques will usually need to be employed. This report presents an approach for defining the source areas of water supply springs in BC. The approach is based on the use of readily available data and limited field investigation. In the approach, the investigator compiles and analyzes data from existing sources and a field investigation to develop an understanding of the hydrogeology of the spring. From this information the location and boundaries of the source area can be interpreted. Source area boundaries are delineated using topographic divides, geologic boundaries, flow system boundaries identified from water table contours, and feature mapping. The interpretation is checked using a water balance calculation. The end result should be technically defensible and include caveats identifying limitations. While the approach and techniques can be applied to a wide range of spring types, they will probably be most applicable to springs associated with shallow, local flow systems, which are common in BC. The approach and techniques were successfully applied to three community springs on Vancouver Island. The source areas for the springs were local in extent, and reasonably well defined by topography. General data limitations were the lack of spring discharge measurements and hydrogeologic information. It is recommended that source area investigations be undertaken on springs in other areas of BC to more comprehensively test the usefulness of the approach. Information gained from source area can be used to help determine appropriate management options for protecting the springs from land use impacts.

Water Management, Lower Mainland Region, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Acknowledgments
The licensees of the three springs used for the case studies were greatly concerned with protecting their water supplies. Jim Lawrence, Obie Olson, Jim Morgan and Stewart Hollingdrake gave freely of their time, for which we are grateful. It is hoped that the work presented here provides the information necessary to ensure their spring-sourced water supplies, as well as all others in the province, are adequately protected. We would also like to acknowledge the reviewers of the draft report for their valuable comments. Greg Blaney, Bob Duncan, Gary Lucas and Jean Wood provided much needed technical support. Finally, without the support of the Hydrology Branch, especially Karen Rothe and Jim Mattison, this work would neither have been undertaken, nor completed.

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1.1 Content of report ....................................................................................... 2 Spring occurrence and description............................................................... 2.1 Development of springs.............................................................................. 3 Literature review ............................................................................................. 3.1 Techniques for identifying and defining spring source areas...................... 4 Identifying and defining source areas .......................................................... 4.1 Compile maps, air photos and data............................................................ 4.2 Data analysis.............................................................................................. 4.3 Develop conceptual hydrogeologic model.................................................. 4.4 Delineate source area ................................................................................ 4.5 Site investigation ........................................................................................ 4.6 Refine conceptual model and source area boundaries .............................. 4.7 Evaluate reasonableness of delineated source area.................................. 4.8 Write report ................................................................................................ 5 6 7 8 Case studies.................................................................................................... Conclusions and recommendations ............................................................. Glossary........................................................................................................... Bibliography .................................................................................................... 8.1 Springs ....................................................................................................... 8.2 General ...................................................................................................... 1 1 2 5 6 6 7 13 14 17 18 20 21 21 21 22 23 25 27 27 27

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

List of figures
Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Different types of springs (adapted from Davis and Deweist, 1966) . 3

Effect of topography on groundwater flow patterns and location of source areas for discharge springs. ............................................................. 5 Approach for identifying and defining source areas.......................... Detailed flow chart of approach for identifying and defining source areas. ............................................................................................... Relation of catchment area and annual recharge to average spring discharge (from Todd, 1980) ............................................................ 11 12 16

Decision tree identifying appropriate delineation technique for different geologic media and flow types ......................................................... 19

List of tables
Table 1. Table 2. Geologic classification of spring types (adapted from Tolman, 1937) Techniques for defining source areas................................................ 4 8

List of appendices
Appendix A. Peter Springs.................................................................................... A11 Supply Spring ................................................................................... A21 Wheelbarrow Springs ....................................................................... A31 Map, air photo and data sources Data summary forms Water chemistry parameters ............................................................ B11

Appendix B.

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Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Introduction
Springs are an important source of water supply in British Columbia (BC). Approximately 15 percent of all water licenses in BC are on springs, 105 of which are for communitu water supplies (waterworks or water users communities) and over 6000 for domestic water supplies. These numbers do not include water licenses on streams that are spring-fed or unlicensed water wells that are developed in aquifers associated with springs. Springs can comprise the major or sole source of water supply for larger communities such as Creston, Spences Bridge and Mill Bay. They also provide high quality water for fish hatcheries, commercial water bottling industries and are utilized for irrigation and watering livestock. In many cases, spring waters do not require any treatment to meet drinking water standards. Despite their importance, there is limited information available for springs used for water supplies, the location of their source areas or their sensitivity to land use activities. The source areas of springs need to be defined to enable protection and management under BC legislation, such as the Forest Practices Code (FPC), as well as to support broader Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks objectives for the protection of spring-sourced water supplies. Source areas could be protected as Community Watersheds or Sensitive Areas under FPC legislation. Preliminary guidelines for management of spring source areas is included in the FPC Community Watershed Manual. Without knowledge of spring source areas, protection and management measures cannot be developed or applied. The knowledge gained from a source area investigation will help guide the development and application of appropriate protective measures for the spring. The compilation of data from all investigations will improve our knowledge of spring-sourced water supplies in BC and help in the development of strategies for more comprehensive management.

1.1

Content of report
This report is the result of a study designed to determine available methods for defining the source areas of springs. The report includes background information on the occurrence and characteristics of springs, techniques that can be used for locating and defining source areas, and an approach for investigating and defining source areas. The approach for defining source areas is based on the use of readily available data and a limited field investigation, recognizing that, in most instances, investigators may be unable to employ the drilling and monitoring techniques that are typically required for technically rigorous hydrogeologic investigations.

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Appendix A includes three case studies that demonstrate the application of the techniques and the approach. The information presented is intended for use by the professional hydrologist or geomorphologist. The techniques and approach can be applied to a broad range of spring types and geologic environments. However, given the generally limited data availability and proposed level of site investigation, it will be most successful in shallower flow systems. The report does not address the impacts of resource use on springs nor does it propose specific protective measures or management strategies for source areas.

Spring occurrence and description

Springs can be classified using a number of different criteria. In the literature reviewed, spring classifications are usually based on either physical characteristics or occurrence parameters, such as:

geology magnitude, variation, and permanence of flow quality and mineralization of the spring water temperature of the spring water. (Fetter, 1980; Tolman, 1937; Meinzer, 1923)

It is useful to classify springs according to geology, since geology directly governs spring occurrence and water flow to springs. Most springs in BC can be classified according to the categories in Table 1. Figure 1 shows conceptual diagrams of the spring classes. Springs are naturally occurring discharge features of groundwater flow systems. Groundwater flow to springs (and therefore the characteristics of the source area) is governed mainly by three inter-related factors: geology (type, distribution and permeability characteristics of geologic units), topography (landforms and relief), and climate (timing and amount of precipitation). Geology, topography, and climate influence the amount of water that occurs as surface flow versus the amount that infiltrates into the ground as recharge to groundwater. All three factors govern how the subsurface flow system develops and, ultimately, where springs occur. For example, Figure 1-b2 shows that the nature of the geology (permeable sand overlying low permeability till) and relief (shallow slope) allows a flow system to develop in the sand unit. Topography drives the groundwater flow downhill and largely dictates the occurrence of the spring itself. Climate would influence the timing and amount of recharge to the flow system and the volume and variability of discharge. Davis and DeWiest

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Figure 1.

Different types of springs (adapted from Davis and Deweist, 1966).

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Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Table 1.

Geologic classification of spring types (adapted from Tolman, 1937).

Type of spring depression springs contact springs fault/fracture/joint springs Geologic material unconsolidated sediments unconsolidated sediments bedrock Type of porosity primary, intergranular primary, intergranular secondary, fractures Setting occurs where water table intersects the land surface occurs at or near base of underlying confining unit occurs along joints, fractures or faults where they intersect the land surface occurs where solution channels developed in limestone and dolomite intersect the land surface occurs where lava tubes, interbeds and cooling joints intersect the land surface

karst springs

carbonate bedrock

secondary, solution channels

lava springs

volcanic bedrock

primary, flow tubes, interbeds and/or joints

(1966) note that a vertical or horizontal variation of permeability is the most common cause of the localization of springs (p. 63). The hydrology of a spring is intimately related to the flow system. The influence of hydrogeology, topography, and recharge dictates the distribution of hydraulic head within the flow system and, consequently, the flow of water from recharge to discharge areas and to springs. It is the distribution of hydraulic head and configuration of the flow system that defines the flow directions from which the source area for springs can be most directly determined. Unfortunately, hydraulic head measurements near most springs in BC are rarely available for determining hydraulic head gradients and flow directions. In shallow groundwater flow systems however, which are common in many terrains in BC, the flow system and flow directions can be inferred from the local topography and geology. In general, pronounced local relief will affect shallow flow systems, while regional relief will affect more deeper, regional flow systems. The effect of local and regional topography and the concept of shallow and deeper flow systems are illustrated in Figure 2. Local topography produces shallow, local flow systems above a regional flow system. Water that enters the recharge area to a shallow, local flow system discharges at the nearest topographic low. The source area for springs associated with the shallow systems can readily be traced uphill within the local topographic high areas. Springs associated with deeper, more regional flow systems are fed by water

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Figure 2.

Effect of topography on groundwater flow patterns and location of source areas for discharge springs. that infiltrated across the wider area and from areas farther away, beyond the local topographic highs. Geological heterogeneities can similarly have a profound effect on groundwater flow. For deeper, regional flow systems, in areas of low relief, and in karst terrains (where flow typically occurs in discrete channels), the identification of the source area is more complicated and would usually require more detailed hydrogeologic data.

2.1

Development of springs
Springs range from disperse, low volume seepage to focused high volume discharge sites. How a spring is developed and the type of waterworks installed may vary, depending on spring flow and the use for which the water supply is intended. Common methods of spring development in BC include:

digging open drainage channels downhill from the spring to divert and collect the spring flow installing drain tiles, pipes, or collection boxes along a seepage face or at a point of spring discharge constructing a gravel back-filled and piped drainage trench along the spring line, and drilling or excavating wells into the spring discharge area.

Supply systems may rely on gravity and natural spring flow or pumps may be employed.

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Although the type of works used to develop a spring generally does not affect the source area, the works should be included in the overall protected area specified for the spring. This may include surface water features such as ditches, ponds or dugouts that are integral to the water supply, or engineered structures (see Appendix A: Supply Spring and Wheelbarrow Springs). The type of works may also affect monitoring of spring discharge and water quality, which are important for determining the characteristics of the spring and source area and assessment of land use impacts on the spring (refer to Appendix A: Case Studies). Where there are a number of associated springs, and where it can be determined that they are sourced from the same aquifer, it may be appropriate to consider source area delineation for the group rather than for an individual spring. Finally, development of other waterworks may affect the source area. For example, where the aquifer feeding the spring is influenced by pumping wells, the water table configuration around the wells may change the ambient flow conditions. This could complicate delineation of the source area, or even change the source area over time with continued pumping (see Appendix A: Wheelbarrow Springs).

Literature review
The literature review for this study discovered little information directly addressing the identification and delineation of spring source areas. Some information is available for karstic springs in Yugoslavia (e.g. Bonacci and Magdalenic, 1993). There are several case studies for mapping spring sources in North America (e.g. Munter et al, 1992; Trudeau et al, 1983). Civita (1995) developed a method for delineating protection zones for springs in the Mediterranean based on an analysis of considerable historical regional data. Its applicability to BC has not been assessed. Risser and Barton (1995) developed a strategy for delineating the recharge area to wells in fractured bedrock which has potential for use for springs in bedrock. While the literature review did not reveal any standardized approaches or methods that could be applied to the range of spring types in BC, it did provide information on general techniques that can be used for investigating the location and extent of spring source areas.

3.1

Techniques for identifying and defining spring source areas

There are a number of techniques that can be used to identify and define the source area of a spring (Table 2). These techniques were compiled from case study literature, from techniques used for the source area delineation of wells, and general approaches used for hydrogeologic investigations. Many of the

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

techniques can be applied using existing data and limited field surveys. The techniques use topographic, geologic, and hydrogeologic (e.g., discharge, water table elevations, water chemistry) data to identify and/or locate either the flow system or spatial characteristics of the source area.

Identifying and defining source areas

This section presents an approach for applying the techniques presented in Table 2. The approach, as shown in Figure 3 and detailed in Figure 4, is iterative. Although, in theory, the approach applies to all springs (including thermal springs), heavy reliance on existing information and the limited scope of the field investigation suggest that it would be most successfully applied to springs associated with shallow, local flow systems where local topography and geology can be used to locate the source area. The objective of a source area investigation is to define, as closely as possible, the location and extent of the land area that contributes recharge to the groundwater flow system that supplies the spring. To define the source area of a spring the investigator compiles and analyzes data from existing maps and databases, develops a conceptual model of the flow system and flow system boundaries, undertakes a site investigation to verify site specific data, refines and revises the model, and then completes a report documenting the interpretation. The end result should be a technically defensible interpretation of the subsurface flow system and flow system boundaries of the source area, including caveats identifying limitations. Another outcome of the investigation is an understanding of some of the physical and use characteristics of the spring and source area, which can support the development of protective measures. Variable site conditions and limited information for licensed springs in BC make it unlikely that any one of the techniques presented in Table 2 would, by itself, be sufficient to accurately define the source area. However, if the techniques are used in conjunction, a reasonable determination can usually be made. In most cases, insufficient hydrogeologic data will limit the interpretation. It should be emphasized that each investigation will deal with a unique set of data, and therefore, investigators must remain flexible in their approach and in what techniques are most appropriately employed. The case studies in Appendix A illustrate how the techniques and approach are applied.

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Table 2.
Technique arbitrary

Techniques for defining source areas.

Description/references designate an arbitrary area around a spring to provide a zone of protection that may include all or part of the actual source area References: USEPA, 1993 Notes different shapes with specific dimensions may be designated (e.g., circular, rectangular, or designated by property boundaries) is generally not physically based may be appropriate for small domestic springs can be useful as an interim measure if no other option to outline a protection zone precedence: is commonly used to outline source areas for community wells protection where no information is available local topography often controls the direction and gradient of subsurface flow to springs associated with shallow, nearsurface flow systems in general, pronounced local relief will indicate a local flow system, while areas of low relief would indicate more regional flow systems flow divides can be defined at different scales (from small to large scale maps and air photos down to site level surveys), accuracy is scale dependent assumes flow is perpendicular to the topographic contours can delineate a source area directly or by deduction from delineating adjacent surface watersheds may not be accurate for karst terrains, areas of low relief, or where groundwater pumping has significantly altered the water table so that it is no longer a subdued replica of the topography precedence: topography has also been used to delineate groundwater flow regions on the Gulf Islands and outline source areas for community wells in the Lower Fraser Valley the permeability of geologic units and/or differences in the permeability between one unit and another governs the occurrence of springs and flow to them quantity and variation in flow, and water quality, are governed by the characteristics of the geologic units through which the water flows identifying the areal extent and depth of different geologic units and interpreting the geology is a critical step in defining the source area a range of reference sources are available for identifying or interpreting geology (e.g. surficial geology, landform, terrain survey, soils and aquifer classification maps; air photos; drill hole lithologies) in fractured and karstic bedrock, the distribution of discrete fractures and dissolution channels through which water flows need to be mapped also to delineate the source area

topography

surface elevation contours are used to infer the direction of subsurface flow and the location of subsurface flow divides References: Kohut, 1985

geology

the type, location and areal extent of specific geologic units is used to define the source area References: Bonnaci and Magdalenic, 1993; Munter et al, 1992.

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Technique water balance

Description/references use discharge and precipitation data to calculate the size of the source area References: Bonnaci and Magdalenic, 1993; Munter et al, 1992.

Notes can indicate the size of the source area, but not the location or boundaries of the source area limited by the availability and accuracy of precipitation and flow data compare temporal variation of spring discharge to precipitation to determine if water is derived from precipitation provides an estimate only most useful in context with other techniques can provide an indication of largest possible size of source area is a direct method of mapping subsurface flow to the spring and identifying the location and extent of the source area water table contours can be manually drawn from existing subsurface water level data points (wells, surface water features) water table contours can also be derived through modeling, calibrated to existing data points accuracy is dependent on scale, number of data points and how well hydrogeology has been characterized accuracy is often limited by the lack of data points and insufficient understanding of the site hydrogeology in many cases the water table is a subdued replica of topography and topography can be used to infer subsurface flow divides that define the source area assumes flow is perpendicular to the contours except in: fractured bedrock, karst bedrock, and other highly anisotropic geologic units water table contours can change seasonally or under the influence of a pumping well(s) provides a gross measure of source area location only: local versus regional amount and variation of mineralization (e.g. TDS, specific conductance) are relative indicators of how far and how deep the water has traveled (water with relatively low TDS indicates that the source is nearby and likely from precipitation; seasonal variation in water chemistry would suggest that water is derived from seasonal recharge) may narrow down potential source areas by unique chemical constituents of water or by comparison of water chemistry with other waters geology (and land use) can impart a unique chemical signature in water (e.g. arsenic from some granitic bedrock, elevated calcium from limestone, nitrates from agriculture or range land use) isotope analysis can indicate physical processes water has undergone (e.g. evaporation) water chemistry sampling should include adjacent surface waters as well as groundwater sources for comparison

water table contours

the direction of flow and location of flow divides are inferred directly from water table elevation contours and the water table contours are then used to delineate the subsurface contributing area or source area for the spring References: Delin and Almindinger, 1994; Banton and Kenrick, 1992.

water chemistry

water chemistry can be used to infer the relative age, origin and history of the water and give general indication of the location of the source area References: Kohut, 1985; Gluns and Green, 1994; Trudeau et al, 1983; Risser and Barton, 1995.

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Technique spring discharge hydrograph

Description/references the recession curve of a spring hydrograph is analyzed to determine the flow velocity in the spring aquifer; this is used to help define various zones of protection around the spring References: Civita, 1995; Johansson, 1987.

Notes does not identify the location of the source area, only the extent and type of protective zones required guides the design and dimensions of various types of protective zones for springs of different sensitivities provides an indication of the estimated time of travel (TOT) of contaminants requires a continuous discharge record of the spring, which is not available in many cases is based on the analysis of springs in the Mediterranean and has not been applied in BC is the only method found that has been specifically developed for protecting springs types include: fluorescent or colour dyes, bromide, and radioactive tracers can give direction, rate of travel of flow, the location of point sources of recharge (karst systems) and with sufficient data points, the areal extent of the source area a comprehensive tracing program requires intensive sampling and analysis use may be limited by regulation or controversy of introduction into or near drinking water sources long travel times of some flow systems may limit applicability in those terrains most useful in rapid flow systems (e.g. fractured bedrock, karst, high permeability unconsolidated deposits) often used to define point source of recharge in karst systems

tracers

dye or other tracers are introduced into the upgradient groundwater to determine if flow from that location forms part of the recharge to the spring References: Risser and Barton, 1995.

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Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

COMPILE DATA

ANALYZE DATA

DEVELOP CONCEPTUAL HYDROGEOLOGIC MODEL

DELINEATE SOURCE AREA

SITE INVESTIGATION

EVALUATE ACCURACY

WRITE REPORT

Figure 3.

Approach for identifying and defining source areas.

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

COMPILE DATA

ANALYZE DATA characterize topographic setting

surface water and watersheds other springs/groundwater features topographic features (gullies, ridges, etc.)

characterize geologic setting

geologic units and boundaries unit materials stratigraphy

SITE INVESTIGATION
verify existing data acquire new data identify local scale features survey waterworks

characterize hydrogeologic setting

aquifer flow from unconsolidated or bedrock unit? discharge/precipitation relationships water balance water table elevations/contours water chemistry

identify land use setting

land use features and boundaries vegetation (recharge/discharge features)

CONCEPTUAL MODEL
flow shallow or deep? flow local or regional? flow through which geologic deposits? discrete or porous flow? sources of recharge? topography reflection of water table? flow boundaries same as geologic boundaries?

DELINEATE SOURCE AREA

topographic divides geologic boundaries flow system mapping feature mapping

EVALUATE ACCURACY

WRITE REPORT

Figure 4.
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Detailed flow chart of approach for identifying and defining source areas.
Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

4.1

Compile maps, air photos and data

The objective of data gathering and analysis is to develop a site specific understanding of how the spring occurs and what physical factors control flow to the spring. Data should be shown on appropriate maps and cross-sections. While the final source area boundaries should be presented on a 1:20 000 TRIM base, larger scale base maps may be appropriate, especially if the spring source area is highly localized (refer to map figures in case studies). Every effort should be made to acquire data from the variety of sources available, since interpretation will often rely heavily on existing data. Data sources include various ministry databases (e.g. WLIS, SEAM, and WELL), other government agencies (Ministry of Health, Ministry of Forests, Ministry of Transportation and Highways), forest licensees, and water purveyors. The site investigation will also generate additional data. Appendix B includes a summary of data sources, and forms that summarize data types. The following features should be identified and mapped: the water supply spring(s) other spring(s) local and regional surface water features and their watersheds (lakes, ponds, streams, etc.) other surficial features (gullies, ridges, depressions, topographic divides, etc.) distinct forest cover and vegetation types geologic units and boundaries (surficial geology, bedrock geology, soils, landforms, etc.) land use activities (roads, mines, gravel pits, dumps, clear cuts, range use, agricultural use, etc.) wells and other drill holes groundwater level elevations delineated aquifers waterworks

The following data should be compiled: spring discharge water chemistry precipitation records characteristics of geologic units (material, origin, etc.) well lithologies and aquifer materials

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

4.2

Data analysis
The mapped and compiled data is analyzed to develop an understanding of how the spring occurs, possible sources of recharge, and where flow to the spring may originate. From this information a conceptual model of the flow system and flow system boundaries associated with the spring is developed. Data analysis identifies the topographic, geologic, hydrogeologic and land use settings of the spring, and provides information on the following: surficial relief (topography) geology (permeability, stratigraphy) water table elevation contours for the aquifer supplying the spring water balance and discharge / precipitation relationships water chemistry

Topography Topography often reflects the underlying water table surface and can be used to infer subsurface flow directions and flow divides, especially for shallow flow systems. Two indicators of whether a spring is associated with a shallow flow system are: 1) where the seasonal variation in discharge generally correlates (with a lag time period) with seasonal precipitation patterns; and, 2) where the water quality (as reflected by the specific conductance or total dissolved solids (TDS) (e.g. mineralization)) is relatively fresh (as compared to rainwater) and fluctuates seasonally. Spring discharge from deep flow systems may show little seasonal variation in flow or quality. The degree to which the water table reflects surface topography can be checked by plotting known or inferred water table elevations against surface elevations at those points, for as many points as possible in the area (see Figure 7, Appendix A: Wheelbarrow Springs). A positive correlation indicates that water table elevations reflect surface topography. Subsurface flow is assumed to be perpendicular to surficial contour lines. Groundwater divides are assumed to coincide with topographic divides. Geology Geology and stratigraphy (presented in the form of fence diagrams, cross sections, and isopach maps) identify the location and extent of the type of materials or the aquifer through which groundwater flow to the spring occurs. The porosity, permeability and/or differences in permeability between different geologic units help determine the factors controlling spring occurrence, rate of flow, extent and type of recharge zones, and the potential sensitivity of the spring to impacts.
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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Groundwater flow in different geologic materials occurs as either porous flow or discrete flow. Porous flow generally occurs in unconsolidated materials or intensely fractured bedrock, and discrete flow in discontinuous fractures in bedrock, along faults and in solution channels (karst bedrock). As geologic units are distinguished by similar properties (e.g. rock type), including hydrogeologic properties, the mapping of geologic units is important for defining the flow system, the aquifer through which flow occurs, and the extent of the source area. Water table contours In unconsolidated deposits and intensely fractured rock, water table elevations and contours reflect groundwater flow directions and, therefore, direction from where spring water originates. Where water table contours are available or can be developed, they are a direct method of identifying the source area boundaries. Water table elevations may be identified on well records or can be taken directly from water level measurements in wells. They can also be inferred from the elevation of surface water features, other springs or seeps, or from diagnostic vegetation associated with groundwater discharge sites. In shallow flow systems, the water table is often assumed to be a subdued replica of surface topography, and as such, water table contours would generally follow topographic contours. Source areas for springs can be delineated by drawing flow lines from the spring perpendicular to the water table contours upgradient, similar to how watersheds are delineated for surface water sources.(see Appendix A: Wheelbarrow Springs) Water balance A water balance provides an estimate of the size of the source area given the spring discharge and amount of recharge in the source area. It is usually calculated on an annual basis. A general water balance equation for a spring source area is:
Q + W = A (P ET + S)

where:

Q = spring discharge W = other discharge in source area (e.g. springs, pumped wells, surface

water flow) A = source area P = total precipitation ET = evapotranspiration S = change in storage If we consider discharge from year-to-year, S can be assumed to be zero if conditions remain constant over a number of years. Where other sources of

Hydrology Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1996

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

discharge, such as well pumping, are absent, W can also be assumed to be zero. Spring discharge is obtained from discharge records, observation, or anecdotal information. Precipitation is estimated from nearby climate station data adjusted to reflect source area conditions, or from regionalized estimates shown on isohyetal maps. Evapotranspiration can be calculated from climate station data using the Thornthwaite method, isohyetal maps of evaporation, or from climate station evaporation data. The size of the source area can then be calculated from:
A (km2) = Q (dam3) P (mm) ET (mm) (m3/s 31 540 = dam3 for annual amounts) (dam3 [cubic decametres])

This relationship between source area, discharge and recharge is demonstrated in Figure 5.

10 000 annual recharge square kilometres 1000 0.1mm 1 mm 10 mm 100 mm 1000 mm 10 315 mm 100 hectares 100 ha

Source Area of Spring

100

10 L/s 10

0.1

1 L/s

10

100

1 m 3/s

10

Spring Discharge

Figure 5.

Relation of catchment area and annual recharge to average spring discharge (from Todd, 1980).

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Water chemistry Water chemistry, including seasonal variation, can be used to infer the origin and relative age of water. For example, a spring may show distinct seasonal variability in chemistry that correlates with the seasonal precipitation fluctuation (with a lag time period), indicating that the spring is recharged directly by infiltration of precipitation. Spring water chemistry contains chemical, isotopic, and thermal signatures which may reveal flow paths and history. For example, the amount of total dissolved solids (TDS), in the spring water compared to the chemistry of nearby surface water, rain water, and well water may indicate the relative subsurface residence time and distance groundwater has traveled before discharging as a spring. Spring water with low TDS (slightly higher than rain or surface water) would suggest that the spring water is from infiltration of local precipitation or fresh surface water and that the source area is of local rather than regional extent. The presence of elevated levels of minute chemical constituents, such as arsenic, fluoride, organic acids, and nitrate, in the spring water provides clues to the origin of the spring water and helps define the location of the source area by association with specific geologic units or land use activities. In the semi-arid interior of BC, Kohut (1985) used the isotopic character of spring water to deduce that the source area for Shaughnessy Spring at the Summerland Trout Hatchery included infiltration from surface drainage sources because the spring water showed isotopic evidence that the water had undergone evaporation prior to infiltrating to the aquifer. The specific constituents tested for should be determined in context of the geologic and land use environment of the spring. A common minimum field analysis would include: TDS (or specific conductance), temperature, pH and nitrate-nitrogen. Typical parameters for laboratory analysis are included in Appendix B. Comprehensive historic lab chemistry for a particular community spring may also be available from Ministry of Healths WSACS database.

4.3

Develop conceptual hydrogeologic model

Developing a conceptual hydrogeologic model is a natural progression from data analysis. Data analysis should give an understanding of how the spring occurs, the physical factors governing flow to the spring, the possible sources of recharge, what additional information would be required to clarify the interpretation or distinguish one interpretation from another, and which technique(s) best support source area boundary delineation. The detail of the conceptual model will be governed by data availability, however, the process of developing the model helps to identify additional data needs or limitations of

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the final interpretation. In developing the conceptual model, the following questions should be answered: What and where are the potential sources of water that supply the spring? How and through what geologic unit might water flow to the spring? What physical factors (e.g. topography, geology) control flow to the spring? Does the water chemistry suggest a local or regional, shallow or deep flow system? Does spring discharge or water temperature variability suggest a deep or shallow flow system? Does water chemistry suggest what geologic environments or land use areas the flow system may be associated with? Does the water balance suggest a large or small source area? Are there identifiable recharge and discharge areas? What techniques might be suitable for delineating source area boundaries? What information is missing and required to confirm the interpretation and delineate boundaries? Is there more than one plausible interpretation of the source area? What additional information is required to test whether one interpretation is more likely than another?

The conceptual model can be illustrated diagramatically or through maps and cross-sections. Rationale supporting the conceptual model, and limitations, should be clearly documented.

4.4

Delineate source area

Inferred groundwater flow directions and flow divides mark the location of source area boundaries. Flow system boundaries are identified using:

water table elevation contours topographic divides geologic unit boundaries feature mapping (e.g. sinkholes, faults, etc.).

Figure 6 provides guidance on the most appropriate technique for different types of flow systems. The justification for what techniques are used to delineate the source area boundaries is derived from data interpretation and the conceptual model of the spring.

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Of the techniques presented in Table 2, the use of topography, geology, and water table elevation contours, or a combination of these techniques would be most common. Water table elevation contours are usually not available or may be difficult to map without a sufficient number of data points. Where it can be demonstrated that topography reflects the water table surface (see section 4.2), it may be appropriate to use topographic contours to identify inferred flow divides. Where flow occurs in specific and identifiable geologic units, the geologic unit boundaries can also be used to help outline source area boundaries. Feature mapping, utilizing tracers and field mapping, can be employed for refining source area boundaries or for delineating source area boundaries in discrete flow bedrock and / or karstic systems. Tracers are most effective where the source area is very localized and flow to a spring is sufficiently rapid (i.e. travel times of days or weeks rather than months or years) for tests to be carried out. The use of certain tracers may be controversial, especially when introduced into or near active drinking water sources.

flow medium

flow type

flow system characteristics Is the flow system shallow and the water table a reflection of the topography f ?

delineate boundaries using

topographic divides

unconsolidated deposits; intensely fractured bedrock

porous

Is the flow system deep or regional in nature? Are any flow boundaries consistent with geologic unit boundaries? Is flow confined to a limited number of discrete channels?

water table elevation contours

geologic unit boundary

fractures faults conduits

discrete

feature mapping

Figure 6.

Decision tree identifying appropriate delineation technique for different geologic media and flow types.

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4.5

Site investigation
The site investigation should verify site conditions, gather additional data to further characterize the springs and source area, identify local scale features, and survey the waterworks. In many cases, the mechanism of spring occurrence will not be obvious from an office assessment and can only be determined by site investigation. A site visit also enables spring works to be documented and locations identified for monitoring spring flow and raw water quality. The site visit should confirm and/or support revision of the conceptual model. Site investigations are critical for springs with highly localized source areas. Site surveys should identify local features that may indicate the nature, location and extent of the flow system. Such features as intermittent or ephemeral stream sections, hydrophytic vegetation, seepage faces, and locally defined topography which do not show up on contour maps or air photos are important in delineating the source area boundary. For example, at Peter Springs (see Appendix A) the nature of the flow system could only be determined by mapping site features. This included digging into the spring to identify what materials flow was discharging from, identifying the spring discharge area from the presence of ferns and other hydrophytic vegetation, and field mapping local topography that defines the source area upslope of the spring. In bedrock units, it may not always be apparent if flow is discrete or porous at the spring site. Field mapping should identify other springs or seepage features to verify if intense fracturing (porous flow) is evident, or verify the existence of individual fracture, fault or conduit features. Site-specific maps may be required to accurately identify and depict source areas. Information that should be obtained from the site investigation includes: locating the spring site and predicted source area verifying the location and characteristics of landforms and surface water features verifying or identifying the location and characteristics of geologic units and geologic features identifying significant local scale landforms, water courses, land use, and diagnostic vegetation (recharge and discharge sites) surveying and identifying the components of the waterworks identifying monitoring sites for discharge and water quality sampling taking water chemistry samples and discharge measurements (estimate if no other options available) from the spring and other water sources, as required interviewing water purveyor / licensee for access to data, spring history, and anecdotal information.

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4.6

Refine conceptual model and source area boundaries

Site investigation information should be analyzed and used to support or revise initial interpretations, the conceptual model, and the location of the source area and its boundaries. In some cases a number of iterations of the definition process, including various types of site surveys that build on previously acquired information, may be required to arrive at a final interpretation.

4.7

Evaluate reasonableness of delineated source area

There is always a degree of uncertainty associated with delineation of a spring source area because complete information is never available. Ideally, the accuracy of the delineated source area can be evaluated by conducting more extensive site characterization. This, however, is often not practical or necessary. It may be sufficient to conduct further investigation only for those factors or specific areas which were uncertain, or which are vital to the interpretation. The reasonableness of the interpretation should checked by reviewing the consistency of results between the different techniques that were employed. For instance, if water chemistry indicates that the flow system is likely deep and regional, then a locally defined source area using topography would not be very accurate. The water balance provides an estimate of the size of the source area and can be used to evaluate the accuracy of source areas defined using topography, geology or water table contours. A review would be necessary if the size of the defined source area is inconsistent with what can be justified from the water balance. In some cases, the uncertainty may be so great that a source area cannot be reasonably defined. In these cases, the results of the assessment should identify what further information is required and make recommendations on how this information can be obtained. As an interim measure, the designation of some arbitrary fixed area may be appropriate to provide a measure of protection.

4.8

Write report
It is important to document the assessment for each spring source area so that it can be reviewed and defended. At a minimum the following information should be included in the report: site location spring and waterworks description topographic setting and nearby surface water features

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geologic setting hydrogeologic setting and groundwater conditions interpretation of spring source area spring source area description and delineation potential impacts to the spring water supply summary and conclusions of assessment references

The case studies in Appendix A show the level of detail and content of spring assessment reports.

Case studies
Assessments were completed on three community spring sources on Vancouver Island: at Cowichan Lake (Peter Springs); Courtenay (Supply Spring); and Mill Bay (Wheelbarrow Springs) to determine if spring source area boundaries could be delineated using the approach and techniques presented in this report. These springs were chosen because of their different geographic settings and differences in availability and type of data. The case studies are presented in Appendix A. The results indicate that, for these springs, source areas can be identified and defined with reasonable confidence using the described techniques and approach, despite the variations in data type and availability. Data for each spring ranged from limited (Peter Springs) to comprehensive (Wheelbarrow Springs). The source areas for the springs are local in extent, ranging from approximately 1 hectare for Peter Springs to 40 hectares for Supply Spring. Each of the springs are potentially at risk from current or proposed land use activities within the defined source areas. A major reason source areas were able to be defined is that in each case topography could be used to approximate the direction of subsurface flow to the springs. However, geological interpretation, water chemistry, and discharge data were also important and provided a better understanding of spring occurrence and the nature of the source area. As well, none of the assessments could have been completed with adequate confidence without the site investigations. This is especially true for Peter Springs, where the source area was defined on-site rather than at the map scale level. The assessment of Wheelbarrow Springs illustrates that, unlike surface watersheds, spring source areas may change over time. If significant pumping of wells in the source area occurs, the water table configuration upslope of the springs could change, consequently altering source area boundaries.

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

While the success of the spring assessment relies to a great extent on compiling available information, it was found that the data sources often did not contain adequate or appropriate information for supporting hydrologic investigations. For instance, the water license files and water information data base (WLIS) contain mostly administrative information, and the Engineers Report that accompanies license applications is usually limited. Even so, information from the files and database helped establish an understanding of the waterworks and provided relevant historical information. In some cases discharge estimates were included. The most important data that are generally not available are discharge measurements or estimates, or the date and method of measurement. Discharge measurements support the interpretation of the location, nature and size of the source area and are required for the water balance calculation. The results of these analyses depend on the availability and accuracy of the discharge data. The geographic and hydrogeologic settings of the three case studies represent a limited spectrum of types of springs that may be encountered in BC. How typical these springs and source areas are is unknown. The applicability of the approach to other spring types and to other geographic areas of the province needs to be determined.

Conclusions and recommendations

The approach presented here for defining the source area of water supply springs depends on the compilation and analysis of existing data and site investigation. The case studies indicate that the approach can be applied and reasonable determinations made. The approach is limited by the availability of existing data, primarily discharge measurements and hydrogeologic information. The absence of information on springs in BC is an indication of the amount of work that needs to be undertaken before effective management and protection of spring-sourced water supplies will become possible. The uncertainty associated with defining source areas using limited information also indicates the importance of monitoring land use activites in source areas and assessing their impacts on the spring supply. The results of this report indicate that a number of areas require further research or development: improved documentation of spring hydrologic characteristics during the licensing process and inclusion of this information in appropriate data bases

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

Water Managements WLIS database should be enhanced so that hydrologic information can be included to provide more physically-based support for water management decisions regarding licensed springs and other surface water sources methods that improve the ability to acquire accurate spring discharge measurements need to be identified or developed assessments of springs in other geologic settings with varying orders of discharge magnitude is required to more fully evaluate the assessment approach developed here this approach should be applied to defining the source areas for all community water supply springs after a significant number of spring source area investigations have been completed the results should be reviewed and the approach revised where appropriate development of a classification system that identifies important spring characteristics and source area sensitivity should be considered the sensitivity of different types of spring source areas needs to be researched to support the development of appropriate monitoring and management practices the impact of various land use activities on spring source areas needs to be researched and standards of practice or protective measures developed springs and spring source areas often are located on private land. The implications of this for enabling protection and management needs to be investigated.

The benefit of defining source areas is apparent, as each of the community water supply springs in the case studies were open to potential impacts from current or planned land use activities in their source areas. The information gained from assessing and defining source areas is invaluable for supporting the development of management strategies for protecting these, and all other, water supply springs in the province. As these assessments are completed, the collective data will help in developing more comprehensive understanding of water supply springs in BC.

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Glossary
The rate and direction of flow of groundwater under un-pumped, natural conditions. An aquifer is a formation, group of formations or part of a formation containing enough saturated permeable material to produce significant amounts of water to wells and springs. A confined aquifer or an artesian aquifer is an aquifer bounded both below and above by beds of considerably lower permeability than that of the aquifer itself. The groundwater in a confined aquifer is under pressure (see unconfined aquifer). The area where groundwater flows out of the aquifer and towards the land surface. In the discharge area there is an upward component of groundwater (see recharge area). A stream which appears on an intermittent basis within a poorly defined stream channel. A hillslope area that drains directly into the length of a stream with no obvious route of surface flow (i.e. no first order stream). These areas drain either by subsurface flow or by very small ephemeral (seasonal) streams. The slope of the water table. Water level with respect to a datum (usually sea level). The property of a porous rock, sediment or soil for transmitting a fluid; it is a measure of the relative ease of fluid flow through a porous medium. The volume of pore openings in a rock, sediment, or soil. Porosity can be expressed as the percentage of the volume of openings in the medium to the total volume. Primary porosity refers to openings created during original geologic formation, typical of sedimentary and igneous rocks; secondary porosity refers to openings created after the rock was formed, such as fractures, joints, and solution channels. The area where water infiltrates into the ground and replenishes the aquifer. In the recharge area, there is a downward component of groundwater flow (see discharge area). The ability of water to conduct an electric current. Specific conductance is related to the concentration of dissolved solids (TDS) in the water. The TDS of water (in mg/L) can be estimated by multiplying the specific conductance ( S /cm) by 0.55 0.75.

ambient groundwater flow aquifer

confined aquifer

discharge area

ephemeral stream face unit

hydraulic gradient hydraulic head permeability porosity

recharge area

specific conductance

spring

An underground source of water emerging naturally at the ground surface; may be intermittent or perennial flow. A naturally occuring discharge feature of a groundwater flow system.

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

spring source area TDS transmissivity

Land area that contributes water to the spring. Total dissolved solids. The amount of mineralization in the water, measured in mg/L. Rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. Transmissivity values can be expressed as square metres per day (m2/day), or as square metres per second (m2/s). An aquifer in which the water table is free to fluctuate under atmospheric pressure (see confined aquifer). An accounting of outflow from, inflow to, and storage in a hydrologic unit like an aquifer, drainage basin, etc. The area above a point on a stream, with the boundary defined by the height of land above the slopes which drain to that point. The surface below which rock, gravel, sand or other material is saturated. It is the surface of a body of unconfined groundwater at which the pressure is atmospheric.

unconfined aquifer water balance watershed water table

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Defining the Source Area of Water Supply Springs

8
8.1

Bibliography
Springs

Banton, D. and M. Kenrick (1992). An Example of Wellhead Delineation using Hydrogeologic Principles and Groundwater Flow Modeling for McAllister Springs, Olympia, Washington Modern Trends in Hydrogeology: 1992 Conference of the Canadian National Chapter, IAH, Hamilton, Ontario. Bonacci, O. and A. Magdalenic (1993). The Catchment Area of the Sv. Ivan Karst Spring in Istria (Croatia) Ground Water, Vol. 31, No. 5.: p. 767-773. Civita, M.V. (1995). A Methodology For Delineation and Design of Spring Protection Area System Proceedings: IAH XXVI Congress and Exhibition, Edmonton, Canada. Gluns, D.R. and K. Green (1994). Water Quality Monitoring of a Small Spring Following Forest Harvesting Ministry of Forests, Forest Sciences Section, Nelson, BC.: Technical Report TR-007. Johansson, P.O. (1987). Spring Discharge and Aquifer Characteristics in a Sandy Till Area in Southeastern Sweden Nordic Hydrology, Vol. 18, No. 4/5: p.203-220. Kohut, A.P. (1985). Summerland Trout Hatchery (Shaughnessy Springs): Technical Report Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Water Management Division, Groundwater Section, British Columbia. NTS file 82 E/12 #25. Montgomery, D.R. and W. E. Dietrich (1995). Hydrologic processes in a low-gradient source area Water Resources Research, Vol. 31, No. 1: p. 1-10. Munter, J.A., Maurer, M.A., Inghram, M.G., and W.A. Petrik (1992). Recharge Area Evaluation for Moonlight Springs, Nome, Alaska. Report of Investigations 92-2, State of Alaska, Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Surveys. Perrault, Pierre (1967). On the Origin of Springs Trans. Aurele LaRocque, Hafner Publishing Co. New York Smith, E.J. (1979). Spring Discharge in Relation to Rapid Fissure Flow Ground Water, Vol. 17, No. 4: p. 346-350. Trudeau, D.A., Hess, J.W, and R.L. Jacobson (1983). Hydrogeology of the Littlefield Springs, Arizona Ground Water, Vol. 21, No. 3: p.325-333.

8.2

General

Back, W., Rosenshein, J.S. and P. R. Seaber (eds) (1988). Hydrogeology - The Geology of North America. Volume O-2. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. Brown, L. (ed) (1990). B.C. Livestock Watering Manual. B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Abbostford, B.C. Davis, S.N. and R.J.M. DeWiest (1966). Hydrogeology. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. NY. Delin, G.N. and J.E. Almendinger (1993). Delineation of Recharge Areas for Selected Wells in the St. Peter-Prairie du Chien-Jordan Aquifer, Rochester, Minnesota US Geological Survey-Supply Paper 2397

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Fetter, C.W. (1980). Applied Hydrogeology. Merrill Publishing Co., Columbus, Ohio. Freeze, R.A. and J.A. Cherry (1979). Groundwater. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Heath, R.C. and F. W. Trainer (1968). Introduction to Ground-Water Hydrology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York. Higgins, C.G. and Donald R. Coates (eds) (1990). Groundwater Geomorphology; The Role of Subsurface Water in Earth-Surface Processes and Landforms. Geological Society of America Special Paper #252, Boulder, Colorado. Meinzer, O.E. (1923). Outline of ground-water hydrology, with definitions. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 494. Ophori, D.U. and J. Toth (1989). Characterization of Ground-Water Flow by Field Mapping and Numerical Simulation, Ross Creek Basin, Alberta, Canada Ground Water, Vol. 27, No. 2:p. 193-201. Peck, A.J., and D.R. Williamson (1987). Effects of Forest Clearing on Groundwater Journal of Hydrology, 94: 4765. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Risser, D.W. and G.J. Barton. (1995). A Strategy for Delineating the Area of Groundwater Contribution to Wells Completed in Fractured Bedrock Aquifers in Pennsylvania. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 95-4033. Ryckborst, H. (1981). Temporary Hydrologic Changes After Deforestation for Pioneer Homesteading. Journal of Hydrology, 53: 117-133. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Stoertz, M.W. and K.R. Bradbury (1989). Mapping Recharge Areas Using a Ground-Water Flow Model - A Case Study. Ground Water, Vol. 27, No. 2: p.220-228. Todd, D.K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons, New York. Tolman, C.F. (1937) Ground Water. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. USEPA (1993). Wellhead Protection: A Guide for Small Communities. Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio

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