The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance By James P. Rooney

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Education Degree at Fitchburg State College

Advanced Research in Education EDUC 8310 November 21, 2011

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance

Introduction The U.S. Center for Disease Control and Preventions (CDC) 2008 Physical Activities Guidelines for Americans recommend that school age children, ages 6-17, should participate in 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. When children and adolescents participate in at least 60 minutes of physical activity every day, multiple health benefits accrue (Collingwood, Sunderlin, Reynolds, & Kohl, 2000). The CDC recognizes that regular physical activity builds healthy bones and muscles, improves muscular strength and endurance, reduces the risk for developing chronic disease risk factors, improves self-esteem, and reduces stress and anxiety. Beyond these known health effects, physical activity may also have beneficial influences on academic performance. Schools present a unique opportunity to help provide school aged children meet the daily physical exercise requirements. With 56 million students attending schools daily, education has the structure to provide and teach students the benefits of daily physical activity (Wilkins, Graham, Parker, Westfall, Fraser, & Tembo, 2003). School aged children can participate in many different styles of physical activity, depending on age and access to programs in their schools and communities (Strong, Malina, & Blimkie, 2005). Most youth however do not meet the daily recommended level of physical activity. In 2010 the CDC reported that only 17.1% of high school students meet the recommendation for physical activity. According to the School Health Polices and Programs Studies of 2006, 69.3% of elementary schools, 83.9% of middle schools, and 95.2% of high schools required physical education. However according to the same study only 3.8% of elementary schools, 7.9% of middle schools, and 2.1% of high schools provided

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance daily physical education or its equivalent (150 minutes per week in elementary schools; 225 minutes per week in middle schools and high schools) for the entire school year. The CDCs 2007 Youth Risk Behavior survey indicated that 69.7% of school aged children (ages 6-17) did not participate in daily physical education classes. Even with the known health benefits and childhood obesity on the rise, many school systems have downsized or eliminated PE under the assumption that more classroom time will improve academic performance and increase standardized test scores (Salis, McKenzie, Kolody, 1999). No Child Left Behind (NCLB) has been one of the largest contributors to this trend. By linking federal and state funding to schools yearly progress in math and reading test scores, NCLB has created a system in which classes like Physical Education, music and art are considered nonessential. A 2007 Center on Education Policy study found that since NCLB passed in 2002, 44% of schools have responded by cutting nonessential subjects including physical education. To compound the effects that NCLB has had on the downsizing of physical education classes across the nation, the United States is currently in the mist of a national economic depression. School budgets are being forced to tighten and when they do often the first cuts come from the nonessential physical education departments (Salis, et al., 1999). As stated, reducing the time spent in quality physical education classes is going hamper a students ability to meet the recommended daily exercise requirements, thus limiting the multiple health benefits associated. But does eliminating physical education in favor of core academic subjects improve learning in schools? This review will look at the suggestions of the current literature that removing physical education from our schools does not increase academic performance but it may also limit a students ability to be an effective learner. It will review how daily exercise provides many benefits to students such as decreased stress, improved attention 3

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance span and self esteem (Salis, et al., 1998), and how more recently studies have described the effects of exercise on cognitive and executive function (Tomporowski, Davis, Miller & Naglieri, 2008). Physical Educations effect on Academic Achievement Researchers have found that devoting more instructional time to physical education, recess or in-school physical activity programs does not harm academic performance. Many studies show that students' achievement levels remained unchanged when schools increased instructional time for physical education (Wilkins, et al., 2003). In Australia researchers looked at 5th graders in seven schools throughout the country. They increased instructional time in physical education for some students by up to 4 hours per week. After 14 weeks, there were no significant differences in math or reading achievement between students who had additional physical education time and students who participated in the regular 1.5 hours of physical education a week (Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 1983). A California study investigated the effect on academic achievement of a two-year program in elementary schools that doubled the amount of time students spent in physical education. Neither overall academic achievement nor achievement in language arts and reading were negatively affected (Sallis et al.,1999). Despite receiving nearly an hour less of daily instruction in core academic subjects, a group of 214 6th graders in Michigan enrolled in daily physical education classes, had grades and standardized test scores similar to those of students not taking physical education (Coe, Pivarnik, Womack, Reeves, & Malina, 2006). Ten elementary schools in British Columbia participated in a study that evaluated the effects of daily classroom physical activity sessions on academic performance. Students attending the schools that used the daily classroom activity sessions spent approximately 50 more minutes per week in physical activity. However their 4

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance standardized test scores in language, mathematics, and were on par with those of students in control schools (Ahamed, MacDonald, Reed, & et al., 2007). These studies and more show that increasing daily physical activity does not have a negative effect on academic achievement. While increasing time spent on physical education has not shown to decrease academic achievement, schools are still faced with improving standardized test scores. Studies show that decreasing the amount of physical education instructional time in favor of more time spent on core academic classes also doesnt increase academic performance. To examine the effect of decreasing time for nonessential subjects, 500 Virginia elementary schools that reduced or eliminated the time students spent in these content areas where studied. The results showed that the decreased time in nonessential subjects did not increase academic achievement (Wilkins et al., 2003). Some major studies even show that, in some cases, when students participate in physical education, academic achievement is positively affected. Evidence shows that increasing physical education may increase academic achievement (Shephard, LaValle, Volle, LaBarre, & Beaucage, 1994). Studying 4th grade students in Massachusetts two schools, researchers found that students who received 56 or more hours of physical education per school year scored significantly higher on Massachusetts' standardized tests (MCAS) in English and language arts than did comparable students who received 28 hours of physical education per year. There were no significant differences on mathematics scores (Tremarche, Robinson, & Graham, 2007). A national study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention followed two groups involving 5,316 students from kindergarten to 5th grade. Females who participated in 70 or more minutes of physical education per week had significantly higher achievement scores in reading and mathematics than females who were enrolled in physical education for 35 or fewer minutes per week. Greater exposure to physical education for males was neither positively nor negatively

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance associated with academic achievement (Carlson, Fulton, Lee, Maynard, Brown, Kohl, et al., 2008).The evidence is clear. Decreasing time for physical education does not significantly improve academic performance. Healthy Students Make Good Learners The link between learning and health is well documented over the last 15 years. Numerous studies have documented the connection between health and academic achievement, with poor health often negatively affecting students attendance, grades and ability to learn in school (Strong, et al., 2005). When a child continually misses school due to ongoing health problems, even the best teacher armed with the most interesting curriculum may not be able to teach him. By contrast, a healthy child is more likely to arrive at school each day eager and able to learn (Salis, et al., 1999). The academic effects associated with increased physical activity in children are considered small but positive (Payne & Morrow, 1993), with the benefits outweighing the potential risks. Particularly the risk of lack of daily exercise continuing into adulthood, leading to unhealthy risk factors for a variety of health concerns (Janz, Dawson, & Mahoney, 2000). Educational and health professionals believe that individuals who are physically active and healthy perform better in school. Negative health factors are shown to impede motivation and ability to learn by affecting sensory perceptions; cognition; engagement in school; and absenteeism (Nelson & Gordon-Larsen, 2006). The affected areas are interrelated in that if a student is struggling cognitively, they will be less likely to be engaged and connected to the school, thus more likely to be absent. Studies have suggested that increased physical activity during the school day induces arousal and reduces boredom, which can lead to increased attention span and concentration (Nelson & Gordon-Larsen, 2006). It is also suggested that increased activity levels might be related to increased self-esteem, which would improve 6

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance classroom behavior as well as performance (Shephard, Volle, LaValle, LaBarre, JeQuier, & Rajic, 1984). A research study in 2003 sought to identify the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement (Haugland, Wold, & Torsheim, 2003). During this study, mathematics and reading scores from the Stanford Achievement Test were individually matched with the FitnessGram scores of over 900,000 fifth graders, seventh graders, and ninth graders. The results showed a positive relationship between physical fitness and the test scores in all three grade levels. Higher levels of fitness were associated with even higher levels of academic achievement. Research on the positive effects of physical activity on increasing concentration, reducing off task behaviors, and school-related stress is limited. Studies show school aged children often behave better, are more attentive and show on par or increased scholastic performance after participation in exercise through physical education (Pellegrini & Davis, 1993). Students who sit through long stretches of academic instruction tend to become more restless and fidgety resulting in reduced concentration (Haugland, et al., 2003). This research leads some experts to believe that extended sections of instructional time without physical activity might have a negative impact on academic performance. However, Pellegrini and Smith (1993) reviewed a number of studies and determined that the cognitive performance or improved attention was most likely due to a mental break between tasks and not physical activity.

Exercises Effects on Cognitive Functioning Although more research needs to be completed, some studies have shown that higher levels of physical fitness have been linked to improvements in cognitive levels for children.

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance Cognitive studies have shown that improved aerobic fitness has positive effects on neuroelectric and behavioral performance of children during a stimulus task. A landmark study in 1958 by Clarke showed results that supported exercise enhancing cognitive functioning. In 1986 researchers concluded that physical activity produces short-term effects on cognitive tasks, but studies were mostly inconclusive (Tomporowski and Ellis, 1986). Up to date research shows that exercise has a small positive effect on cognition, and that single sessions of exercise are not likely to be influential, whereas chronic exercise that produces fitness improvements are more likely to have an effect on cognitive functioning (Etnier, Salazar, Landers, Petruzzello, Han, & Nowell, 1997). As shown, the relationship between cognitive functioning and exercise has produced conflicting results. Researchers believe this is because of the large variety of factors being addressed in these studies. For example, the definition of exercise can vary based on small changes in duration, type, and intensity. Exercise can been characterized as short or long-term, aerobic or anaerobic. A large variety of cognitive functioning measures have been studied. Measures such as reaction time, memory, academic performance, arithmetic function, and intelligence tests have been tested (Blanchette, Ramocki, Stephen, ODel, & Casey, 2005). Animal and human studies reveal brain areas involved in physical activity and cognitive functioning are connected, and chronic exercise could increase those neural connections even more (Shephard, 1997). The greatest improvements in cognition due to physical activity were found with executive function. The ability to outline, initiate, and produce activity sequences that make up self control. Executive function develops in children most actively during the elementary school years (Davis, Tomporowski, Boyle, Waller, Miller, Naglieri, & Gregoski, 2007). Students

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance cognitive functioning may be sensitive to the effect of physical activity, given that the relationship between childrens brain development, early experiences, and cognitive function are prominent during this stage of development (Davis, et al., 2007). The greatest response to exercise in regards to executive functioning was found in childrens ability to plan. However, these results where only shown to have effect in high duration groups. Children experiencing longer durations of exercise throughout the day increased their scores for planning by about onethird on the Cognitive Assessment System standardized test (Davis, et al., 2007). Executive function plays a critical part in planning and organizing for school aged children, particularly with the components of inhibition and self-monitoring (Davis et al., 2007). The awareness to self-monitor behavior through executive function is crucial to childrens abilities to foster creativity, empathy, imagination, and to evaluate thoughts (Davis, et al., 2007) The capacity to self-monitor behavior is vital for a childs readiness to thrive in elementary school. In a study measuring electroencephalography (EEG) brain activity in children while executing a choice-reaction test, the more fit children executed the task more rapidly and evidenced larger P3 amplitudes than the less fit children, which reflects processes involved in stimulus evaluation and categorization (Hillman, Castelli & Buck, 2005). Also, performing complex motor skills could affect learning by stimulating the prefrontal cortex, which is vital in memory and problem solving (Shepard, 1997). Research demonstrates that physically active rats have a greater abundance of neural connections, that sustained by more capillaries, than sedentary rats (Shepard, 1997). Furthermore, exercise has shown a change to the hormones that effect arousal, which may increase a students attention in the classroom (Shephard, 1997). Higher levels of aerobic fitness have been associated with changes in neurocognitive function (Hillman, et al., 2005). Children scoring higher on fitness testing exhibit a more effective

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance neuroelectric profile on a stimulus discrimination task. The more physically fit children also performed better in behavioral measures of response accuracy and reaction time, possibly due to a greater allocation of resources to working memory (Kramer & Hillman, 2006). Higher fit children will also exhibit greater allocation of attention towards working memory (Hillman, et al., 2005). A meta-analysis conducted of 259 public school students in third and fifth grades and found that high scores on field tests of physical fitness were positively related to academic achievement (Hillman, et al., 2005). Aerobic capacity has shown to positively effect achievement the most, while a high body mass index (BMI) negatively effected academic achievement (Hillman, et al., 2005). One study suspects that the cognitive benefits of physical activity may be even larger for children who are developing central nervous system structures, than for adults, whereas their brain structure and neuronal systems are more functionally developed (Davis, et al., 2007). Fitness may also relate to other benefits in the brain, including differences in the structure and function of brain tissue of elderly adults with increased fitness levels (Kramer & Hillman, 2006). A sedentary lifestyle, which is now common among children, may put them at a disadvantage for not only physical health but cognitive health as well. There may be crucial periods during childhood where physical activity has a limited window to develop optimal neural development and leave a lasting impact (Davis, et al., 2007). Alternatively, the cognitive benefits of regular exercise may be similar to the health benefits associated with exercise, which progressively improve with more physical activity but are lost with a period of inactivity (Davis, et al., 2007). Although the reasoning is not known, most of these studies agree that exercise is associated with positive effects in the areas of math, acuity, and reaction time as it relates to cognitive

10

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance functioning (Shepard, 1996). Researchers confirmed that a small but significant relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance existed. Pedagogy Due to the wide scope of research that has been done and the varying results it has produced, it is difficult for experts to recommend the best practices to see optimal increases in academic performance from physical education. What most research agrees upon is that physical education is a critical component of comprehensive strategies to improve physical and cognitive health (Carlson, et al., 2008). The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) recommends a minimum of 150 minutes of high quality physical education each week for children in elementary school and 225 minutes per week for middle school and high school. Also at least 50 percent of physical education class time should be spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity (NASPE, 2004). A high-quality physical education program enables students to develop motor skills, understand movement concepts, participate in regular physical activity, maintain healthy fitness levels, develop responsible personal and social behavior, and to value physical activity (NASPE, 2004). To maximize the potential academic benefits of student participation in physical education class, schools can consider increasing the amount of time students spend in physical education class and adding components to increase the quality of physical education class. Studies showed that some programs were able to increase physical education time by increasing the number of days per week or the length of class time (Sallis, et al., 1999) . Also, it is known that increasing the time spent in physical education may increase academic performance (Tomporowski, et al., 2008). In addition, the research reviewed here explored several different strategies for enhancing the quality of physical education class, requiring varying levels of resources. These range from implementing a standards and research

11

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance based physical education curriculum to adding specific components to physical education. Recommendations to enhance the quality of physical education from the CDC (2008) include designing a comprehensive curriculum to meet national and state standards, assessment protocols, and appropriate staff development. A well designed physical education curriculum should be based on national, state, or local standards that describe what students should know and be able to do as a result of a high-quality program. It should be designed to maximize physical activity during lessons and keep students moderately to vigorously active for at least 50% of class time. Programs should also include student assessment protocols to determine if students are getting enough physical activity during class time. Programs that have increased students time engaged in physical activity have provided teachers with appropriate training on ways to minimize time spent on classroom management, transitions, and administrative tasks (CDC, 2008). The type of exercise that should be focused on is high level aerobic activity, such as running, swimming and jump rope, and should replace activities that tend to provide lower levels of physical fitness (Tomporowski, et al., 2008).

Conclusion Collectively, the results suggest that high quality physical education is positively related to academic performance . In addition, increasing time during the school day for physical activity does not appear to take away from academic performance. Schools can feel confident that maintaining or increasing time dedicated for physical activity during the school day will not have a negative impact on academic performance, and it may positively impact students academic performance (Ahamed, et al, 2007). Furthermore, research has reported that participating in physical activity was positively related to academic achievement, academic behaviors, and

12

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, such as concentration, memory, and self-esteem (Hillman,et al., 2005). Physical education seems to have the largest effect on managing classroom behaviors, and how the lack of behavioral issues has led to improve academic performance (Haugland,et al, 2003). Although positive correlations have been made, more research is necessary to better understand the role that physical fitness has on academic performance. Most importantly, the possible influence of economical and cultural variables need to be studied due to the reliance between these variables and academic performance (Hillman, et al., 2005). Additional research is also needed to account for possible effects related to the quality of teacher instruction on fitness based activities (Sallis, et al., 1999). Some studies did not differentiate between exercise type, thus the data only provides for a general understanding of the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement. A more exact approach, which examines the different components of fitness is needed to better understand the potential influence of the various aspects of fitness on cognitive performance. Overall, physical education has the ability to help students meet the recommended daily activity levels, achieve various health benefits, and possibly increase their academic performance.

13

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance

References Ahamed, Y., MacDonald, H., Reed, K., & et al. (2007). School-based physical activity does not compromise children's academic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(1), 371-376. Blanchette, D.M., Ramocki, Stephen, P., O'Del, J.N., & Casey, M.S. (2005). Aerobic exercise and cognitive creativity: Immediate and residual effects. Creativity Research Journal,17(2), 257-264. Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Lee, S. M., Maynard, M., Brown, D. R., Kohl, H. W., & et al. (2008). Physical education and academic achievement in elementary school: Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. American Journal of Public Health, 98(4), 721-727.

14

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance Clarke, H.H. (1958). Physical fitness benefits: A summary of research. Education, 78, 460-466. Center for Disease Control. (2007). Youth Risk Behavior Survey (ODHPHP Publication No. U0016) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Center for Disease Control. (2008). Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (ODHPHP Publication No. U0036) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Coe, D. P., Pivarnik, J. M., Womack, C. J., Reeves, M. J., & Malina, R. M. (2006). Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38, 1515-1519. Collingwood, T.R., Sunderlin J.R., Reynolds R.W., & Kohl H.W. 3rd. (2000) Physical training as a substance abuse prevention intervention for youth. Journal of Drug Education, 30(4), 435451. Davis, C.L., Tomporowski, P.D., Boyle, C.A., Waller, J.L., Miller, P.H., Naglieri, J.A., & Gregoski, M. (2007) Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight childrens cognitive functioning:A randomized controlled trial. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 78(5), 510-519. Dwyer, T., Coonan, W., Leitch, D., Hetzel, B., & Baghurst, R. (1983). An investigation of the effects of daily physical activity on the health of primary school students in South Australia. International Journal of Epidemiologists, 12(3), 308-313.

Etnier, J.L., Salazar, W., Landers, D.M., Petruzzello, S.J., Han, M., & Nowell, P. (1997). The influence of physical fitness and exercise upon cognitive functioning: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19, 249-277.

15

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance Haugland, S. E., Wold, B. S., & Torsheim, T. A. (2003). Relieving the pressure? the role of physical activity in the relationship between school-related stress and adolescent complaints. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 74, 127-135. Hillman, C.H., Castelli, D.M., & Buck, S.M. (2005). Aerobic fitness and cognitive function in healthy preadolescent children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37, 1967-1974. Janz, K.F., Dawson, J.D., & Mahoney, L.T. (2000). Tracking physical fitness and physical activity from childhood to adolescence: The Muscatine study. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 1250-1257. Kramer, A.F., & Hillman, C.H. (2006). Aging, physical activity, and neurocognitive function. In E. Acevado & P. Ekkekakis (Eds.). Psychobiology of exercise and sport (pp. 45-59). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2004). Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. Washington, DC: McGraw-Hill Nelson, M.C., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2006). Physical activity and sedentary behavior patterns are associated with selected adolescent health risk behaviors. Pediatrics, 117(4), 1281-1290. Pellegrini, A. D., & Davis, P. D. (1993). Relations between children's playground and classroom behavior. Educational Psychology Review, 63, 88-95. Sallis, J., McKenzie, T., & Kolody, B. (1999) Effects of health-related physical education on academic achievement: Project SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70(2), 127134. Shephard, R. J. (1996). Habitual physical activity and academic performance. Nutrition Review, 54, 32-36.

16

The Effect of Physical Education on Academic Performance Shephard, R.J. (1997). Curricular physical activity and academic performance. Pediatric Exercise Science, 9, 113-126. Shephard, R.J., LaVallee, H., Volle, M., LaBarre, R., & Beaucage. (1994). Academic skills and required physical education: The Trios Rivieres experience. CAHPER Research Supplement, 1, 1-12. Shephard, R.J., Volle, M., LaVallee, H., LaBarre, R., JeQuier, J.C., & Rajic, M. (1984). Required physical activity and academic grades: A controlled study. J. Ilmarinen & I. Valimaki (Eds.), Children and sport (pp. 58-63). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Strong, W.B., Malina, R., & Blimkie, C. (2005) Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics 146(6),732737.

Tomporowski, P.D., Davis, C.L., Miller, P.H., & Naglieri, J.A. (2008). Exercise and children s intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 20, 111-131. Tomporowski, P. D. & Ellis, N. R. (1986). Exercise Effects on Cognitive Processes: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 99(3), 338-346. Tremarch, Robinson, & Graham (2007). Physical education and its effect on elementary testing results. Physical Educator, 64, 58-65. Wilkins, J., Graham, G., Parker, S., Westfall, S.P., Fraser, R.G., & Tembo, M. (2003) Time in the arts and physical education and school achievement. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 35(6), 721734.

17