Heat Engine Design

By Eamonn Mcstravick

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Heat Engine Design

Contents
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 INTRODUCTION WHAT
IS A

HEAT ENGINE?

EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES MARKET RESEARCH CALCULATIONS ADDITIONAL DESIGN TOOLS REFERENCES &
APPENDICES

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1.1

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this assignment is to design a single cylinder heat engine, to produce 5HP at 3500RPM. 1.2 WHAT
IS A HEAT ENGINE?

A heat engine is a physical or theoretical device that converts thermal energy to mechanical output. The mechanical output is called work, and the thermal energy input is called heat. Heat engines typically run on a specific thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines are often named after the thermodynamic cycle they are modelled by. They often pick up alternate names, such as gasoline/petrol, turbine, or steam engines. Heat engines can generate heat inside the engine itself or it can absorb heat from an external source. Heat engines can be open to the atmospheric air or sealed and closed off to the outside (Open or closed cycle). In engineering and thermodynamics, a heat engine performs the conversion of heat energy to mechanical work by exploiting the temperature gradient between a hot "source" and a cold "sink". Heat is transferred from the source, through the "working body" of the engine, to the sink, and in this process some of the heat is converted into work by exploiting the properties of a working substance (usually a gas or liquid). The two forms of heat engine we are going to look at in this project are external combustion engines such as the steam engine and Stirling engine where combustion takes place outside the mechanical engine system. And internal combustion engines such

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as the diesel engine (Compression Ignition) and the petrol engine (Spark Plug Ignition). All of these familiar heat engines are powered by the expansion of heated gases. The general surroundings are the heat sink, providing relatively cool gases which, when heated, expand rapidly to drive the mechanical motion of the engine.

1.3

EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

The External Combustion (ECE) Engine is a heat engine which burns fuel to heat a separate working fluid which then in turn carries out work. For the same power, external combustion engines are often less compact and heavier than internal combustion engines. This is because they contain a heat exchanger to heat the working fluid. However, they can be more efficient, and are much less particular about the type of fuel they burn. They also tend to be cleaner due to lower combustion temperatures and pressures which create less exotic exhaust gasses, for example nitrogen oxides. A steam turbine is a good example of an external-combustion engine. Heat from burning fuel for example changes water in a boiler to steam. Pipes then carry the steam into the turbine, which has a series of bladed wheels attached to a shaft. The hightemperature steam expands as it moves through the turbine and so pushes on the blades and causes them to turn the shaft. Resulting

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in rotating mechanical energy which, can then be connected to a transmission or power train for the final desired use.

STEAM ENGINES Steam engines were the first engine type to see widespread use. They were first invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1705, and James Watt made big improvements to steam engines in 1769. In a high pressure steam engine, steam is raised in a boiler to a high pressure and temperature; it is then admitted to a working chamber where it expands and acts upon a piston. In "Cornish engines" steam pressure and vacuum are applied to the piston simultaneously. As pressure is applied to the top of the piston, the steam from the previous cycle is condensed to provide a vacuum below the piston. At the end of the stroke the equilibrium valve opens to allow the steam above the piston to be transferred to the

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lower part of the cylinder as the piston is lifted by the weight of the pump end of the beam. The piston consequently reciprocates, much like in the vacuum engine. The importance of raising steam under pressure (from a thermodynamic standpoint) is that it attains a higher temperature. Thus, any engine using such steam operates at a higher temperature differential than is possible with a low pressure vacuum engine. After displacing the vacuum engine, the high pressure engine became the basis for further development of reciprocating steam technology. The next major advance in high pressure steam engines was to make them double-acting. In the single-acting high pressure engine, the cylinder is vertical and the piston returns to the start or bottom of the stroke by the momentum of the flywheel. In the double-acting engine, steam is admitted alternately to each side of the piston while the other is exhausting. This requires inlet and exhaust ports at either end of the cylinder with steam flow being controlled by valves. This system increases the speed and smoothness of the reciprocation and allows the cylinder to be mounted horizontally or at an angle. Power is transmitted from the piston by a sliding rod sealed to the cylinder to prevent the escape of steam which in turn drives a connecting rod via a sliding crosshead. This in combination with the connecting rod converts the reciprocating motion to rotary motion. The inlet and exhaust valves have their reciprocating motion derived from the rotary motion by way of an additional crank mounted eccentrically from the drive shaft.

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The above shows a labelled diagram of a single cylinder double acting, high pressure steam engine. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Piston Piston rod Crosshead bearing Connecting rod Crank Eccentric valve motion Flywheel Sliding valve Centrifugal governor.

A double-acting piston engine provides as much power as a more expensive 2-piston single-acting engine, and also allows the use of a much smaller flywheel than what would be required by a one-piston single-acting engine. Both of these considerations made the doubleacting piston engine smaller and less expensive for a given power range.

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Design STIRLING ENGINES

Heat Engine Design

A Stirling engine uses the Stirling cycle, the gasses used inside a Stirling engine never leave the engine. There are no exhaust valves that vent high-pressure gasses, as in a petrol or diesel engine, and there are no explosions taking place. Because of this, Stirling engines are very quiet. The Stirling cycle uses an external heat source, which could be anything from burning fuel to solar energy. No combustion takes place inside the cylinders of the engine. Since the Stirling engine is a closed cycle, it contains a fixed mass of gas called the "working fluid", most commonly air, hydrogen or helium. In normal operation, the engine is sealed and no gas enters or leaves the engine. No valves are required, unlike other types of piston engines. The Stirling engine, like most heat-engines, cycles through four main processes: cooling, compression, heating and expansion. This is accomplished by moving the gas back and forth between hot and cold heat exchangers. The hot heat exchanger is in thermal contact with an external heat source, e.g. a fuel burner, and the cold heat exchanger being in thermal contact with an external heat sink, e.g. air fins. A change in gas temperature will cause a corresponding change in gas pressure, while the motion of the piston causes the gas to be alternately expanded and compressed. The gas follows the behaviour described by the gas laws which describe how a gas's pressure, temperature and volume are related. When the gas is heated, because it is in a sealed chamber, the pressure rises and this then acts on the power piston to produce a power stroke. When the gas is cooled the pressure drops and this means that less work needs to be done by the piston to compress the gas on the return stroke, thus yielding a net power output.

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When one side of the piston is open to the atmosphere, the operation is slightly different. As the sealed volume of working gas comes in contact with the hot side, it expands, doing work on both the piston and on the atmosphere. When the working gas contacts the cold side, the atmosphere does work on the gas and "compresses" it. Atmospheric pressure, which is greater than the cooled working gas, pushes on the piston. To summarize, the Stirling engine uses the temperature difference between its hot end and cold end to establish a cycle of a fixed mass of gas expanding and contracting within the engine, thus converting thermal energy into mechanical power. The greater the temperature difference between the hot and cold sources, the greater the potential Carnot cycle efficiency. Stirling Engines are basically a heat pump in reverse, but instead of inputting mechanical energy to raise or decrease temperatures, you can introduce a temperature change to produce mechanical energy.

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1.4

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

The Internal Combustion (IC) Engine is a heat engine that converts chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy, usually made available on a rotating output shaft. Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine and the high-pressure gas then expands against the mechanical mechanisms of the engine. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the output of the engine. The crankshaft, In turn, is connected to a transmission or power train to transmit the rotating mechanical energy to the desired final use. Engine Classification Internal Combustion Engines can be classified in a number of different ways: 1) Types of Ignition

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a) Spark Ignition (SI). An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber surrounding the plug. In early engine development, before the invention of the electric spark plug many forms of torch holes were used to initiate combustion from an external flame. b) Compression Ignition (CI). The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression 2) Engine Cycle a) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle has four piston movements over two engine revolutions for each cycle. b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution for each cycle. 3) Valve Location a) Valves in Head b) Valves in block c) One Valve in head & one valve in block 4) Basic Design a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons. b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block built around a large nonconcentric rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block. 5) Air Intake Process a) Naturally Aspirated

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b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off the engine crankshaft. c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbinecompressor driven by the engine exhaust gases. 6) Method of Fuel Input for Spark Ignition Engines a) Carburetted. b) Multipoint port fuel injection. One or more injectors at each cylinder intake c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection. Injectors upstream in intake manifold. d) Petroleum Direct Injection. Injectors mounted in combustion chambers with injection directly into cylinders. 7) Method of Fuel input for Compression Ignition Engines. a) Direct Injection. Fuel injected into main combustion chamber. b) Indirect Injection. Fuel injected into secondary combustion chamber. c) Homogenous charge compression ignition. Dome fuel added during intake stroke. 8) Fuel Used. a) Petroleum. b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil c) Gas, Natural Gas, Methane. d) LPG. e) Alcohol Ethyl, Methyl. 9) Type of Cooling. a) Air Cooled b) Liquid cooled, water cooled.

Basic Engine Cycles Most internal combustion engines, both spark ignition and compression ignition; operate on either a four-stroke or a two-stroke

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cycle. These basic cycles are fairly standard for all engines, with only slight differences found in individual designs. Four-Stroke SI (Spark plug ignition) Engine Cycle. 1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke of Induction The piston travels

from TDC (Top Dead Centre, where the Piston stops at the furthest point from the crankshaft) to BDC (Bottom Dead Centre, where the piston stops at the closest point to the crankshaft) with the intake valve open and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the combustion chamber, which in turns creates a vacuum. The resulting pressure differential through the intake system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the inside causes air to be pushed into the cylinder. As the air passes through the intake system, fuel is added to it in the desired amount by means of fuel injectors or a carburettor. 2. Second Stroke: Compression StrokeWhen Piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the piston travels back to TDC with all the valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel mixture, raising both the pressure and the temperature in the cylinder. The finite time required to close the intake valve means that actual compression doesnt start until sometime after BDC. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired and combustion is initiated. 3. CombustionCombustion of air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length of time with the piston near TDC (i.e. nearly constant-volume combustion). It starts near the end of the compression stroke slightly before TDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly after TDC. Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust products the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from

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TDC to BDC, cylinder volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop. 4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke With all valves closed, the high pressure created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop. 5. Exhaust Blowdown Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust Blowdown occurs. Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings at this point, and a pressure differential is created through the exhaust system which is open to atmospheric pressure. This pressure differential causes much of the hot exhaust gas to be pushed out of the cylinder and through the exhaust system when the piston is near BDC. This exhaust gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers the cycle thermal efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the work obtained during the power stroke but is required because of the finite time needed for exhaust Blowdown. 6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust Blowdown is complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure. With the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in the exhaust stroke. This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust system at about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance volume when the piston reaches TDC. Near the end of the exhaust stroke before TDC, the intake valve starts to open, so that it is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke starts the next cycle. Near TDC the exhaust valve starts to close and finally

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is fully closed sometime after TDC. This period when both the intake valve and exhaust valve are open is called valve overlap. Four-Stroke CI (Compression ignition) Engine Cycle. 1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke the incoming air. 2. Second Stroke: Compression StrokeThe same as in an SI engine except that only air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature. Late In the compression stroke fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, where it mixes with the very hot air. This causes the fuel to evaporate and self-ignite, causing combustion to start. 3. CombustionCombustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC. 4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke 5. Exhaust Blowdown The power stroke continues as combustion ends and the piston travels towards BDC. Same as with an SI engine. Same as with an SI engine. 6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle 1. CombustionWith the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly. Raising the temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume. 2. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke Very high pressure created by the combustion process forces the piston down in the power stroke. The expanding volume of the combustion chamber causes pressure and temperature to decrease as the piston travels towards BDC. The same as the intake stroke in

an SI engine with the one major difference: no fuel is added to

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Design 3. Exhaust Blowdown

Heat Engine Design At about 75C before BDC, the

exhaust valve opens and blowdown occurs. The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot in the side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC. After blowdown the cylinder remains filled with exhaust gas at lower pressure. 4. Intake and Scavenging When blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50C before BDC, the intake slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel enters under pressure. Fuel is added to the air with either a carburettor or fuel injection. This incoming mixture pushes much of the remaining exhaust gases out the open exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible air-fuel mixture, a process called scavenging. The piston passes BDC and very quickly covers the intake port and then the exhaust port (or the exhaust valve closes). The higher pressure at which the air enters the cylinder is established in one of the two ways. Large two-stroke cycle engines generally have a supercharger, while small engines will intake the air through the crankcase. On these engines the crankcase is designed to serve as a compressor in addition to serving its normal function. 5. Second Stroke: Compression StrokeWith all valves (or ports) closed, the piston travels towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture to a higher pressure and temperature. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the time the piston gets to TDC, combustion occurs and the next engine cycle begins.

Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

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The two-stroke cycle for a CI (compression ignition) engine is similar to that of the SI (spark plug ignition) engine, except for two changes. No fuel is added to the incoming air, so that compression is done on air only. Instead of a spark plug, a fuel injector is located in the cylinder. Near the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the hot compressed air and combustion is initiated by self ignition. I am going to base my design on an internal combustion, single cylinder, four-stoke, spark plug ignition engine.

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1.5

MARKET RESEARCH

As a starting point I have done a little bit of research into what is already out there on the market. Honda a well known engine manufacturer produces a single cylinder four-stroke engine which delivers 5.2HP at 3600RPM. Since I am looking to design an engine which produces 5HP at 3500RPM, it is maybes worth taking a look. The model is a Honda GC190, it is a 190cc displacement air cooled single cylinder engine applications for this engine include Go-Karts, Pressure washers, Reel mowers, Generators, Water pumps, Blower/Vac, Air compressors. Specifications as follows: Engine Type cylinder Bore x Stroke Displacement Compression Ratio Net Horse Power Output Net Torque PTO Shaft Rotation side) Ignition System Starting System Carburettor Lubrication System Governor System Air Cleaner Oil Capacity Transistorized Magneto Recoil or Electric Starter Horizontal type butterfly valve Forced Splash Centrifugal Mechanical Dry (paper) type 0.58 l 69 x 50 mm 187 cm3 8.5: 1 3.9kW (5.2HP) at 3,600 rpm 11.2 Nm at 2,500 rpm Anticlockwise (from PTO shaft Air-cooled 4-stroke OHC single

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Design Fuel Tank Capacity (litre) Dimensions (L x W x H) 331mm Dry Weight 13.2 kg 1.8l

Heat Engine Design

345mm x 369mm x

So based on the above specification I will carry out a full thermodynamic analysis based on the above specification 1.6 CALCULATIONS

See attached thermodynamic analysis for the Honda GC190 @ 3600RPM

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By adjusting the mathematics of the calculation we can work out what the power output will be for a speed of 3500RPM. See attached thermodynamic analysis for the Honda GC190 @ 3500RPM

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As it turns out the power output calculation for the Honda GC190 at 3500RPM, turns out to be 5HP or 3.8kW. This means that design could be based around the GC190s specification i.e. Bore, Stroke (which determines the displacement) & Compression Ratio. So from these parameters I can model a basic engine design, but the thermo-dynamic analysis I did for the design used a lot of assumptions without actual certainty of the conditions involved. What other tools could I use to help create a more accurate, realisation to what is happening during the combustion process and how well the design will perform?

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1.7

ADDITIONAL DESIGN TOOLS

There are lots of different engineering software tools available to designers which allow them to simulate their designs prior to physical prototypes and testing. Hence saving a lot of time and money at the prototype stages by providing a more accurate representation of what will happen in reality, mainly by means of finite numerical methods. In the case of this single cylinder four stroke SI engine, what tools could we use to improve and validate our design calculated from empirical calculations? AIR PRESSURES & THERMO-FLUID FLOW Firstly, it would help if I had a tool which could tell me the actual pressures at the start of the compression stroke, and also the flow of the air-fuel mixture at the intake stroke. Also how much exhaust

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residual was left over from previous strokes, instead of relying on assumptions. A CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics Package) could be used to compute these uncertainties, and if the results are not good enough the engines design model could either be altered and then reanalyzed or make use of the softwares optimizers which would alter the model to attain the required flows & or pressures required. Some packages tie in the thermal effects of fluids by analysing convection currents etc. this would also allow us to identify what thermal effects the burning gases have on the components inside the combustion chamber, and how much heat is exhausted and how much needs to dissipated by the components. Again optimizers can be used on the components so that enough heat can be dissipated from the engine components, without causing damage; i.e. optimize to the required steady state temperature. MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY AND MOVING INTERFERENCE DETECTION AND INTERACTION Also the mechanical efficiency is another assumption made in the empirical calculations, how do we know what the actual mechanical efficiency of the engine is? If we had our basic design model we could run it through an ADAMS (AUTOMATIC
SYSTEM) DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF MECHANICAL

Software package to determine how much energy is lost through friction and it will also check for any component clashes, and how the components interact with each other. The software wills also feedback the loads and forces exerted on the components that we could use for further analysis. NATURAL FREQUENCY AND RESPONSE

DYNAMIC

Other tools which would help validate the design include dynamic analysis software packages which numerically determine the natural and transient frequencies; this allows you to optimize the

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components so that there natural frequencies dont coincide with the operating frequencies of the engine. FATIGUE ANALYSIS Fatigue analysis packages allow you to calculate the fatigue life of all the components under dynamic loading, determined by the ADAMS package. STRESS ANALYSIS By taking the values from the motion simulation package, you can apply these as static and dynamic loads to the components and optimize there designs for desired stresses. ACOUSTICS Acoustics is another issue that could possibly be considered in the design of the heat engine, where you want the machine to run under a certain sound limit. This could be done with a computer software acoustics package. All the above software design tools would help you to greater understand your design to how it would operate in reality. Also with the ability to optimize your design so that it meets your desired criteria is of great benefit, but there will come a point where some of your analysis may play off against each other. For example you may optimize your crankshaft in a stress analysis package, and find that its natural frequency has now changed into your operating range, and then following further dynamic analysis your design fails. So you are sort of stuck back in the loop playing off which characteristics are more important to you. MULTIPHYSICS Multiphysics software tools however take theses different analyses and run them together, so it can combine structural, thermal,

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computational fluid dynamics (CFD), acoustics, dynamics and fatigue. This gives you a full simulation of what is happening within the operation of the engine from all angles.

1.8

REFERENCES & APPENDICES

The following references and attached appendices were used during the compilation of this report. Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine Second Edition. 3031-5 IDEAS Tutorials - Analyzing Thermal Performance of an Engine Block, Response Analysis, Optimization Parameter Studies, Optimization Redesign www.wikipedia.org www.bsonline.com By Willard. W. Pulkrabek. ISBN. 81-203-

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