UNIT II MACHINES & TRANSFORMERS

SYLLABUS

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Construction of DC machines

Theory of operation of DC generators

Types of DC generators EMF equation. Operating principles of DC motors

Types and their characteristics Speed control of DC motors Starters.

Construction and principle of operation of single phase transformers

Types of transformers Voltage regulation

Efficiency Principle of operation of three phase transformers.

Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction (M. Faraday)

Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction
An electromotive force is induced in a conductor when the magnetic field surrounding it changes.

Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction

The magnitude of the electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change of the field.

Faraday's third law of electromagnetic induction

The sense of the induced electromotive force depends on the direction of the rate of the change of the field.

Definition:
Electromagnetic induction (or sometimes just induction) is a process where a conductor placed in a changing magnetic field (or a conductor moving through a stationary magnetic field) causes the production of a voltage across the conductor. This process of electromagnetic induction, in turn, causes an electrical current - it is said to induce the current.

Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831, and, independently and at the same time, by Joseph Henry. The above law is sometimes also stated as - The EMF generated is proportional to the rate at which flux is linked. The direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz's law. The meaning of "flux through the circuit" is elaborated upon in the examples below. Traditionally, two different ways of changing the flux through a circuit are recognized. In the case of transformer EMF the idea is to alter the field itself, for example by changing the current originating the field (as in a transformer). In the case of motional EMF, the idea is to move all or part of the circuit through the magnetic field. Michael Faraday is given credit for the discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831, though some others had noted similar behavior in the years prior to this. The formal name for the physics equation that defines the behavior of an induced electromagnetic field from the magnetic flux (change in a magnetic field) is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

Induction (not to be confused with the form of logical reasoning), Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
Also Known As:

Definition:
Electrical current is a measure of the amount of electrical charge transferred per unit time. It represents the flow of electrons through a conductive material. Current is a scalar quantity (though in circuit analysis, the direction of current is relevant). The SI unit of electrical current is the ampere, defined as 1 coulomb/second.

Definition:
Voltage is a representation of the electric potential energy per unit charge. If a unit of electrical charge were placed in a location, the voltage indicates the potential energy of it at that point. In other words, it is a measurement of the energy contained within an electric field, or an electric circuit, at a given point. Voltage is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of voltage is the volt, such that 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb.

THE GENERATOR
The basic idea behind a generator is
That an emf is induced in a conductor whenever the conductor cuts across lines of flux in a magnetic field. When the conductor is a loop rotating in a magnetic field, a voltage is Induced and current flows. The loop is called the armature. The ends of the loops are connected to slip rings which rotate as the armature is turned. Graphite or carbon brushes ride on each slip ring, connecting the armature to the external circuit.

An electric generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy.

CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINES

D.C. machine consists mainly of two parts. The stationary part called stator and
Rotating part called stator.

The stator consists of main poles used to produce magnetic flux ,commutating poles or interpoles in between the main poles to avoid sparking at the commutator but in the case of small machines sometimes the interpoles are avoided and finally the frame or yoke which forms the supporting structure of the machine. The rotor consist of an armature a cylindrical metallic body or core with slots in it to place armature windings or bars, a commutator and brush gears The magnetic flux path in a motor or generator is show below and it is called the magnetic structure of generator or motor.

Frame
Frame is the stationary part of a machine on which the main poles and commutator poles are bolted and it forms the supporting structure by connecting the frame to the bed plate. The ring shaped body portion of the frame which makes the magnetic path for the magnetic fluxes from the main poles and interpoles is called Yoke.
Why we use cast steel instead of cast iron for the construction of Yoke?

In early days Yoke was made up of cast iron but now it is replaced by cast steel.This is because cast iron is saturated by a flux density of 0.8 Wb/sq.m where as saturation with cast iron steel is about 1.5 Wb/sq.m.So for the same magnetic flux density the cross section area needed for cast steel is less than cast iron hence the weight of the machine too.If we use cast iron there may be chances of blow holes in it while casting.so now rolled steels are developed and these have consistent magnetic and mechanical properties. End Shields or Bearings If the armature diameter does not exceed 35 to 45 cm then in addition to poles end shields or frame head with bearing are attached to the frame.If the armature diameter is greater than 1m pedestral type bearings are mounted on the machine bed plate outside the frame.These bearings

could be ball or roller type but generally plain pedestral bearings are employed.If the diameter of the armature is large a brush holder yoke is generally fixed to the frame.

DC EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION

Direct current machines are energy transfer devices. These machines can function as either a motor or a generator. DC motors and generators have the same basic construction, differing primarily in the energy conversion. To better understand the operation and construction of DC machines, a few basic terms must be understood. EO 1.4 STATE the purpose of each of the following components of a DC machine:

Armature Rotor Stator Field

Armature
The purpose of the armature is to provide the energy conversion in a DC machine (refer to Figure 2). In a DC generator, the armature is rotated by an external mechanical force, such as a steam turbine. This rotation induces a voltage and current flow in the armature. Thus, the armature converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. In a DC motor, the armature

receives voltage from an outside electrical source energy into mechanical energy in the form of torque.

and

converts electrical

Rotor
The purpose of the rotor is to provide the rotating element in a DC machine (refer to Figure 2). In a DC generator, the rotor is the component that is rotated by an external force. In a DC motor, the rotor is the component that turns a piece of equipment. In both types of DC machines, the rotor is the armature.

Stator
The stator is the part of a motor or generator that is stationary (refer to Figure 2). In DC machines, the purpose of the stator is to provide the magnetic field. The stator in Figure 2 is provided by a permanent magnet.

Field
The purpose of the field in a DC machine is to provide a magnetic field for producing either a voltage (generator) or a torque (motor) (refer to Figure 2). The field in a DC machine is produced by either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Normally, electromagnets are used because they have an increased magnetic strength, and the magnetic strength is more easily varied using external devices. In Figure 2, the field is provided by the stator.

THEORY OF OPERATION OF DC GENERATORS

A basic DC generator has four basic parts: (1) a magnetic field; (2) a single conductor, or loop; (3) a commutator; and (4) brushes The magnetic field may be supplied by either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. For now, we will use a permanent magnet to describe a basic DC generator.

A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles. As long as the loop is stationary, the magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion). If we rotate the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an EMF (voltage) is induced into the loop. When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that magnetic field, and the direction of rotation is such that the conductor cuts the lines of flux, an EMF is induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength and the rate at which the flux lines are cut, as given in equation (5-1). The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut for a given period of time, the larger the induced EMF. Eg = KFN where Eg = generated voltage K = fixed constant F = magnetic flux strength N = speed in RPM

The direction of the induced current flow can be determined using the "left-hand rule" for generators. This rule states that if you point the index finger of your left hand in the direction of the magnetic field (from North to South) and point the thumb in the direction of motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction of current flow (Figure 4). In the generator shown in Figure 4, for example, the conductor closest to the N pole is traveling upward across the field; therefore, the current flow is to the right, lower corner. Applying the left-hand rule to both sides of the loop will show that current flows in a counter-clockwise direction in the loop.

Commutator Action The commutator converts the AC Figure 5 Commutator Segments and Brushes voltage generated in the rotating loop into a DC voltage. It also serves as a means of connecting the brushes to the rotating loop. The purpose of the brushes is to connect the generated voltage to an external circuit. In order to do this, each brush must make contact with one of the ends of the loop. Since the loop or armature rotates, a direct connection is impractical. Instead, the brushes are connected to the ends of the loop through the commutator. In a simple one-loop generator, the commutator is made up of two semicylindrical pieces of a smooth conducting material, usually copper, separated by an insulating material, as shown in Figure 5. Each half of the commutator segments is permanently attached to one end of the rotating loop, and the commutator rotates with the loop. The brushes, usually made of carbon, rest against the commutator and slide along the commutator as it rotates. This is the means by which the brushes make contact with each end of the loop. Each brush slides along one half of the commutator and then along the other half. The brushes are positioned on opposite sides of the commutator; they will pass from one commutator half to the other at the instant the loop reaches the point of rotation, at which point the voltage that was induced reverses the polarity. Every time the ends of the loop reverse polarity, the brushes switch from one commutator segment to the next. This means that one brush is always positive with respect to another. The voltage between the brushes fluctuates in amplitude (size or magnitude)

between zero and some maximum value, but is always of the same polarity (Figure 6). In this manner, commutation is accomplished in a DC generator. One important point to note is that, as the brushes pass from one segment to the other, there is an instant when the brushes contact both segments at the same time. The induced voltage at this point is zero. If the induced voltage at this point were not zero, extremely high currents would be produced due to the brushes shorting the ends of the loop together. The point at which the brushes contact both commutator segments, when the induced voltage is zero, is called the "neutral plane." Field Excitation The magnetic fields in DC generators are most commonly provided by electromagnets. A current must flow through the electromagnet conductors to produce a magnetic field. In order for a DC generator to operate properly, the magnetic field must always be in the same direction. Therefore, the current through the field winding must be direct current. This current is known as the field excitation current and can be supplied to the field winding in one of two ways. It can come from a separate DC source external to the generator (e.g., a separately excited generator) or it can come directly from the output of the generator, in which case it is called a self-excited generator. In a self-excited generator, the field winding is connected directly to the generator output. The field may be connected in series with the output, in parallel with the output, or a combination of the two. Separate excitation requires an external source, such as a battery or another DC source. It is generally more expensive than a self-excited generator. Separately excited generators are, therefore, used only where self-excitation is not satisfactory. They would be used in cases where the generator must respond quickly to an external control source or where the generated voltage must be varied over a wide range during normal operations.

Terminal Voltage Voltage DC generator output voltage is dependent on three factors (recall equation 5-1): (1) the number of conductor loops in series in the armature, (2) armature speed, and (3) magnetic field strength. In order to change the generator output, one of these three factors must be varied. The number of conductors in the armature cannot be changed in a normally operating generator, and it is usually impractical to change the speed at which the armature rotates. The strength of the magnetic field, however, can be changed quite easily by varying the current through the field winding. This is the most widely used method for regulating the output voltage of a DC generator (Figure 7).

DC GENERATOR RATINGS
A DC generator contains four ratings. Voltage: Voltage rating of a machine is based on the insulation type and design of the machine. Current: The current rating is based on the size of the conductor and the amount of heat that can be dissipated in the generator. Power: The power rating is based on the mechanical limitations of the device that is used to turn the generator and on the thermal limits of conductors, bearings, and other components of the generator. Speed: Speed rating, at the upper limit, is determined by the speed at which mechanical damage is done to the machine. The lower speed rating is based on the limit for field current (as speed increases, a higher field current is necessary to produce the same voltage). Internal Losses There are four internal losses that contribute to lower efficiency of a DC generator. 1. Copper losses 2. Eddy-current losses 3. Hysteresis losses 4. Mechanical losses Each of these is described in the paragraphs that follow.

Copper Losses Copper loss is the power lost as heat in the windings; it is caused by the flow of current through the coils of the DC armature or DC field. This loss varies directly with the square of the current in the armature or field and the resistance of the armature or field coils. Armature: Ia2Ra Field: If2Rf

Eddy-Current Losses As the armature rotates within the field, it cuts the lines of flux at the same time that the copper coils of wire that are wound on the armature cut the lines of flux. Since the armature is made of iron, an EMF is induced in the iron, which causes a current to flow. These circulating currents within the iron core are called eddy-currents. To reduce eddy-currents, the armature and field cores are constructed from laminated (layered) steel sheets. The laminated sheets are insulated from one another so that current cannot flow from one sheet to the other. Hysteresis Losses Hysteresis losses occur when the armature rotates in a magnetic field. The magnetic domains of the armature are held in alignment with the field in varying numbers, dependent upon field strength. The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the particles not held in alignment, by one complete turn during each rotation of the armature. This rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and heat. The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss. To reduce hysteresis losses, most DC armatures are constructed of heat-treated silicon steel, which has an inherently low hysteresis loss. After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the desired shape, the laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool. This process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low value. Mechanical Losses Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush friction on the commutator, or air friction (called windage), which is caused by the air turbulence due to armature rotation. Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a minimum. Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction of bearing friction. Brush friction is reduced by assuring proper brush seating, using proper brushes, and maintaining proper brush tension. A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush friction.

TYPES OF GENERATOR

Based on the method of excitation field windings, the dc generators are broadly classified as (a) Separately-excited dc generator: In Separately excited dc generator, field magnets are energized by the external source of dc current. (b) Self-excited dc generator: In Self-excited dc generator, the current energizes field magnets produced by the generators themselves. Depending on the method of connection between the field and armature windings, the self excited generators may further be classified as (a) Shunt generators (b) Series generators (c) Compound generators Compound generators are further divided into short shunt and long shunt generators. In the short shunt generators, the shunt field winding is connected directly across the armature whereas in the long shunt generators, the shunt field winding is connected across the series combination of series field and the armature.
Separately Excited Generator Shunt generator

Series generator

Short-shunt compound

Long-shunt compound

compound generator

compound generator

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS
1. Open circuit (or) No load characteristics 2. Internal characteristics 3. External characteristics Open circuit characteristics An open circuit characteristic gives the variation of induced emf. (E) in the generator with the variation of field current (If) when the generator is driven at constant speed with its load circuit open. Internal characteristics The internal characteristic of dc generator gives variation of the on load-induced emf. (Vg) with the variation of the armature current (Ia) when the speed and setting of the field regulator of the generator kept constant. External characteristics The external characteristics of dc generator give the variation of the terminal voltage (V) with the variation of load current (IL) when the speed and the setting of field regulator of generator are kept constant.

Characteristics of dc shunt generator

Open circuit (or) No load characteristics

To get this characteristic, dc shunt generator is run with its load circuit open at constant speed. The excitation current through field winding is increased from zero and the emf. induced at ach value of the field current is noted. Then the graph is plotted taking field current along X axis and the induced emf. along the Y axis. This characteristic is also called as magnetization characteristics of dc shunt generator. When the field current is less, the induced emf. will be directly proportional to the field current and it increases along the straight line AC as shown in the figure. When the field current is increased beyond certain level its field magnet gets saturated. Therefore the induced emf. will not increase proportion to the field current, and it is increases along the curve CD as shown in he above figure.

Internal and external characteristics are called as load characteristics.

These are obtained by running a generator on load at constant speed and If the variation of terminal voltage with the variation of load currents is plotted To this external characteristic, if voltage drop in the armature circuit is added

keeping the setting of the field regulator fixed.

we get the external characteristics.

we get the internal characteristics of the dc shunt generator, which gives the variation of induced emf. on load with the variation of armature current.

Characteristics of dc Series generator

If the load circuit of the dc series generator is kept open, the field current flows through the field winding of the generator. Therefore in order to obtain the open circuit characteristics of dc series generator its field should be excited separately giving supply from external source. The open circuit characteristics of dc series generator oa will have the same shape as that of dc shunt generator. I f the dc series generator is self excited, the emf. induced in the armature Vg at any field current i.e. armature current will be less than the emf. induced E0 on open circuit due to armature reaction. Therefore the internal characteristics of dc series generator ob will be below the open circuit characteristics oa as shown in the figure. The difference between these two curves indicates the voltage drop due to armature reaction effect. The external characteristics of the dc series generator oc will lie below the internal characteristics ob by an amount equal to the armature resistance drop.

Characteristics of dc compound generator

The external characteristics of dc shunt generator are drooping and that of series generators are rising. Therefore in a dc cumulative compound generator the drop in terminal voltage can be compensated either in full or in part by appropriately selecting the number of turns in the series field winding. If the number of turns in the series field winding are chosen such that the generator delivers an almost constant terminal voltage from no load to full load.

The curve b is called as level or flat compounded. load or at no load since the magnetic circuit will be in unsaturated region.

In such generators at half load, the terminal voltage may be higher than that of the full If the number of turns in the series field winding is increased further the terminal voltage rises with increase in load as shown by the curve a and such generators are called as over compounded generator. They are used to compensate the voltage drop in the long feeders. If the number of turns in the series field winding is reduced it is possible to get an external characteristic as shown by the curve c where the terminal voltage decreases when the generators loaded. Such generators are called under compounded generator. In differential compound generators the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux. Therefore when the generator is loaded the terminal voltage of the generator falls of rapidly to zero.

COMMUTATION
In dc machines the induced emf is an alternating. This alternating emf is converted into unidirectional emf by means of using commutators. The emf induced in the armature coil is zero when it is at the magnetic neutral axis and reverses as it passes through it. Therefore brushes riding over the commutator segments are placed at the magnetic neutral axis so as to short circuit the coil in which emf induced is zero and effect reversal of direction of emf.

This reversal of emf and current taking place in the short circuited coil when The time taken by the short circuited coil to move across the brush short

it crosses the magnetic neutral axis is called commutation.

circuiting, it is called commutation time or period of commutation.

E.M.F. EQUATION FOR DC GENERATORS:

Let Number of poles = P Flux per pole = Webers Total number of conductors = Z Speed of rotation of armature = N turns Number of parallel paths = A According to Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction, average emf induced in each conductor is equal to the rate of change of flux in webers per second. In one revolution flux cut by each armature conductor, d = P webers

Time taken by armature to complete one revolution dt = 60/N seconds Therefore, emf induced in each conductor = d / dt = PN / 60 volts

Number of armature conductors - connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A Therefore emf induced in dc generator E = emf induced in each conductor x number of parallel path E.M.F. induced in dc generator E = PN / 60 x Z / A volts Number of parallel paths of wave winding = 2 Number of parallel paths of lap winding = number of poles (P) for lap Winding Armature winding fundamentals In modern dc machines, drum type of armature windings is provided. In this type, the coils are wound and placed into the insulated slots of the armature. A coil with more than one turn is known as multi turn coil. The coils are always placed in two slots which are approximately one pole pitch apart. The portion of a coil placed inside a slot is called coil side and each coil will have number of conductors. The distance between the two coil sides of a coil is termed as coil pitch, which is expressed in terms of number of slots. The ends of a coil are connected to two different commutator segments on the commutator. The distance in terms of number of commutator segments, between the commutator segments to which the ends of a coil are connected is called commutator pitch. The double layer windings are present in the dc machine. In double layer winding there will be two coil sides belonging to two different coils in each slot. If a coil side of one coil is laid in the top layer of a slot, the other coil side of the same coil occupies the bottom layer of the slot usually one pole pitch.

Drum type of winding has two types. 1. Lap winding 2. Wave winding Lap winding In lap winding each coil is connected in series with next coil under the same pole pair. If the start of one coil is connected to one particular commutator segment, the end of that coil and start of the next coil are connected to the next commutator segment either to the right or left of the first commutator segment. This process is continued till all the coils are connected. Here the commutator pitch is always + 1. In lap winding there are as many parallel paths as there are number of poles. The emf induced in any generator is equal to the emf induced in all the coils in a parallel path. Therefore lap winding is used in low voltage large current dc machines.

DC MOTOR OPERATION

CHARATERISTICS OF DC MOTORS 1. Torque / Armature current characteristics 2. Speed / Armature current characteristics 3. Speed / Torque characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT MOTOR TORQUE/ARMATURE CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS.

The torque developed by the dc motor T

Ia

In case of dc shunt motors the field excitation current is constant and supply voltage is kept constant. Therefore flux per pole will be constant.
T Ia

Therefore torque developed in a dc shunt motor will be directly proportional to the armature current. The graph representing the variation of torque with armature current. SPEED/ARMATURE CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS The back emf equation for dc motor is Eb = PNZ = V Ia Ra 60A

Where K = 60A/ ZP and it is constant. In dc shunt motor, when supply voltage V is kept constant the shunt field current and hence flux per pole will also be constant. N V Ia Ra The speeds of the dc shunt motor decreases with increase in armature current due to loading.

The graph representing variation of speed with armature current is drooping slightly. The drop is speed from no load to full load will be about 3 to 6 percent. But the armature reaction effect weakens the field on load and tends to oppose drop in speed so that the rarely drops by more than about 5 percent from no load to full load. Therefore shunt motor is considered as constant speed motor.

SPEED/TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS:

From the above two characteristics of dc shunt motor, the torque developed and speed at various armature currents of dc shunt motor may be noted. If these values are plotted, the graph representing the variation of speed with torque developed is obtained. This curve resembles the speed Vs current characteristics as the torque is directly proportional to the armature current.

CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C SERIES MOTORS

In dc series motors, the load current drawn from the supply passes through both armature and field windings as they are in series Therefore when the load on the motor changes, field flux also changes. Hence the characteristics of D.C. series motors entirely differ from the characteristics of D.C. shunt motors. TORQUE Vs ARMATURE CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

Torque developed in any dc motor T

Ia.

In series motors since field current is equal to armature current. Therefore, when Ia is small, is proportional to Ia. Then torque developed in dc series motor T Ia2. Therefore the torque is proportional to square of the armature current at low values of armature current. When Ia is large remains constant due to saturation. Then T Ia. Therefore torque is proportional to armature current at large values of armature current. Thus, the torque Vs armature current characteristics begins to rise parabolically at low values of armature current and when saturation is reached it becomes a straight line as shown in the following figure.

SPEED VS ARMATURE CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS Consider the speed equation When supply voltage V is kept constant, speed of the motor will be inversely proportional to flux. In dc series motors field exciting current is equal to armature current which happened to load current. Therefore at light loads, when saturation is not attained, flux will be proportional to armature current and hence speed will be inversely proportional to the armature current. Hence speed Vs armature current characteristics of dc series motor will be rectangular hyperbola as shown in the following figure.

As the load on the motor is increased armature current increases and field gets saturated. Once field is saturated flux will be constant irrespective of increase in armature current. Therefore at heavy loads, speed will be constant. This type dc series motor has high starting torque. SPEED VS TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS The speed Vs Torque characteristics of series motor will be similar to the speed Vs armature current characteristics. It will be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in the following figure.

In dc series motors, torque increases with decrease of speed and they are most suitable for operating cranes, lifts, trains, etc. CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C. COMPOUND MOTORS: In dc compound motors both shunt field and series field will be acting simultaneously. In cumulative compound motors the series field assists the shunt field. In such motors when armature current increases the field flux increases. So for given armature current the torque developed will be greater and speed lower when compared to a shunt motor. In differentially compounded motors the series field opposes the shunt field. Therefore when armature current increases the field flux decreases. So for given armature current, the torque developed will be lower and the speed greater when compared to shunt motor.

Torque Vs armature current and speed Vs armature current characteristics of dc compound motors are shown in the following figure.

The speed Vs torque characteristics are compared with that of shunt motor as shown in the following figure.

STARTING OF DC MOTORS In the dc motors, at the instant of starting, the back emf Eb = 0 and armature resistance is very less. Therefore if rated normal voltage is applied to the armature terminals of the motor the starting current would be dangerously high.This high current produces high mechanical stress and also heating which may damage the winding. Moreover there would be large voltage drop in the supply line and this affects the other machines working in the same supply line.Therefore to limit the starting current to a safe value reduced voltage should be applied to the motor at the time of starting until it picks up speed and develop sufficient back emf. Then full normal rated voltage could be applied to bring the motor to the rated speed. This could be achieved using starters.

TYPES OF STARTERS

1. Two point starter used in dc series motor 2. Three point starter 3. Four point starter used in dc shunt and compound motors.

THREE POINT STARTER

The above figure shows, the motor is connected to supply terminals through three terminals L, A, and F available in the starter, it is called as three point starter.

In this starter the resister elements are mounted behind an insulating board. The end of the resistor elements meet at the brass studs fixed on the front side of the board. The handle of the starter is fixed to a point so as to be moved over the studs against a spring tension.

 When the starter handle is moved and makes contact with first stud full voltage is applied to series combination of resistor elements and armature. Therefore a reduced voltage is applied to the armature due to drop in the resistor elements and starting current is limited to safe value. At the same time full voltage is applied across the shunt field and this establishes normal flux. As the starter handle is moved towards right from one stud to next stud the resistor elements are cut out one by one and the voltage applied to armature increases step by step. Finally when all the resistance elements are cut out the handle is in on position and full voltage is applied across the armature terminals. Now the current flowing through the no volt release coil develops an attractive force over the soft iron piece fixed to the starter handle. At normal voltage this attractive force holds the handle in on position against the spring tension at the pivoted end of the handle. When the applied voltage falls below certain value or at the interruption of supply voltage, the attractive force developed at the no volt release coil over the handle may not be sufficient to deep the handle in on position against the spring tension. Therefore the handle flies back to off position immediately and avoids restarting of motor on resumption of supply. If such arrangement is not there in the starter and the handle is on position, on resumption of supply full voltage would be applied to the armature terminals. Also, the voltage release coil is connected in series with the shunt field, the starter handle is released to off position whenever the field circuit be opened. This avoids racing or motor to high speed. The over load relay is connected in series with the armature circuit and carries load current. When motor is over loaded the current through over load relay increases. If this current exceeds a predetermined value, the mmf produced by the over load coil lifts the pivoted iron piece underneath the coil. This iron piece short circuits the no voltage release coil and destroy its attractive force over the handle.

 Therefore the handle is released to off position. When the handle moved to right and resistance elements is cut out, they are in turn, included in the field circuit. Since the resistance of these elements is very small, inclusion of them in the field circuit does not affect the field current appreciably. Another important point is that the armature and shunt field circuits are closed against each other through the starting resistor element even when the handle is in off position. Therefore the energy stored in magnetic circuit gets dissipated slowly through starting and armature resistances. Thus inductance is avoided.

FOUR POINT STARTER

In 3 point starter the no volt release coil gets connect in series with shunt field winding. When external resistance is included in series with the shunt field winding in order to control the speed of the motor, the field current which is flowing through the no volt release coil decreases.

Therefore due to this decreased current, the no volt coil may become so weak as to be unable to keep the handle in on position. This is the main drawback in 3 point starter. In a 4 point starter there are 4 terminals L+, L-, A and F for connecting the dc motor to the supply as shown in the following figure. Here the no volt release coil in series with a protective resistor Rp is connected across the terminals L+, L-. The operation of the four point starter is same as that of 3 point starter except the current through no volt coil depends upon the supply voltage alone.

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

From the torque equation of dc motors, the speed

from this equation it is clear that the speed of dc motor is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to the flux or exciting field current. Here the back emf may be varied either by varying the supply voltage or increasing the armature resistance. Therefore the speed of dc motor can be controlled by the following 3 methods.

1. WARD LEONARD METHOD 2. ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL METHOD 3. FIELD CONTROL METHOD

Armature Resistance control method In this method of speed control an external resistance Rs is connected in series with the armature as shown in the following figure.

The voltage drop in the external resistance Rs decreases the applied voltage at the armature terminals and thereby reduces the back emf. Therefore the speed of the motor decreases. By this method it is possible to reduce the speed of motor below its normal rated speed. When the external resistance connected in series with the armature Rs = 0, let the speed of the motor be N1 rpm. Then

Here R1 = Ra in case of dc shunt motors. But in case of dc series and dc compound motors R1 = Ra + Rse. If Rs is external resistance connected in series with armature circuit, let the speed of the motor equal to N2 rpm.

Drawbacks in armature resistance control method (i) In dc shunt motors the field excitation and flux produced by it remains constant. Therefore torque developed will remain constant. But output of motor reduces due to reduced speed of motor. This increases the copper loss in the motor and decreases the efficiency. (ii) The series resistance Rs must have sufficient current rating to withstand the rated and even over load currents. This makes the resistance bulky and expensive. Suitable arrangements should also be made to dissipate the heat produced by the I2R loss in the resistor. (iii) Speed regulation is very poor and it is possible to obtain only speeds below the rated speed.

Field control method or flux control method In field control method, the field exciting current is varied to control the speed of dc motors. In the case of dc shunt motors and dc compound motors external resistance is connected in series with the shunt field winding. But in case of dc series motors external resistance called diverter is connected across the series field as shown in the following figure.

In both arrangements, the current flowing through the field windings is decreased. Decrease in field exciting current reduces the flux. As the speed of the motor is inversely proportional to flux the speed of motor increases. Thus by field control method the motors can be operated at speeds above normal rated speed. Since torque developed is directly proportional to flux, the decrease in flux decrease the field excitation current, which results reduction in the torque. But at the same time the increase in speed due to decrease in flux keeps the power developed constant.