Developmental Psychology Notes Module Reading Lecture 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Topic Introduction Prenatal Development & Infancy Cognitive Development &

Memory Emotional Development & Attachment Social & Moral Development Language Development Contexts for Development Old Age Developmental Disorders (Autism) Revision Pages in Child Development 2-69 86-171 222-301 10 442-513 and 543-549 356-397 562-601, 615-616 and 627-630 -

Assessment MCQ examination in January

Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of psychological changes across the lifespan and can be split into 3 domains: Physical o Changes in body size, functioning of body systems and physical health Cognitive o Changes in intellectual abilities such as attention, creativity and language Social & Emotional o Changes in moral reasoning, interpersonal skills and intimate relationships

Developmental Psychology informs several applied fields, such as Educational and Forensic psychology and Child psychopathology Major Debates and Theories Continuous A process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with Consideration of the role of contexts- unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change

Discontinuous A process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times Qualitative stages in thinking, feeling and behaving that characterise specific periods of development

Developmental Psychology Notes Assumption that people everywhere follow the same sequence of developmentindentification of common biological and environmental influences that lead children to represent their world through language and behaviour

Nature or Nurture? Are genetic or environmental factors more important in influencing development ? Nature: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) At birth the child is a noble savage Nature (genes) is the driving force in development Introduced concepts of maturation and stages

Nurture: John Locke (1632 - 1704) At birth the child is a tabula rasa (blank slate) Experience (through interaction) writes on slate All children have the same potential Nurture (environment) is the driving force in development

Psychoanalytic & Psychosocial Theory- Resolution of Conflicts Psychoanalytic Children move through developmental stages Biological drives and social expectations conflict (e.g. Freuds id, ego, superego) Conflict resolution determines the persons ability to learn

3 parts of personality Id- largest part of the mind, source of basic biological needs and desires Ego- Rational part of personality, redirects ids impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways Superego- Conscience, develops through social interaction and conforms to social values

Psychosocial Ego is a positive force in development 8 stage model of development through lifespan Each stage is a conflict which must be resolved Outcomes affect development

Eriksons Psychosocial Stages:

Developmental Psychology Notes Basic Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Identity Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair Birth to 1 year 1 years to 3 years 3 years to 6 years 6 years to 11 years Adolescence Emerging Adulthood Adulthood Old Age

Erikson emphasised that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego make a positive contribution to development, acquiring skills at each stage that make an individual a contributing member of society Development must be understood in relation to each cultures situation

Positives of the Psychoanalytic Approach Major influence in psychology as it provides unique insights into internal conflicts which may cause psychological distress It focuses on early childhood experiences which influence later life

Limitations of the Psychoanalytic Approach Psychoanalysis is too deterministic and fatalistic when explaining human behaviour Freud focuses on the sexual aspects of personality, ignoring important social influences Many terms used are unfalsifiable- you cannot derive testable hypotheses for concepts such as the psychosexual stages of development (Eysenck 1990) Based on case studies which can be open to interpretation, should not generalise conclusions

Developmental Psychology Notes Behaviourism & Social Learning Theory- Reinforcement, Shaping and Modelling Behaviourism Study of directly observable events- stimulus to response

Classical conditioning (Stimulus/response) Watson successfully caused Little Albert to become afraid of a little white rat He concluded that the environment is the supreme force in development and that adults can mould a childs behaviour through careful control of stimulus response associations

Social Learning Theory Children learn by imitation of others Behaviour shaped by observation and modelling Stresses the importance of cognition

Positives of the Behaviourist Approach Developed systematic desensitisation therapy which can help people overcome phobias by breaking it down into manageable stages Developed behavioural modification through a system of rewards and punishments

Limitations of the Behaviourist Approach Mental and emotional events are ignored because they are not observable, however consciousness and emotions affect how we behave The approach is deterministic and allows for no free will in humans A majority of behaviourist research is focussed on animal behaviour, which is consequently generalised to humans- who are more complex It undervalues the contribution of hereditary factors on behaviour

Developmental Psychology Notes Constructivism & Piagets Stage Theory- Children Actively Construct Knowledge Prior to Piaget, learning theories were dominated by the behaviourist view, however Piaget claimed children think qualitatively differently to each Children go through distinctive stages of cognitive development at particular ages Cognitive development characterised by qualitative changes resulting from interaction between individual and environment Information can either be assimilated into childs existing understanding of the world or the childs understanding can be altered Period 0-2 2-7 7-11 11+ Description Cognitive development begins with the use of senses and movements to explore the world Movements evolve into symbolic but illogical thinking Cognition becomes more organised and logical Thought becomes abstract with systematic reasoning

Stage Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational

Positives of Piagets Theory His theory has encouraged the development of educational philosophies that emphasise childrens discovery learning and direct contact with the surrounding environment He convinced others that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge

Limitations of Piagets Theory Piaget underestimated the abilities of children because his tests were often confusing He concentrated on the individual child and failed to consider the effect that the social setting can have on cognitive development- such as social interactions with parents His naturalistic observations could be open to interpretation

Developmental Psychology Notes Socio-cultural Theory- Role of Society and Culture Cognitive development as a socially mediated process Stresses the importance of learning from others and language Zone of proximal development Emphasis on cultural differences

Vygotskys key concepts: He argued that concepts, language and voluntary attention are functions which originate in culture through the interactions between people He placed emphasis on language, with children using language within to guide their own thought and actions to acquire new skills

Positives of Vygotskys Theory He was an influential theorist who was responsible for the development of Bruners work on cognitive development in educational settings The concept of the ZPD has been successfully applied to a classroom setting

How Development is Studied Techniques Systematic observation Interviews and questionnaires Psycho-physiological methods Case studies

Research designs General correlational & experimental Developmental longitudinal & cross sectional

Systematic Observation Naturalistic observation Observe behaviour in natural context Pros accurate reflection of real life Cons no control over events; may affect what you observe; time consuming; difficult to generalise findings

Developmental Psychology Notes Structured observation Observe behaviour in controlled context where the conditions are the same for all the participants- such as a laboratory Pros control of experimental conditions Cons not typical environment for behaviour and open to observer bias

Interviews & Questionnaires Pros Cons Recording and interpreting responses - inaccuracies Flexible questioning can make comparison difficult Subjective nature of data Social desirability wanting to give right/expected answer Insight into thought processes Depth and quantity of information Same questions can be asked - structure

Psycho-physiological Methods Pros Cons Interpretation requires inference Overlap of responsible factors Children may be fearful of monitoring equipment which would consequently effect physiological measures Objective measures of central nervous system structures Good for studying pre-verbal children Uncovers relationships between the brain and psychological development Relationships between physiology and behaviour, such as heart rate and blood pressure

Case Studies In depth study of one individual Combines interviews, observations, and even psycho-physiological methods

Developmental Psychology Notes Pros Cons Open to bias from experimenters interpretations Not replicable Results cannot be generalised Depth of information

Longitudinal Studies Pros Cons Cohort effect can prevent generalisation High drop-out rate and long time scale Practice effects and experimenter effects Allows study of patterns across development Early vs. later events and behaviours Study the same children at different time points

Cross-Sectional Studies Pros Cons Cohort effects Cannot examine individual differences More efficient than longitudinal studies Study groups children of different ages at the same time

Developmental Psychology Notes

Prenatal Development Infancy Motor development Perceptual development Memory development Conception Stages of Development Influences on Development Birth Complications

Conception Stage Zygote Weeks 1-2 Length Tiny Weight Key Events

One-celled zygote multiplies blastocyst which burrows into uterus. Development of e.g., placenta & umbilical cord. Primitive brain & spinal cord. Major internal organs develop. External structures form. Nervous system, organs and muscles become organised and connected. Starts kicking, sucking thumb. Genitals formed. All neurons present by 24 weeks. Eyes sensitive to light, reacts to sound. Lungs begin to mature. Brain develops rapidly. Fat added under skin.

Embryo Fetus (1st Tri)

3-8 9-12

to 3 cm 8 cm

5g 30 g

Fetus (2nd Tri) Fetus (3rd Tri)

13-24 25-38

30 cm 50 cm

820 g 3.5 kg

Developmental Psychology Notes

Influence on Development:

Birth Complications Drugs: Prescription & Illegal Thalidomide; aspirin; heroine/crack

Smoking Alcohol Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Interferes with cell duplication & migration, & deprives fetus of oxygen Low-birth weight & possible behavioural issues

Maternal illness; nutrition; stress

Developmental Psychology Notes

Low Birth Weight

Birth Complications Preterm and Low Birth Weight >3 weeks early or <2.5kg Small-for-date most at risk

More at risk for infection; cognitive impairments Problems for caregiving Irritable, unresponsive baby

Interventions Incubator Stimulation (e.g., mobile); Touch Parent Training

Developmental Psychology Notes

Motor Development The increasing ability to use muscles

This development enables: Exploration of objects Exploration of surroundings Social interaction (e.g. pointing)

This ability supports the development of: Social skills Cognition Language

Reflexes Reflexes are an innate automatic response to stimuli Some have survival value (e.g. rooting reflex & Moro reflex) Value of some are unknown (e.g. Babinski reflex) Others form the basis of later motor skills (e.g. stepping reflex) Most innate reflexes have disappeared after 6 months Some are permanent (e.g. eye blink) Reflex function reveals health of nervous system

Motor Skills Fine motor skills Smaller movements Reaching, grasping etc

Gross motor skills Also known as locomotor skills Crawling, standing, walking etc

Developmental Psychology Notes

Important Concepts Maturational Theory (Gessell 1940) Cephalocaudal trend head, arms/trunk, legs Proximodistal trend head/trunk/arms then hands and fingers

Cultural variations Japan sitting, walking, crawling - natural course Zinacanteco Indians motor progress discouraged Jamaican babies walk earlier than N. American

Stimulation Under- or over-stimulation results in slower motor development for reaching

Dynamic Systems Perspective Mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action, which is constantly updating Each new motor skill is product of: Central nervous system capabilities Body movement capacities Intention Environmental support

Change to any part disrupts the relationship Children play an active role in their motor development Draws on information processing and sociocultural theories

Perceptual Development Five senses Touch Taste Smell Hearing Vision Well developed, e.g. rooting reflex Can distinguish sweet, sour, bitter Survival function (identification of mother) Prefer complex sounds, sensitive to speech sounds Least developed sense

Developmental Psychology Notes

Depth Perception Cues Kinetic (blink reflex at 3-4 weeks) Binocular (2-3 months) Pictorial (6-7 months) Ability to judge distance between objects and from self Necessary for reaching Survival function Visual Cliff (Gibson & Walk, 1960)

Pattern perception At birth, prefer patterned stimuli to plain With age, prefer more complex patterns - contrast sensitivity By 4 months can detect shapes from subjective boundaries By 12 months can detect objects from partial outlines

Face Recognition Newborns prefer face-like stimuli Features natural not scrambled Track face-like patterns more Look longer at attractive faces Prefer mothers face by 2 months Differentiate between strangers (3 months) Differentiate emotions (7-10 months)

Memory Development Habituation- Paired-comparison studies Newborns take ~3mins to habituate/recover 4/5 month-olds take a few seconds 3-month-olds could remember faces for up to 1 day

Operant conditioning (e.g. Rovee-Collier, 1999) 3 months remember for 1 week 6 months remember for two weeks

Developmental Psychology Notes Memory highly context specific

LECTURE 3 Cognitive Development Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem solving and language (Berk, 2005) Theories: Piaget Swiss theorist Cognitive-developmental stage theory Language less important

Vygotsky Russian theorist Socio-cultural theory Language important

Information-processing Mind as computer

Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development Constructivist Children construct knowledge through interaction with the environment

Schemes Organised ways of making sense of experience that change with age Initially action-based (motor patterns) then related to mental activity

Schemes change by two processes Adaptation Assimilation: Use current schemes to interpret the external world (equilibrium) Accommodation: Adjust old schemes to better fit environment (disequilibrium) Organisation Rearranging and linking schemes to form an interconnected system

Developmental Psychology Notes

Stages Children progress through qualitatively different stages Stages are universal and invariant Sensorimotor Birth 2 years Pre-operational 2 7 years Operational 7 11 years Formal Operational 11 years & up

Sensorimotor stage Building schemas through sensory and motor exploration, with six sub-stages

Important milestones Object Permanence (8-12 months) A not B task (12-18 months) Mental Representation (18-24 months)

Pre-operational stage Achievements Massive increase in mental representation Make-believe play Drawings develop from scribbles to pictures Symbolism (~ 3 years) Understanding false belief (~4 years)

Limitations Egocentrism- failure to understand others viewpoints as they may differ from own Inability to conserve Difficulty with hierarchical classification

Concrete operational stage Achievements Ability to conserve Ability to classify and categorise Seriation possible ordering by length or weight Spatial reasoning (e.g., maps, directions) Understanding of second-order false belief

Limitations

Developmental Psychology Notes Poor abstract thought

Formal operational stage Capacity for abstract thought Scientific thinking- thinking about theories, isolating variables & seeking evidence for confirmation Hypothetical reasoning- start with general idea and rule out possibilities Propositional thought- evaluate the logic of statements without needing real-world scenario

Evaluation of Piagets theory Strengths Influence on education Children active participants in development readiness of children to learn tasks Rich description of how children develop Provided platform for future research

Criticisms Inattention to social and cultural influences Underestimated timings of some achievements Cognitive development may not be so stage-like and domain general as Piaget thought

Developmental Psychology Notes

Vygotskys Socio-cultural Theory Cognition is based on social interaction & language Focus on the role of culture (values, beliefs, customs, skills of social group) Agreed with Piaget about infants constructing knowledge but thought that cognitive development was socially mediated

Key Concepts Private speech- Language as basis for higher cognitive processes Intersubjectivity- Two can arrive at a shared understanding Scaffolding- Adjust support relative to performance Guided participation- Shared endeavour between expert and novice Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- Range of tasks possible only with help of others

Evaluation of Vygotskys theory Strengths Highlights role of culture Highlights value of teaching

Weaknesses Overemphasis on language Lack of attention to physical changes Vague in explanation of change

Information-Processing Information Processing increases in two areas of capacity: memory span and processing speed Use of strategies

Cases Neo-Piagetian theory Accepts stages, but change within and across stages is due to changes in I-P Brain development; practice with schemes; development of central conceptual structures

Developmental Psychology Notes

Memory Memory is the ability to encode, store and retrieve info Working memory Improved by rehearsal/organisation/elaboration

Long term memory Declarative conscious recall Semantic memory knowledge about the world Episodic memory information specific to a time or place Autobiographical memory personally meaningful Procedural unconscious recall Motor skills

Developmental Psychology Notes

Memory: Storing Information Strategies rehearsal; organising; elaboration Rehearsal Children <7 yrs do not use spontaneously Initially use less effectively, e.g, word list Organisation From ~ 8 yrs Young children use everyday associations Older children use taxonomic categories, e.g., vehicles

When start using these strategies, young children initially show utilisation and control deficiencies. Elaboration is not seen until end of middle childhood

Memory: Retrieving information Recognition vs. Recall 4-year-olds could correctly identify 90% of previously seen pictures from a larger set If asked to recall items from a large set, can only recall 3 or 4 But, recall < recognition at ALL ages

Eyewitness Testimony Children increasingly appearing in court due to abuse Compared to older children, young childrens free recall of events is as accurate but less complete However, several factors can compromise accuracy, especially in younger children Misleading questions Repeated questions Source monitoring errors

Importance of training Achieving Best Evidence Police Guidelines Child Witness Information Packs

Lecture 4

Developmental Psychology Notes