February 2011

Master of Science in Telecom Technology (MScTT) Semester 1 ME0005 Basic Principles of network 4 Credits
(Book ID: B0024)

Assignment Set 1 (60 Marks)

Each question carries Ten marks.

610 = 60

1. State and Explain Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current Law. Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 This law is also called Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule), and Kirchhoff's first rule. The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that: At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node. or The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero. (Assuming that current entering the junction is taken as positive and current leaving the junction is taken as negative).

Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or away from a node, this principle can be stated as:

n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node. This formula is also valid for complex currents:

The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (which is measured in seconds). Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0 This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff's second rule. The principle of conservation of energy implies that The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is zero. or More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential drops in that loop. or 2

The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in them in a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that loop. Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:

Here, n is the total number of voltages measured. The voltages may also be complex:

2. State and prove Thevenines Theorem. In circuit theory, Thvenin's theorem for linear electrical networks states that any combination of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is electrically equivalent to a single voltage source V and a single series resistor R. For single frequency AC systems the theorem can also be applied to general impedances, not just resistors. Calculating the Thvenin equivalent

To calculate the equivalent circuit, the resistance and voltage are needed, so two equations are required. These two equations are usually obtained by using the following steps, but any conditions placed on the terminals of the circuit should also work:

1. Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (no load resistormeaning infinite resistance). This is VTh. 2. Calculate the output current, IAB, when the output terminals are short circuited (load resistance is 0). RTh equals VTh divided by this IAB.

The equivalent circuit is a voltage source with voltage VTh in series with a resistance RTh.

Step 2 could also be thought of as: 2a. Now replace voltage sources with short circuits and current sources with open circuits. 2b. Replace the load circuit with an imaginary ohmmeter and measure the total resistance, R, "looking back" into the circuit. This is RTh. The Thvenin-equivalent voltage is the voltage at the output terminals of the original circuit. When calculating a Thvenin-equivalent voltage, the voltage divider principle is often useful, by declaring one terminal to be Vout and the other terminal to be at the ground point. The Thvenin-equivalent resistance is the resistance measured across points A and B "looking back" into the circuit. It is important to first replace all voltage- and currentsources with their internal resistances. For an ideal voltage source, this means replace the voltage source with a short circuit. For an ideal current source, this means replace the current source with an open circuit. Resistance can then be calculated across the terminals using the formulae for series and parallel circuits. This method is valid only for circuits with independent sources. If there are dependent sources in the circuit, another method must be used such as connecting a test source across A and B and calculating the voltage across or current through the test source.

PROOF OF THEVENINS THEOREM

The circuit in above can be used to prove Thevenins theorem. Equation (1) in the diagaram expresses an external voltage VY connected to the load terminals, as a function of current IY and some constants. It is valid to do so, since we are dealing with a linear circuit. Let us some that the internal independent sources remain fixed. Then, as the external voltage VY is varied, current IY will vary, and the variation IY with VY is accounted for by provision of a coefficient , named as k1 in equation (1). It can be seen that k1 reflects resistance of the circuit as seen by external voltage source VY. Coefficient k2 reflects the contribution to terminal voltage by internal sources and components of the circuit. It is valid to do so, since we are dealing with a linear circuit, and a linear circuit obeys the principle of superposition. Each independent internal source within the circuit contributes its part to terminal voltage and constant k2 is the algebraic sum of contributions of internal sources. Adjust external voltage source such that current IY becomes zero. As shown by equation (2), the coefficient k2 is Thevenins voltage. To determine Thevenins resistance, set external source voltage to zero. If the internal sources are such as to yield positive Thevenins voltage, current IY will be negative and coefficient k1 is Thevenins resistance, as shown by equation (3). This concludes the proof of Thevenins theorem 3. What is a filter? Design a Constant K band Pass filter

Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both Constant k filters, also k-type filters, are a type of electronic filter designed using the image method. They are the original and simplest filters produced by this methodology and consist of a ladder network of identical sections of passive components.

Constant k low-pass filter half section. Here inductance L is equal Ck2 5

Constant k band-pass filter half section. L1 = C2k2 and L2 = C1k2 Image impedance ZiT of a constant k prototype low-pass filter is plotted vs. frequency . The impedance is purely resistive (real) below c, and purely reactive (imaginary) above c. The building block of constant k filters is the half-section "L" network, composed of a series impedance Z, and a shunt admittance Y. The "k" in "constant k" is the value given by,

Thus, k will have units of impedance, that is, ohms. It is readily apparent that in order for k to be constant, Y must be the dual impedance of Z. A physical interpretation of k can be given by observing that k is the limiting value of Zi as the size of the section (in terms of values of its components, such as inductances, capacitances, etc.) approaches zero, while keeping k at its initial value. Thus, k is the characteristic impedance, Z0, of the transmission line that would be formed by these infinitesimally small sections. It is also the image impedance of the section at resonance, in the case of band-pass filters, or at = 0 in the case of low-pass filters. For example, the pictured low-pass half-section has

. Elements L and C can be made arbitrarily small while retaining the same value of k. Z and Y however, are both approaching zero, and from the formulae (below) for image impedances, . 6

Image impedance The image impedances of the section are given by

and

Provided that the filter does not contain any resistive elements, the image impedance in the pass band of the filter is purely real and in the stop band it is purely imaginary. For example, for the pictured low-pass half-section,[9]

The transition occurs at a cut-off frequency given by

Below this frequency, the image impedance is real,

Above the cut-off frequency the image impedance is imaginary,

Transmission parameters

The transfer function of a constant k prototype low-pass filter for a single half-section showing attenuation in nepers and phase change in radians. See also: Image impedance#Transfer function The transmission parameters for a general constant k half-section are given by[10]

and for a chain of n half-sections

For the low-pass L-shape section, below the cut-off frequency, the transmission parameters are given by[8]

That is, the transmission is lossless in the pass-band with only the phase of the signal changing. Above the cut-off frequency, the transmission parameters are:[8]

Prototype transformations The presented plots of image impedance, attenuation and phase change correspond to a low-pass prototype filter section. The prototype has a cut-off frequency of c = 1 rad/s and a nominal impedance k = 1 . This is produced by a filter half-section with inductance L = 1 henry and capacitance C = 1 farad. This prototype can be impedance scaled and frequency scaled to the desired values. The low-pass prototype can also be transformed into high-pass, band-pass or band-stop types by application of suitable frequency transformations.

4. Derive the expression for characteristic impedance of Band pass filter

There are two topologies that are used for these filters, namely the Pi and the T configurations. Rather than having a single element in each leg of the filter as in the case of the low pass and high pass filters, the band pass filter has a resonant circuit in each leg. These resonant circuits are either series or parallel tuned LC circuits.

LC Pi and T section band pass filters The equations below provide the values for the capacitors and resistors for a constantk filter. As the filter is a band pass filter there are two cut off frequencies. One at the low edge of the pass band and the toher at the top edge of the pass band. L1 = Zo / (pi (f2 - f1)) Henries

L2

Zo (f2 - f1) / (4 pi f2 f1) Henries

C1

(f2 - f1) / (4 pi f2 f1 Zo) Farads

C2

1 / (pi Zo (f2 - f1)) Farads Zo = l / (pi*C2*(f2-f1))

Zo = characteristic impedance in ohms C1 and C2 = Capacitance in Farads L1 and L2 = Inductance in Henries f1 and f2 = Cut off frequencies in Hertz 9

5. Explain Symmetrical T-attenuator.

The T-pad is a specific type of attenuator circuit in electronics whereby the topology of the circuit is formed in the shape of the letter "T". Attenuators are used in electronics to reduce the level of a signal. They are also referred to as pads due to their effect of padding down a signal by analogy with acoustics. Attenuators have a flat frequency response attenuating all frequencies equally in the band they are intended to operate. The attenuator has the opposite task of an amplifier. The topology of an attenuator circuit will usually follow one of the simple filter sections. However, there is no need for more complex circuitry, as there is with filters, due to the simplicity of the frequency response required. Circuits are required to be balanced or unbalanced depending on the geometry of the transmission lines they are to be used with. For radio frequency applications, the format is often unbalanced, such as coaxial. For audio and telecommunications, balanced circuits are usually required, such as with the twisted pair format. The T-pad is intrinsically an unbalanced circuit. However, it can be converted to a balanced circuit by placing half the series resistances in the return path. Such a circuit is called an Hsection, or else an I-section because the circuit is formed in the shape of a serifed letter "I". An attenuator is a form of a two-port network with a generator connected to one port and a load connected to the other. In all of the circuits given below it is assumed that the generator and load impedances are purely resistive (though not necessarily equal) and that the attenuator circuit is required to perfectly match to these. The symbols used for these impedances are; 10

the impedance of the generator the impedance of the load Popular values of impedance are 600 in telecommucations and audio, 75 for video and dipole antennae, 50 for RF The voltage transfer function, A, is,

While the inverse of this is the loss, L, of the attenuator,

The value of attenuation is normally marked on the attenuator as its loss, LdB, in decibels (dB). The relationship with L is;

Popular values of attenuator are 3dB, 6dB, 10dB, 20dB and 40dB. However, it is often more convenient to express the loss in nepers,

where is the attenuation in nepers 6. Explain First order Low pass Active filter Active Filters contain active components such as operational amplifiers or transistors within their design. They draw their power from an external power source and use it to boost or amplify the output signal. Operational amplifiers can also be used to shape or alter the frequency response of the circuit by producing a more selective output response by making the output bandwidth of the filter more narrower or even wider. The most common and easily understood active filter is the Active Low Pass Filter. Its principle of operation and frequency response is exactly the same as RC low pass filter, the only difference being it uses an op-amp for amplification and gain control. The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to connect an inverting or non-inverting amplifierto the basic RC low pass filter as shown. 11

First-order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

This 1st-Order low pass Butterworth type filter, consists simply of a passive RC filter connected to the input of a non-inverting operational amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that of the passive RC filter, except that the amplitude of the output signal is increased by the passband voltage gain of the amplifier and for a non-inverting amplifier this given as: 1 + R2/R1. For a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is given as a function of the feedback resistor (R2) divided by its corresponding input resistor (R1) value and is given as: Voltage Gain for a First-order Low Pass Filter

Where: AF = the Passband Gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1) = the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz, (Hz) c = the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass band gain of the circuit is generally expressedin Decibels or dB as a function of the voltage gain

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August 2010 Master of Science in Telecom Technology (MScTT) Semester 1 ME0005 Basic Principles of network 4 Credits
(Book ID: B0024)

Assignment Set 2 (60 Marks)

Each question carries Ten marks.

610 = 60

1. What are the basic parameters of Transmission Lines? Explain them

Z and Y are the impedance and admittance per unit length Z = R + jL and Y = G + jC, where R is the series resistance per unit length ?z, /m L is the series inductance per unit length ?z, H/m G is the shunt conductance per unit length ?z, S/m C is the shunt capacitance per unit length ?z, F/m The equations for V and I are dV/dz = ZI and dI/dz = YV, simultaneous solution of which yields 13

d2V/dz2= ZYV and d2I/dz2 = ZYI; z here represents distance along the transmission line. The solution of these equations is in the form of waves in the +z and -z direction, which for sinusoidal excitation take the form V(z) = V+et-jz + V-et+jz) and I(z) = I+e(t-jz)+ I+e(t+jz)

To distinguish it from the free-space wavelength nomenclature or o, the wavelength on a waveguide or coaxial transmission line is often referred to as the guide wavelength g. For a single wave solution in one direction, the ratio V(z)/I(z) is the same everywhere on the line, and is defined as the characteristic impedance Zo, which for a lossless line is a real number

where the minus sign reflects the fact that the magnetic field, and hence the current, of the negative-going propagation is reversed compared to that of a positive-going wave. If both waves exist, the instantaneous voltage or current as function of location is the sum of voltages or currents of both waves. The characteristic impedance Zo is the ratio of voltage to current of either wave independently, but not necessarily their sum.

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2. Which are the secondary Parameters of Transmission Line?

The propagation constant, symbol , for a given system is defined by the ratio of the amplitude at the source of the wave to the amplitude at some distance x, such that,

Since the propagation constant is a complex quantity we can write:

where , the real part, is called the attenuation constant , the imaginary part, is called the phase constant 15

That does indeed represent phase can be seen from Euler's formula;

which is a sinusoid which varies in phase as varies but does not vary in amplitude because;

The reason for the use of base e is also now made clear. The imaginary phase constant, i, can be added directly to the attenuation constant, , to form a single complex number that can be handled in one mathematical operation provided they are to the same base. Angles measured in radians require base e, so the attenuation is likewise in base e. For a copper transmission line, the propagation constant can be calculated from the primary line coefficients by means of the relationship;

where; , the series impedance of the line per metre and, , the shunt admittance of the line per metre. Attenuation constant In telecommunications, the term attenuation constant, also called attenuation parameter or coefficient, is the attenuation of an electromagnetic wave propagating through a medium per unit distance from the source. It is the real part of the propagation constant and is measured in nepers per metre. A neper is approximately 8.7dB. Attenuation constant can be defined by the amplitude ratio;

The propagation constant per unit length is defined as the natural logarithmic of ratio of the sending end current or voltage to the receiving end current or voltage.

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Copper lines The attenuation constant for copper (or any other conductor) lines can be calculated from the primary line coefficients as shown above. For a line meeting the distortionless condition, with a conductance G in the insulator, the attenuation constant is given by;

however, a real line is unlikely to meet this condition without the addition of loading coils and, furthermore, there are some frequency dependant effects operating on the primary "constants" which cause a frequency dependence of the loss. There are two main components to these losses, the metal loss and the dielectric loss. The loss of most transmission lines are dominated by the metal loss, which causes a frequency dependency due to finite conductivity of metals, and the skin effect inside a conductor. The skin effect causes R along the conductor to be approximately dependent on frequency according to;

Losses in the dielectric depend on the loss tangent (tan) of the material, which depends inversely on the wavelength of the signal and is directly proportional to the frequency.

Phase constant In electromagnetic theory, the phase constant, also called phase change constant, parameter or coefficient is the imaginary component of the propagation constant for a plane wave. It represents the change in phase per metre along the path travelled by the wave at any instant and is equal to the angular wavenumber of the wave. It is represented by the symbol and is measured in units of radians per metre. From the definition of angular wavenumber;

This quantity is often (strictly speaking incorrectly) abbreviated to wavenumber. Properly, wavenumber is given by, 17

which differs from angular wavenumber only by a constant multiple of 2, in the same way that angular frequency differs from frequency. For a transmission line, the Heaviside condition of the telegrapher's equation tells us that the wavenumber must be proportional to frequency for the transmission of the wave to be undistorted in the time domain. This includes, but is not limited to, the ideal case of a lossless line. The reason for this condition can be seen by considering that a useful signal is composed of many different wavelengths in the frequency domain. For there to be no distortion of the waveform, all these waves must travel at the same velocity so that they arrive at the far end of the line at the same time as a group. Since wave phase velocity is given by;

it is proved that is required to be proportional to . In terms of primary coefficients of the line, this yields from the telegrapher's equation for a distortionless line the condition;

However, practical lines can only be expected to approximately meet this condition over a limited frequency band.

3. Discuss Standing Wave Ratio. In telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the amplitude of a partial standing wave at an antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacent node (minimum), in an electrical transmission line. The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR, for voltage standing wave ratio. For example, the VSWR value 1.2:1 denotes a maximum standing wave amplitude that is 1.2 times greater than the minimum standing wave value. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current, resulting in the ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standing wave ratio (PSWR) is defined as the square of the VSWR. 18

The voltage component of a standing wave in a uniform transmission line consists of the forward wave (with amplitude Vf) superimposed on the reflected wave (with amplitude Vr). Reflections occur as a result of discontinuities, such as an imperfection in an otherwise uniform transmission line, or when a transmission line is terminated with other than its characteristic impedance. The reflection coefficient is defined thus:

is a complex number that describes both the magnitude and the phase shift of the reflection. The simplest cases, when the imaginary part of is zero, are:

= 1: maximum negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited, = 0: no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched, = + 1: maximum positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited.

For the calculation of VSWR, only the magnitude of , denoted by , is of interest. Therefore, we define =||. At some points along the line the two waves interfere constructively, and the resulting amplitude Vmax is the sum of their amplitudes:

At other points, the waves interfere destructively, and the resulting amplitude Vmin is the difference between their amplitudes:

The voltage standing wave ratio is then equal to:

As , the magnitude of , always falls in the range [0,1], the VSWR is always +1. The SWR can also be defined as the ratio of the maximum amplitude of the electric field strength to its minimum amplitude, i.e. Emax / Emin. 19

4. Explain the working of simple telephone Communication.

A simple Telephone system.

Schematic of a telephone installation. A traditional landline telephone system, also known as "plain old telephone service" (POTS), commonly handles both signaling and audio information on the same twisted pair (C) of insulated wires: the telephone line. The signaling equipment consists of a bell, beeper, light or other device (A7) to alert the user to incoming calls, and number buttons or a rotary dial (A4) to enter a telephone number for outgoing calls. Although originally designed for voice communication, the system has been adapted for data communication such asTelex, Fax,broadband, and dial-up Internet communication. Most of the expense of wire-lines are the wires, so sending both received and sent voices on one pair of wires reduces the expense of wire-line service. A twisted pair line rejects electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk better than a single wire or an untwisted pair. The microphone and speaker signals do not interfere on the twisted pair because a hybrid coil (A3) subtracts the microphone's signal from the signal sent to the local speaker. The junction box (B) arrests lightning (B2) and adjusts the line's resistance (B1) to maximize the signal power for the line's length. Telephones have similar adjustments for inside line lengths (A8). The wire's voltages are negative compared to earth, to reduce galvanic corrosion. Negative voltage attracts positive metal ions toward the wires. 20

The telephone consists of an alerting device, usually a ringer (A7), that remains connected to the phone line whenever the phone is "on hook", and other components which are connected when the phone is "off hook". The off-hook components include a transmitter (microphone,A2), a receiver (speaker,A1) and other circuits for dialing, filtering (A3), and amplification. A calling party wishing to speak to another party will pick up the telephone's handset, operating a "switchhook" (A4), which powers the telephone by connecting the transmitter (microphone), receiver (speaker) and related audio components to the line. The off-hook circuitry has a low resistance (less than 300 ohms) which causes direct current (DC) to flow from the telephone exchange (D) through the line (C). The exchange detects this current, attaches a digit receiver circuit to the line, and sends a dial tone to indicate readiness. On a modern push-button telephone, the caller then presses the number keys to send the telephone number of the called party. The keys control a tone generator circuit that makes DTMF tones that the exchange receives. A rotary-dial telephone uses pulse dialing, sending electrical pulses, that the exchange can count to get the telephone number. (Most exchanges are still equipped to handle pulse dialing.) If the called party's line is not in use, the exchange sends an intermittent ringing signal (about 90 volts alternating current (AC) in North America and UK and 60 volts in Germany) to alert the called party to an incoming call. If the called party's line is in use, the exchange sends a busy signal to the calling party. However, if the called party's line is in use but has call waiting installed, the exchange sends an intermittent audible tone to the called party to indicate an incoming call. The phone's ringer (A7) is connected to the line through a capacitor (A6), a device which blocks direct current but permits alternating current. So, the phone draws no current when it is on hook, but exchange circuitry (D2) can send an AC voltage down the line to ring for an incoming call. (When there is no exchange, telephones often have hand-cranked magnetos to make the ringing voltage.) When a landline phone is inactive or "on hook", the circuitry at the telephone exchange (D1) detects the absence of direct current and therefore "knows" that the phone is on hook with only the alerting device electrically connected to the line. When a party initiates a call to this line, the exchange sends the ringing signal. When the called party picks up the handset, they actuate a double-circuit switchhook (D2) which simultaneously disconnects the alerting device and connects the audio circuitry to the line. This, in turn, draws direct current through the line, confirming that the called phone is now active. The exchange circuitry turns off the ring signal, and both phones are now active and connected through the exchange. The parties may now converse as long as both phones remain off hook. When a party "hangs up", placing the handset back on the cradle or hook, direct current ceases in that line, signaling the exchange to disconnect the call. Calls to parties beyond the local exchange are carried over "trunk" lines which establish connections between exchanges. In modern telephone networks, fiber-optic 21

cable and digital technology are often employed in such connections. Satellite technology may be used for communication over very long distances. 5. With neat block diagram explain elements of a switching system. The purpose of a telecommunication switching system is to provide the means to pass information from any terminal device to any other terminal device selected by the originator. Telecommunication system can be divided into four main parts. They are 1. End system or Instruments 2. Transmission system 3. Switching system 4. Signaling. End Systems or Instruments. The end system or instruments are a transmitter or receiver that are responsible for sending information or decoding or inverting received information or message into an intelligible message. End systems in the telelphone network have evolved from analog telephones to digital handsets and cellular phones. However, endless arrays of other devices are being attached to telephone lines, including computer terminals used for data transmission. Transmission System. Signals generated by the end system or the instruments should be transported to the destination by some means. The transmission on links conveys the information and control signals between the terminals and switching centers. A transmission link can be characterized by its bandwidth, link attenuation and the propagation delay. To maintain signal quality, the signal must be regenerated after a certain distance. In general a communication path between two distinct points can be setup be connecting a number of transmission lines in tandem. The transmission links include two-wire lines, coaxial cables microwave radio, optical fibers and satellites. Functionally, the communication channels between switching system are referred to as trunks. Fig. 1.4 shows the various possible transmission media. Switching System. The switching centers receives the control signals, messages or conversations and forwards to the required destination, after necessary modification (link 22

amplifications) if necessary. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in such a way as to setup a communication path between any two distant points. A switching center of a telephone network comprising a switching network and its control and support equipment is called a central office. In computer communication, the switching technique used is known as packet switching or message switch (store and forward switching). In telephone network the switching method used is called circuit switching. Some practical switching system are step-by-step, cross barred relay system, digital swtiching systems, electronic switching system etc. Signalling Systems. A signalling system in a data communication networks exchanges signalling information effectively between subscribers. The signalling systems are essential building blocks in providing the ultimate objective of a worldwide automatic telephone services standardized. Signalling provides the interface between different national systems. The introduction of signalling system was the big step in improving the PSTN. The consultative committe on international telegraphy and telephony (CCITT) based in Geneva, recommended seven formats related to signalling. The first five formats related to Inband signalling and the last two in the category of common channel signalling. In In-band signalling, voice information and signalling information travel on common paths, where as in common channel signalling, they travel on separate paths.

6. With neat diagram explain three stage Networks.

The blocking probability and the number of switching elements can be reduced significantly by adopting a 3 stage structure in place of 2-stage networks.The 23

general NxN 3-stage structure in place of 2-stage networks. The general NxN 3stahe blocking network is shown in figure. The N inlets and N outlets are divided into r blocks of p inlets and p outlets each respectively. The network is realized by using switching matrices of size pxs in stage 1,r x r in stage 2, and s x p in stage 3.Here any arbitrary inlet in the first stage has s alternative paths to reach any arbitrary outlet in the third stage.The total number of swithing elements is given by S=rps+sr2+spr=2Ns+sr2=s(2N+r2) If we use square matrices in the first and third stage, we have p=s=N/r And S=(2N2 /r)+Nr and 24

Smin=2N2N

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