Assignment On Traps

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1.0 PIG TRAPS Pigging in the maintenance of pipelines refers to the practice of using pipeline inspection gauges or 'pigs' to perform various operations on a pipeline without stopping the flow of the product in the pipeline. These operations include but are not limited to cleaning and inspecting of the pipeline. This is accomplished by inserting the pig into a 'pig launcher' - a funnel shaped Y section in the pipeline. The launcher is then closed and the pressure of the product in the pipeline is used to push it along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap - the 'pig catcher'. If the pipeline contains butterfly valves the pipeline cannot be pigged. Ball valves cause no problems because the inside diameter of the ball can be specified to be the same as that of the pipe. Pigging has been used for many years to clean larger diameter pipelines in the oil industry. Today, however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now increasing in many continuous and batch process plants as plant operators search for increased efficiencies. Pigging can be used for almost any section of the transfer process between, for example, blending, storage or filling systems. Pigging systems are already installed in industries handling products as diverse as lubricating oils, paints, chemicals, toiletries, and foodstuffs. Pigs are used in lube oil or painting blending: they are used to clean the pipes to avoid cross-contamination, and to empty the pipes into the product tanks (or sometimes to send a component back to its tank). Usually pigging is done at the beginning and at the end of each batch, but sometimes it is done in the midst of a batch, e.g. when producing a premix that will be used as an intermediate component.
PgDip/MSC Petroleum & Gas Engineering and Management School of Computing, Science and Engineering The University of Salford
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Pigs are also used in oil and gas pipelines: they are used to clean the pipes but also there are "smart pigs" used to measure things like pipe thickness and corrosion along the pipeline. They usually do not interrupt production, though some product can be lost when the pig is extracted. They can also be used to separate different products in a multiproduct pipeline.
Pig traps: Pig traps are used for inserting pigs into a pipeline then launching, receiving, and finally removing them without flow interruption. Pig traps are not generally proprietary products and are usually made to a specification drawn up by the user. However, pig trap closures are proprietary products and form a critically important part of a pigging system. Safety is a major consideration in the selection of a closure. All closures must have a built-in safety lock which prevents them being opened while the trap is pressurised. They are also used to load and unload various pipeline tools, including intelligent pigs into pipelines. In the case of pig insertion, inserted pigs into a pipeline can also be launched, received, and finally removed without any hint of flow interruption. They are in the form of vessels and can utilize diverted flow for either launching or receiving. The isolation of these vessels from the pipeline facilitates the loading and unloading of pipeline tools. The importance of the trap (especially when in use) being able to withstand pipeline design considerations such as pressure, temperature and the effects of the service medium, i.e. corrosion cannot be understated since it is an essential part of the pipeline. The trap or vessel has a number of nozzles at suitable locations for the diversion of flow, draining, venting and monitoring. The driving force needed to move the tool through the vessel neck and into the pipeline flow is provided by the diversion of flow. The vessel neck must be of a compatible internal diameter to
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the pipeline itself and this requirement must always be met as it is a highly critical one. After the isolation of the vessel, it can then be opened in order to either load or unload a pipeline tool through the opening which is located at the opposite end of the vessel to the neck to pipeline connection. This opening is usually of a larger diameter than the neck and provides an ease of loading for launching and an increase in bypass for receiving. It can take the form of a simple flange-blind flange arrangement or a more complex quick opening hub-door arrangement more commonly known as a quick opening or rapid opening closure. The same basic principles apply for pig trap usage for subsea applications, but the trap will need to have additional protection for the valves and pipework. This is usually in form of a protection frame to reduce the risk of damage or clashing with fishing nets and ships anchors. Subsea traps are more effective as either temporary or removable for ease of loading and maintenance. Also, for unmanned or particularly hazardous or frequent pigging operations, it is better to consider multiple launching capabilities which can be achieved with the use of multiple valve/mechanical methods, or by the more recent automatic multiple pigs launching technology.
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Fig 1: TRAPS FOR MULTIPLE LAUNCHES AND A SUBSEA PIG TRAP AND TOPSIDE PIG TRAP
Fig 1 shows units that are designed to allow the sequential launching of pigs and spheres. In conjunction with release fingers and/or coordinated valve operation the launch process can be controlled remotely enabling traps to be installed on unmanned platforms and facilities. This enables sequential launching to take place without having to repeatedly de-pressurise and re- pressurise after each launching.
Fig 2: PIG TRAP RECIEVER / LAUNCHER

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Fig 2 shows a conventional pig trap launcher and receiver. Pig launchers are used to launch the pig into the pipeline, and the receivers are used to receive the pigs after they have made a successful run. The choice of these pigs traps depends on the type of pigs to be run and the pipeline conditions. Provisions in the station design should include handling equipment for pigs 20" and larger. Caution should be taken for liquid spillage from the pig traps A world of leading range of pig traps for either standard or intelligent pig applications supplied in horizontal/vertical or inclined/declined mountings and manufactured up to a pressure rating of class 2500. Materials of construction include Carbon Steel, Low Alloy Steels, Stainless Steels and Duplex Specialised features: These includes the following: a. Hinged quick opening doors b. Interlock control, mechanical and electrical for quick opening door, associated valves and control panel interface. c. Custom designed control panels allowing accurate controls of pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical valves and associated equipment. d. Specialised design of sphere pins to enable auto or manual launching or receiving of spheres. e. Sphere pins and flaps designed to withstand repeated impact loading 1.1 Types of pig traps
a.
Bi-directional unit- has the dimensions of a receiver, but also incorporates an internal cassette of an eccentric reducer.
b.
Vertical launcher unit - specifically for launching and has a short neck and a concentric reducer.
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c.
Vertical receiver unit - specifically for receiving with a longer neck and a concentric reducer. Vertical units often contain baskets.
d.
Horizontal launcher unit -specifically for launching in the horizontal position, has an eccentric reducer to ensure that the pig enters the neck in the correct direction.
e.
Horizontal receiver unit - specifically for receiving in the horizontal position. Either has a concentric or eccentric reducer.
Issues of health, safety and environment are big when they relate to design. Breakthroughs in reducing manual control or environmental hazards portend huge advantages and it is necessary to achieve these for constant pigging operations in remote/hazardous areas. The use of multiple launching/receiving capabilities to reduce the number of times the vessel is opened is usually by four available systems.
Valve type multiple pig launcher: The trap is fitted with a set of valves for each pig in the launcher as this allows line pressure to be directed behind each pig in turn and be individually launched as required. Additional valve requirement adds considerable cost to the system, especially when fitted to a large-diameter pipeline, due to the high cost of the large valves required for the multiple kicker lines and this counters this being a reliable system. Used mainly in subsea applications with a diver or ROV operating the valves, or the valves are fitted with remotely operated actuators and this increases the overall cost. It could also be fitted to existing installation pig launchers if an automatic launching requirement is identified.
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Vertical multiple pig launcher: This is based around the space-saving solution of a vertical pig launcher as used on many offshore installations and is basically an extended standard launcher, but with the addition of hydraulically operated launch pins that protrude into the oversize barrel of the launcher. The first pig is loaded into the launcher throat and then there is an extension of the first or lowest launch pin. Another pig is then loaded and this rests on the launch pin which also holds it up. More pins and pigs are then subsequently inserted until traps capacity is reached. The first pig is then launched in the normal way and the lowest pigging run is retracted, when another pigging run is needed and the pig above it falls into the launcher throat. And then, the first pig is launched in the normal way. More pins are then subsequently retracted as and when further pigging runs are needed. This multiple pig launching system is very reliable but has the same drawbacks as the first one since the initial outlay is quite high because of launch pins and the hydraulics used in operating them. The pins require regular inspections to monitor bending due to excess forces and regular maintenance to make sure they operate perfectly.
Automatic sphere launcher Operates with the same principles and spheres are used during large number of cleaning runs even though the efficiency is not critical especially when unwanted fluid removal is primary cleaning requirement. Operation is similar to that of the vertical multiple pig launcher using launch pins but with a slight decline from the horizontal for the trap.
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The rear pin is retracted and spheres are loaded with the front pin extended. During a launch, the rear pin extends and holds back the remaining spheres. The front pin then retracts and allows the lead sphere to roll into the pipeline. After the downstream signaller indicates the successful launch of the sphere, the front pin extends, the rear pin retracts, the remaining spheres roll forward and the system readies itself for the next launch. This system is widely used but its main application is for fluid removal and not for physical line cleaning because the sphere only has one sealing face, and thus has a tendency to ride over solid residues in the pipe.
Automatic multiple pig launching system With this system, the need for a multiple pig launching system that can be retrospectively fitted to existing launcher facilities without costly trap modifications is met. Operation is similar to standard pigging equipment. Pigs are pre-loaded into a specially designed cassette and then inserted into the standard trap, or loaded into the trap with a fitted cassette. Number of pigs in the cassette is pre-determined by the length of the trap. The launch control system on the pigs is designed such that the next pig to be launched is only armed when the trap has been depressurized after the previous launch, and thus there is no case of accidental launching. There is the additional safety system in place and if the control mechanism fails, no pigs can or will launch. Failure to launch a pig leaves the system with a second chance to launch through depressurizing and then re-pressurizing the launcher. If a pig unlikely or eventually fails to launch during this second attempt, then the pig is required to be unloaded and investigated. The advantages are the same as those previously discussed and it also has the uniqueness of being retrospectively fitted to almost all currently in use pig
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launchers, without significant adaptation to the current configuration or the addition of extra valves and control systems with the only addition being a specially designed launcher basket and can be easily removed during intelligent or any other non-routine pigging. The basic principles of the systems types are the same with provision for multiple pigs loading and individual launchin
1.2
TRAP
MECHANISM
The basic trap mechanism are barrel, reducer, neck pipe, branch nozzles, kicker, drain, vent, blowdown, balance line, pressurizing line, thermal relief valve, pressure indicator (pressure gauge), supports, lifting lugs, earthing (grounding) lugs, end closure and pig signaller.
PIG SIGNALLER : This is also known as a pig detector, a device set on or into the pipeline which indicates the momentary presence of a pig at a precise location. Signallers should be installed on both sides of the trap valve. For launchers, it should be positioned on the main pipeline at a distance from the trap valve of at least the length of the longest pig anticipated. For receivers, it should be positioned on the trap neck pipe at a distance from the trap valve, again, equal to the anticipated longest pig length. BARREL: This is the major section of the trap and the means by which the loading and unloading of pigs can be carried out with comparative ease and safety. It is usually equipped with an opening closure at one end while its other end is welded to a reducer. For conventional pigging its diameter is usually a nominal 50 mm above the line size, while for intelligent-type pigs it is recommended that it be at least a nominal 100 mm above the line-pipe diameter.
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The barrel length is dependent upon the operating procedures, service, type of pigs, available space, etc., but in general for launchers deploying conventional pigs--2 x pig length, while for receivers--3/3.5 x pig length. When deploying intelligent-type pigs, the barrel length should be decided only after consultation with the pig manufacturer.
REDUCER : This is welded at its larger diameter to the other end of the barrel, and can be eccentric or concentric. Generally, horizontal units use eccentric on launchers, concentric on receivers. Vertical units use concentric throughout NECK PIPE: This is the minor diameter section of the pig trap and is welded at one end to the smaller diameter of the reducer and terminates in either a bur weld end preparation or flange at its other end. Dimensionally it is usually very short--one pig length + 10%, however, in the case of intelligent pig BRANCH NOZZLES:can be as few as four nozzles-kicker, vent, drain and pressure indicator on simple traps while for complex traps, additional nozzles such as blowdown, balance, equalizing, pressurizing and thermal relief valves could be added. Client specific requirement could result in fitting other nozzles but design requirements regarding proximity of welds should be considered. a) Kicker- situated on the barrel at the closure end in launchers and near the reducer in receivers. In universal or bi-directional traps, a single connection midway along the barrel or twin connections, in the launch and receive positions, could be fitted. Pig damage is caused by positioning kicker connections at the 6 oclock position and should be avoided. b) Drain- should be situated near the closure end for horizontal traps and near the neck flange on vertical launchers. A drain point near the barrel
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reducer is advised for receivers or on the neck pipe near the end flange. Two drain points should be identified and located together near the closure end but should be separated by half a sphere diameter for receivers sloped for spheres as this prevents drains from being blocked by spheres. Drain connections size should not be lower than 2 for traps up to 14 and 4 above. c) Vent- should be situated near the closure end or highest point. Further connection could be made near the trap neck end flange to ensure depressurization behind the pig in the event of it getting stuck in the neck pipe. Vent connections size should not be lower than . d) Blowdown- consideration should be given to provision of a blowdown line with a globe valve or restriction orifice for controlled depressurization on high-pressure systems. Size should not be more than 2. e) Balance line- provided on launchers to enable filling and pressurization of the barrel on both sides of the pigs at the same time and thereby prevent a pig which is ready to be launched from moving forward and hitting and also possibly damaging the trap valve, or backwards and losing reducer seal. A balance line should be provided on the receiver to prevent any possible differential across a receiving pig. Size should be within 2. f) Pressurizing line- required around kicker valves for speed of operation, control of barrel pressurization and/or damage to the kicker valve seats or other internals. A pressurizing line around bypass valves for equalizing possible high differential pressures is also necessary. Size should be smaller than the balancing line connection.
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g) Thermal relief valve- provided at locations where it is anticipated that shut-in or trapped fluid could exceed design pressure. Size is dependent on design conditions. h) Pressure indicator (pressure gauge) - should be fitted towards the closure end and visible to the operator. May be used with the vent connection. Size should be in the region of to 1 threaded with 4 or 6 dial size
SUPPORTS: Required to permanently support and restrain the pig trap, supports should be designed to carry the weight of the pig trap system filled with water (or other fluid if their density is greater), together with the weight of the associated heaviest pig. Supports under the barrel should normally be of the sliding type to compensate for expansion of the unrestrained part of the pipeline. Other supports may be fixed if design calculations indicate that sufficient flexibility is incorporated in the pipework to compensate for any axial and transverse movements.
LIFTING LUGS: These are required to facilitate lifting of the complete trap during the installation stage.
GROUNDING LUGS: These are required to reduce the build-up of static electricity. Static is a seriously under-estimated yet ever-present hazard. Being invisible to the naked eye, it tends to be ignored. Yet, an undischarged build-up of electrostatic can take hours, even days, to relax back into equilibrium, resulting in a potentially lethal workplace. If the accumulated static is suddenly
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discharged within a hazardous atmosphere, the resulting spark may easily act as the ignition source for an explosion.
END CLOSURE: This can be as simple as a flange and blind, but is more commonly found in the form of a quick opening door, an assembly which provides a quick, easy and safe access to the barrel when open and seals the bore when closed. The closure should be fitted at a minimum with a safety bleeder device, forming part of the door-locking mechanism, to safeguard personnel before and during door opening .An interlocking system between the various valves and the closure may be considered as an additional feature.
PIG LAUNCHING AND RECIEVING PROCEDURES. The operational sequence described below is for general information only. It is not intended, nor should it be used, to train pigging system operators. Operating procedures will vary from one pipeline company to another. The following pig
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launching procedures can be used as a guideline for developing operating procedures. Since company policies vary regarding whether the pig launcher is left on stream or isolated from the pipeline after the pig is launched, the operator should verify that the trap is isolated from the pipeline and depressurized before commencing any part of the launch procedure.
FIG3: LAUNCHER a. Make sure that the isolation valve and the kicker valve are closed. b. In liquid systems, open the drain valve and allow air to displace the liquid by opening the vent valve. In natural gas systems, open the vent and vent the launcher to atmospheric pressure. c. When the pig launcher is completely drained (0 psig), with the vent and drain valves still open, open the trap (quick opening closure) door. d. Install the pig with the nose firmly in contact with the reducer between the barrel and the nominal bore section of the launcher.
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e. Clean the closure seal and other sealing surfaces lubricate if necessary and close and secure the closure door. f. Close the drain valve. Slowly fill the trap by gradually opening the kicker valve and venting through the vent valve. g. When filling is complete, close the vent valve to allow pressure to equalize across the isolation valve. h. Open the isolation valve. The pig is ready for launching. i. Partially close the main line valve. This will increase the flow through the kicker valve and behind the pig. Continue to close the main line valve until the pig leaves the trap into the main line as indicated by the pig signaller. j. After the pig leaves the trap and enters the main line, fully open the main line valve. Close the isolation valve and the kicker valve. k. The pig launching is complete.
Typical Pig Receiving Procedures: The operational sequence described below is for general information only. It is not intended, nor should it be used, to train pigging system operators. Operating procedures will vary from one pipeline company to another. The following pig receiving procedures can be used as a guideline for developing operating procedures.
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FIG 4: RECIEVER a. Make sure the receiver is pressurized. b. Fully open the bypass valve. c. Fully open the isolation valve and partially close the main line valve. d. Monitor the pig signaler for pig arrival. e. Close the isolation valve and bypass valve. f. Open the drain valve and the vent valve. g. Check the pressure gauge on the receiver to assure the trap is depressurized (0 psi). h. Open the trap closure and remove the pig from the receiver. i. Clean the closure seal and other sealing surfaces, lubricate if necessary, and close and secure the trap (quick opening closure) door. j. Return the receiver to the original condition.
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FIG 5 Trapping pig with slotted tray pig trapping 1.4 CONSIDERATIONS IN PIG PIPE DESIGN
Fig6: Conventional
The trap or vessel incorporates a number of nozzles at suitable locations for the diversion of flow, draining, venting and monitoring. The diversion of flow provides the motive force to move the tool through the vessel neck and into the pipeline flow. The vessel neck is critical in that it must be of a compatible internal diameter to the pipeline itself. Once it has been isolated, the vessel can be opened in order to either load or unload a pipeline tool. The opening is at the other end of the vessel from the neck to the pipeline connection and is generally of a larger diameter than the neck to provide ease of loading for launching and an increase in bypass for receiving. This opening can take the form of a simple flange-blind flange arrangement or a more complex quick opening hub-door arrangement more commonly known as a quick opening closure. For subsea applications, the same basic principles apply. However, the trap may require additional protection for the valves and pipework in the form of a shielding frame to reduce the risk of damage from fishing nets and ships' anchors. It is beneficial for subsea traps to be either temporary or removable to facilitate loading and maintenance.
In addition, for unmanned or particularly hazardous or frequent pigging

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operation applications it is often advantageous to consider multiple launching capabilities. This can be via multiple valve/mechanical methods or by more recent AMPL-type technology
Mechanical
Design
Considerations
In the first instance we need to understand the applicable design code. As pig traps are pressure vessels, pressure vessel design parameters must apply. However, unlike pressure vessels, pig traps must be capable of retaining pressure while allowing tools to be launched and received. It is these tools which determine the overall trap dimensions. Certain tools such as the metalbodied intelligent pigs are both heavy and long and must be considered, along with the internal pressure requirements, when designing supports, lifting lugs and assessing foundation loadings.
Trap design must also satisfy applicable codes, whether it be PD5500, EN13445, ASME VIII (Div 1 or 2), ASME B31.4, B31.3, B31.8, AS2885 et al. While essentially attached directly to the end of a pipeline as an isolatable extension, the trap can often be designed to a vessel code rather than a pipeline code. This in itself can often provide a significant challenge in meeting the pipeline internal diameter with a thicker calculated vessel wall. In this case, we have what is called a specification "break" between the pipelines and trap; in other cases the trap can be designed to the same code as the connecting pipeline. Whichever approach, the designer must ensure all appropriate loadings and conditions are addressed to produce a safe working design. Typical basic design parameters to consider include design code, design pressure, design
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temperature, materials, external loadings and cyclic requirements. It is useful to run through each of these parameters. Design Code. This can be any of the national or international standards and either a specific pressure vessel code or pipeline code. However, we should ask ourselves what a code is for. A code is a statement of the minimum requirements needed to protect the community. "Community" is generally interpreted to include the users of the equipment, the general public and the wider environment.
A code is not a complete guide to design. A design can meet the requirements of a code and still be a bad design for several reasons. It may be costly, dangerous, wasteful, etc. Codes have an important role in securing minimum standards for protection of the community, but should not be forced into roles they were not intended.
Pressure. This can be client-specific or based upon the ASME/ANSI Pressure/ Temperature Class tables. The design pressure should never be less than that of the pipeline.
Temperature. The design would take account of the maximum design temperature, but also the minimum design temperature in terms of material selection.
Materials. Often specified by the client, however, where possible it is better to allow the trap manufacturer to select materials that are compatible with the pipeline materials and meet the design specification requirements. This approach ensures that the most suitable, cost-effective and readily available
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materials that fully meet the design requirements are selected. It is important that the line product is specified and whether it is sour, toxic or corrosive. This will influence the selection of not only the metallic elements, but also the elastomeric materials, which typically constitute the closure-sealing element. All components in sour service should be specified to meet the requirements of NACE MR 01 75 for sour service and where the product is very sour, consideration should be given to specifying that the materials should be HIC/SSCC-tested. Finally, any material must be compatible with its mating material in respect of weld ability, wall thickness, chemical and mechanical properties.
External loadings. These loads consist of those imposed by attaching pipe work acting upon nozzles. In addition, external pressure due to water depth in a subsea application could fall into this category.
Cyclical requirements. Should the unit be subject to frequent pigging operations, this may in turn create sufficient cyclical loading to warrant fatigue analysis. In addition, we need to consider support loads, wind, blast and seismic loadings, loads induced during transportation of the units and any subsequent lifting lug requirements. 1.6 Process Design Considerations As specialist pigging designers we look at the requirements from several angles. In addition to an examination of pipeline configurations, pressures and diameters, the product and its temperature and flow rates, we will seek to define precisely what the systems have to do. Will the tool(s) travel in one direction
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only, forward or backward, or is two-way motion needed? Other questions include: Is propulsion liquid, gas or both? Will the tool(s) be used for cleaning, stabilization, separation or a combination thereof? How frequently will the tool have to travel and how far? What is the performance of the line-pumping systems?
Often it is necessary to consider the suitability of industry norms to specific applications, particularly with regard to such parameters as nozzle sizing. Industry norms for nozzle sizing do not always consider the practical issues associated with the service medium. For instance, the number and size of drain nozzles will differ for a dry gas medium as compared to a waxy crude medium. In the case of waxy crude it may be necessary to consider larger drain nozzles located at the closure and reducer end of the major barrel. The pigging philosophy itself may also have an impact on the nozzle size. For instance, when receiving, if the pig is not stopped at the bypass barred tee and brought into the vessel at a lower velocity than that of the medium (with partial bypass via the line barred tee), the bypass line may not be of sufficient diameter to carry the flow. In this case, the bypass size may need to be increased.
Many questions have to be considered before a design solution begins to emerge. A thorough analysis is essential to design traps capable of absorbing all the necessary forces and loadings.
1.7
Practical
Design
Considerations
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In addition to mechanical and process considerations, the trap designer must consider practical issues such as location, layout, environment and logistics. Pig traps should be located away from any sources of ignition. There should be sufficient space to open the door with consideration to operator space. There should also be sufficient space to allow traps to be loaded and unloaded safely. Layout must be such that valves are accessible either from ground level or via permanent platforms or ladders. Layout must ensure that valves operation does not need the operator to enter the closure door opening envelope. Valves operation must always be from the side opposite the door hinge. Unit should be located so that their end closures point away from personnel areas and important equipment to reduce risk of damage occurring in the unlikely event of a pig is ejected from the trap under pressure. Installation of drip trays and bonding is necessary to prevent contamination from service medium. Access must be available for lifting equipment to facilitate maintenance and operational procedures. Lifting facilities are necessary for loading and offloading traps on offshore applications
Inspection: Having made all the necessary considerations during the design phase and ensured compliance by manufacturing inspection, it is important to inspect and maintain the units during operation.
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2.0 BLOCK VALVES
Valves are installed on pipelines and piping systems to isolate sections of piping for maintenance, to direct the fluid from one location to another, to shut down flow through pipe sections, and to protect pipe and prevent loss of fluid in the event of pipeline rupture. On long-distance pipelines transporting natural gas and other compressible fluids, design codes and regulatory requirements dictate that sections of pipeline be isolated by installing mainline block valves at certain fixed spacing. Valves are devices used extensively in pipeline
transmission systems to regulate, interrupt or divert the fluid flow by opening, closing or partially obstructing various passageways and are made of metallic elements such as aluminium and copper as well as metallic alloys such as brass, bronze, steel, cast iron, ductile iron, and stainless steel; or from variety of plastic materials such as Acetyl polymers, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPC), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and both categories vary in terms of valve size, pressure rating, number of ports, and flow. They are also regarded as pipe fittings that are an integral part of pipeline distribution systems and in pipelines, they are referred to as Emergency Flow Restricting Devices (EFRD) for sectionalizing flow of gas and liquids in pipelines. Valves can be of screwed design, welded ends, or flanged ends. In the gas industry, large valves are generally of the welded type, in which the valve is attached to the pipe on either side by a welded joint to prevent gas leakage to the atmosphere. Valves
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are typically rated for maximum temperature and pressure by the manufacturer and the wetted materials in a valve are usually identified. As a design consideration, the engineer should ensure that the rated maximum temperature and pressure are never exceeded and that the wetted materials are compatible with the fluid the valve interior is exposed to. Block valves are conventionally explained to be valves placed on gas pipelines, which, when closed, may prevent flow in either direction in order to isolate sections of the pipeline for maintenance, or in case of a known or suspected leak. When two block valves are closed, the section between them can be emptied of natural gas or natural gas liquids without having to empty the rest of the pipeline. Block valve is a typical example of gate valve and consists of a flat piece of metal enclosed in a body attached to the valve operators which enables personnel to set the valve opening to fully opened and fully closed. When closed, the valve can block oil flow in both directions. Block valves include manual gate valves, remote gate valves and station block valves (suction valves and discharge valves). There are different types of block valves and these include: a) remote gate valves, b) Manual gate valves: c) and station block valves (for both suction and discharge). There are different designs of block valves, which include: a) round body and rectangular; b) rising stem and non-rising stem,
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c) floating slab gates and d) wedge or expanding gates. .
Gate valve (Remote/Manual): A gate valve is a linear valve that uses a flat closure element perpendicular to the process flow, which slides into the flow steam to provide shutoff. The gate valve is designed for on-off service in either liquid or gas service (with entrained solid, granules and powders), cryogenic and vacuum service. Valve body is made from a forged piece of Low Chrome Alloy internally lined with a first buttering layer and a second layer against hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) for a total overlay thickness of 5.5 mm. Disc and seats are hardfaced by Stellite #1 to avoid catalyst erosion.
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Fig 7: Remote gate valve valve
Fig 8: Manual gate
Mainline block valve sites will be gravelled and might be fenced. They may contain:
a. below-ground block valves b. by-pass valves c. a system to vent natural gas into the atmosphere under controlled conditions, if required d. communications building e. satellite dish f. radio communications tower
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g. electrical power.
Inspection and maintenance Block valves are widely employed on larger pipelines for on/off services. They are only operated in fully opened or fully closed position and are utilised when fluid flow direction is unchanged. Block valve have low pressure drop and low flow resistance. Normally, block valves are used in the following situations: a) In situation of infrequent operation. b) As mainline valves at valve sites, meter station or compressor/pump stations. Regular inspection and maintenance programs are required on block valves to enhance its operation and reliability. Often, block valves when left un-operated for too long can become tight and hard to operate. Additionally, residues may collect at the bottom of the valve body and prevent full closure.
Typical maintenance guidelines for block valves are: a) Vertical gate travel open to close. b) Correct gate adjustment is critical in order to achieve a seat seal. c) Routine maintenance will extend the valve seal life.
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3.0 OFFTAKES Distribution Network receives gas from the National Transmission System (NTS) at the offtakes which contain instrumentation and telemetry equipment to enable remote monitoring and control of the gas flows. Normally the Distribution Network will own the offtake site and the majority of the associated equipment including equipment for filtration, pressure management, measurement and odorisation. Natural gas is usually transported from the gas fields by gas producing companies to distribution companies and to some large industrial customers. For effective monitoring and controlling of the natural gas flow in pipelines and to ensure that all customers demands are meant promptly, sophisticated control systems are required to monitor the gas that travels through lengthy pipeline network. Centralized gas stations along the pipeline has been established that collect, assimilate/ and manage data received from monitoring and compression station. In modern gas turbine engines, up to 20% of the core airflow is bled off from various compressor stages to facilitate internal cooling, bearing chamber, and rim sealing, as well as axial load management. As this secondary airflow makes no direct contribution to engine thrust, there are strong economic incentives to reduce the quantity and quality of offtake air and maximize its effective use. Secondary airflows are commonly bled off via circular drillings in the compressor rotor, thereby augmenting their swirl velocity. This results in the creation of vortices within the rotor cavity and strong radial pressure gradients opposing inflow. In the present work the relative performance of a series of noncircular offtake passages has been assessed using CFD techniques. The results of this work demonstrate the degree of control that
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may be exercized over swirl uptake, which can be used to suppress the creation of vortices in rotor cavities.
Offtakes of gas occur when a huge amount of gas is pumped into the transmission mains to balance the demand of gas by the customer without necessarily resulting in shortage due to pressure loss during transmission. For gas to be safely transported through a pipeline system, the gas must be sent (input) into the network through an entry point and make arrangements for the exit (offtakes) of the gas elsewhere. These gas inputs and offtakes must be in balance within certain thresholds. When there is a difference between collective inputs and off takes, corrective steps are taken (either to increase or decrease the amount of gas in the network) to maintain an overall equilibrium of the system.
In designing, They must be designed to incorporate compression stations with adequate and well designed branching within the mainline. The control of activities of offtakes should be done by high capacity computers with real-time capability from efficient monitoring and analysis. Mostly pipeline operating companies employ a sophisticated and versatile programme called Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) for their pipeline operational planning and surveillance. 4.0 COMPRESSION STATIONS
A compressor station is a facility which helps the transportation process of natural gas from one location to another. Natural gas, while being transported through a gas pipeline, needs to be constantly pressurized in certain distance intervals (from 40 up to 100 miles).The gas in compressor stations is normally
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pressurized by special turbines, motors and engines. Natural gas is highly pressurized as it travels through a pipeline and to ensure its flow through any pipeline remains pressurized, compression is required periodically along the pipe. This is achieved using compressor stations, which are usually placed at intervals along the pipeline. Compressor stations pump gas through a pipeline by compressing the gas at intervals along the system. Gas flows by expanding in the pipe from the discharge side (high pressure point) of one station to the suction side (low pressure point) of the next. An average station may pump as much as 830 million cubic feet of gas per day. Under normal operating conditions, compressor station engines run 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365 days a year. While stations vary according to the number and types of engines they use, most compressor stations consist of piping, engines, compressors, fuel gas systems, lube oil systems, engine jacket water systems, electrical generators, safety systems, and personnel to maintain and operate these elements.
Station Yard Piping: Natural gas enters and exits the compressor station through station yard piping. Gas enters the station at the suction header. From there, gas passes through the scrubbers, which remove any solids and most liquids from the gas. Because the temperature of natural gas rises when it is compressed, high-pressure gas coolers may be used to lower the temperature of the gas before it is discharged into the main pipeline. Cooling helps preserve the pipes anti-corrosion coating and allows for the transportation of greater volumes, for gas is denser at lower temperatures. From the cooling system, gas flows to the station discharge point, and enters the main line.
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Engine and Compressor Sets: The engine and compressor are the heart of the station. As gas travels through the pipeline, its pressure drops. The compressor increases the pressure of the gas as it moves to the discharge side of the station, enabling the gas to continue its journey. Coordinating with gas control, a station will run only those engine-compressor sets needed to handle the volume of gas currently flowing through the pipeline.
Fuel Gas System: Most compressor station engines are fueled by natural gas from the pipeline; however, many are run by electric engines.
Lube Oil System: The lube oil system lubricates and protects all moving and rotating parts in the engine and compressor set. Each engine has its own lube oil system that maintains specific oil levels and temperatures in each engine crankcase. This oil also helps cool the engines. When an engines oil is changed, the old oil is removed and sold to a vendor for reprocessing.
Jacket Water System: Water circulated through the engines as a coolant is called jacket water. After the water picks up heat from the engine, it runs through an atmospheric cooler where the heat is removed. The jacket water is then circulated back through the compressor engine. Additives in the water prevent corrosion inside the engine and piping.
Electrical Generators: Electrical Generators are used to fuel jacket water and cooling systems and perform as either the primary or backup energy source for a compressor station.
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Safety Systems: To protect the public, company personnel, and property, all compressor stations are equipped with several safety devices. One of these safety systems, common to all compressor stations, is an Emergency Shutdown System. When activated, the Emergency Shutdown System stops the engines, isolates and vents the compressor piping, and routes the gas away from the station. During the venting process, natural gas is released through a stack in a remote area of the plant yard. Because of the required venting, some noise can result from compressor maintenance, activation, or emergency Shutdown System testing.
Fig 9. Intake View of a Large-Scale Natural Gas Compressor Station (Mainline natural gas pipeline entering the Gallion Compressor station near DeMopolis, Alabama, with a view of the scrubber towers and filter units used to eliminate contaminates prior to compression operations. Courtesy Southern Natural Gas Company, El Paso Corporation. )
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4.1 Process Description A typical compressor station design may consist of an inlet scrubber to collect liquids and slugs that may have formed in the gas gathering system pipeline. The scrubber consists of a primary section where liquids and solid parts are separated from the gas stream and a secondary section where oil mist is removed. From the scrubber, the gas is taken to the compressor unit(s) where it is compressed. At the discharge point, or between compressor units in case of a series arrangement, the gas is cooled down, typically with an air cooler, and then it passes through a coalescer filter, in case of the reciprocating
compressor, to remove lub oil mist prior to discharging the gas to the pipeline. The liquids collected from the suction scrubber are handled a number of ways. A typical simplified approach is to route the liquids from the scrubber level control valves to a low pressure (LP) tank. The LP tank can be a pressure vessel operated at a relatively low pressure (atmospheric to ~25 psig) or it can be a simple industry standard 210 tank (atmospheric tank with 210 bbls of capacity). In either case, the vapors produced from the flashing liquids are vented to the atmosphere or to a flare. The low pressure condensate is periodically trucked out and sold.
4.2 Compressor Station Facilities Compressor stations may be small, situated on gathering lines or laterals, or large facilities on major trunkline transmission systems. All, however, are built up from the same functional blocks of equipment. Each functional element plays a role in the work of the station so the design and sizing of each is
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essential to the efficient and safe operation of the plant. The elements include gas scrubbing and liquid removal, compressor and driver units, after-coolers, pipes and valves, controls, data acquisition and recording equipment, venting, compressor buildings and weather protection, environmental controls and safety equipment.
Scrubbers The gas in a main transmission line is nominally clean and dry while that in minor lines may contain loadings of liquids prior to processing, but in all cases there can be entrained liquids and particulates which have to be removed before compression. Efficient and safe handling of the liquids collected from the scrubbers in a compressor station is one of the keys to a good design. Poor handling of these liquids can be the major source of operating and maintenance problems and have a significant impact on the station economics. The suction scrubber shall be equipped with a mesh-type mist elimination section to avoid liquid entrainment into the compressor. Scrubbers can take several forms, inertial with or without demister pads or the horizontal cyclonic type. The latter are commonly used on mainline transmission stations. There are three main concerns that should be addressed in the liquid-handling design for any compressor station: safety, environmental impact, and economics. Another point of consideration should be operability, which includes hydrate formation, failure consequences, etc.
Compressors In gas transmission, two basic types of compressors are used: reciprocating and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating compressors are usually driven by either electric motors or gas engines, whereas centrifugal compressors use gas turbines
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or electric motors as drivers. The design philosophy for choosing a compressor should include the following considerations: a. Good efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions b. Maximum flexibility of configuration c. Low maintenance cost d. Low lifecycle cost e. Acceptable capital cost f. High availability
However, additional requirements and features will depend on each project and the specific experiences of the pipeline operator. In fact, compressor selection consists of the purchaser defining the operating parameters for which the machine will be designed. The process design parameters that specify a selection are: flow rate, gas composition, inlet pressure and temperature, outlet pressure, train arrangement, for centrifugal compressors: series, parallel, multiple bodies, multiple sections, intercooling, etc., for reciprocating compressors: number of cylinders, cooling, and, flow control strategy; and number of units. In many cases, the decision whether to use a reciprocating or centrifugal compressor, as well as the type of driver, will already have been made based on operator strategy, emissions requirements, general lifecycle cost assumptions, etc. However, a hydraulic analysis should be made for each compressor selection to ensure the best choice. In fact, compressor selection can be made for an oper ating point that will be the most likely or most frequent operating point of the machine. Selections based on a single operating point have to be evaluated carefully to provide sufficient speed margin (typically 3-10%) and surge margin to cover other potentially important situations. A compressor performance map
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(for centrifugal compressors, this would be preferably a head vs. flow map) can be generated based on the selection and is used to evaluate the compressor for other operating conditions by determining the required head and flow. In many applications, multiple operating points are available, e.g., based on hydraulic pipeline studies or reservoir studies. Some of these points may be frequent operating points while some may only occur during upset conditions. With this knowledge, the selection can be optimized for a desired target, such as lowest fuel consumption. Selections can also be made based on a rated point, which defines the most onerous operating conditions (highest volumetric flow rate; lowest molecular weight; highest head or pressure ratio; highest inlet temperature). In this situation, however, the result may be an oversized machine that does not perform well at the usual operating conditions.
Compressor Driver Choices for drivers can be gas turbines, or electric motors. The selection is usually based on considerations of cost, both capital and maintenance, fuel or energy cost, availability of power supply, reliability and availability. Gas turbines are high-speed machines and can be directly coupled to the compressor. Electric motors can be of several types with both fixed and variable speed options. In recent times the high-speed variable speed electric motor operating at super synchronous conditions has become available at powers of more than 25MW which makes this option competitive with larger gas turbines. It is also available in the VSPG (variable speed planetary gear from VOITH) that provides another economic alternative to be used with fixed speed electric motor. Capital costs
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for gas turbines and electric motors are generally similar and electric drives generally have lower maintenance and operating costs than gas turbines. The decision to use gas turbine or electric motor drivers comes from the feasibility analysis for the alternatives available for the project and site logistics, capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operating expenditure (OPEX). The availability and reliability for the compressor units and for the energy source are also key items. Important factors in favor of electric-driven compressor station that should be considered in the feasibility analysis include the fact that the fuel gas used for gas turbine-driven compressor station will be transformed into capacity increase for the electric-driven compressor station and therefore will add revenue to this alternative and also the overhaul cost for the gas turbines that are expensive and will occur after completing around 40,000 running hours, accounted in the OPEX costs. There will always be gas in the pipeline so the question of reliability and availability of the energy source for the gas turbine does not enter into the question. For the electric drive, there has to be a reliable electric grid within a reasonable distance from the compressor station so transmission line costs need to be considered in the evaluation. When there is a reliable source of electricity available, it would be worth evaluating both alternatives (gas or electric drivers) supported by failure statistics for the electric grid such as LOLF (loss of load frequency), LOLD (loss of load duration), LOLP (loss of load probability) that will allow defining the reliability of the electric grid. Given that these conditions are satisfied, the decision then comes from the economic evaluation of all the alternatives and selecting the one that will give the best economic result. The lifecycle cost must examine and test the results for sensitivity to cost escalation in power prices and gas price, taking into account the correlation between these two commodities. A long term power supply agreement would be required to mitigate risks. The question of using a diesel
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engine as a power source has not been considered as it offers no advantages over a similar gas engine and introduces another fuel which invokes additional costs for transportation and storage. Selection of the appropriate units must consider all aspects of interest including operating cost, reliability and availability as well as capital cost. The process of selection should be formalized to remove as far as possible subjective elements and ensure decisions are objectively based.
Piping And Valves The compressor station will be connected to the gas pipeline via a set of block valves with a bypass. These will be typically ball valves with a block-and-bleed capability. The piping should be designed to minimize pressure loss as this represents inefficiency. The supports and anchors for the piping shall be designed to allow for expansion following compression and to keep the forces and moments on the compressor flanges within the limits set by the compressor manufacturer. For centrifugal compressors there will be a surge valve and recycle line for surge protection. This recycle line will connect the discharge line to the suction line adjacent to the compressor. The sizing of this line and the valve is critical and should be done in consultation with the compressor supplier and with knowledge of the compressor characteristics. Each compressor on the station will have its own set of isolation and block valves with a bypass.
Shutdown And Venting Systems For most compressor stations there are two cases for shutdown and venting. The first can be stated as routine, in which a unit or a station has to be shut down for
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repair or maintenance. The second is in the case of a failure or emergency when the gas in the station must be evacuated safely and as quickly as possible. Most stations are now designed such that the compressors will remain pressurized when idle and routine venting will only be required when work has to be done on the units. Sometimes recompression with portable compressors is used to conserve gas in these circumstances. All vents must be designed to be able to deal with the volumes of gas involved and located in safe areas. Local environmental limitations also have to be taken into account
Emergency Shutdown System The compressor station shall be provided with an emergency shutdown system by means of which the station will be isolated from the pipeline and gas flow through the station will be stopped. A blowdown system will release the gas from station piping to the atmosphere. Operation of the emergency shutdown system also shall cause the shutdown of all gas compressing equipment and deenergize the electrical facilities located in the vicinity of gas headers and in the compressor room except those that provide emergency lighting for personnel protection and those that are necessary for protection of equipment. The emergency shutdown system shall be operable from any one of at least two locations outside the gas area of the station, preferably near exit gates in the station fence, but not more than 150 meters (500 feet) from the limits of the station. Blowdown piping shall extend to a location where the discharge of gas is unlikely to create a hazard to the compressor station.
Pressure Relief Systems

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Pressure relief or other suitable protective devices of sufficient capacity and sensitivity shall be installed and maintained to assure that maximum allowable operating pressure of the station piping and equipment is not exceeded by more than 5%.
Flare System Flare lines shall be provided to exhaust the gas from the pressure relief and vent valves to atmosphere and shall be extended to a location where the gas may be discharged without hazard. Flare lines shall be sized to provide sufficient capacity so that they will not interfere with the performance of the relief and vent valves.
4.3 Compressor Arrangements The question of whether a station should be equipped with compressor units in series or in parallel cannot be answered universally. While series arrangement may present some advantages when standby compressor units are not required, parallel arrangement provides better results when standby units are required and also provides more operating flexibility under failure scenario analysis. The pipeline designer should evaluate different configurations and compressor unit sizes and perform a technical and economical feasibility study to identify which configuration presents a better overall economic result. The decision process has to take into account issues such as capacity ramp-up, further expansion, back-up strategies, operational strategy and transient analysis. For any given pipeline compressor station, two units in series will yield a higher specific speed than two units in parallel. Thus, once the driver size (and thus the power turbine speed) and the desired head and flow through the station are
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known, one can conceptually decide whether the series or the parallel approach would lead to better aerodynamic performance. With modern compressors and stages with a wide operating range, it is usually possible to have identical stages for both the low pressure and the high pressure compressor in a series application. Intercooling is usually not necessary nor does it typically yield significant savings in power demand.
Station Spacing Initially, compressor stations will be built and spaced every few hundred kilometres along the natural gas pipeline. If natural gas volumes increase in the future, more compressors stations and compressor units will be added. In fact, the final number of stations is influenced by the amount of natural gas to be moved in the pipeline. Compressor station spacing is fundamentally a matter of balancing capital and operating costs in order to meet the planned operating conditions of the transmission system The process can become somewhat involved and lengthy, particularly as the selection of spacing needs to be designed in such a way to address a capacity ramp-up scenario that will cover not only the initial condition but the future years associated to the economics of the pipeline. In case of unexpected growth opportunities, we can also rely on loop lines that in some specific conditions may be a better choice to increase capacity and must be considered under an overall expansion strategy of the transportation company. For a given pipe diameter, the distance between compressor stations may be computed from the gas flow equation, assuming a value of pipeline operating pressure (station discharge pressure) and a next compressor station suction pressure limited to the maximum compression ratio adopted for the project. Ideally, the pipeline should operate as close to maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) as possible, as high density in
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the line of the flowing gas gives best gas flow efficiency. This would point to the selection of close compressor station spacing although this approach would not be the best economical decision. A decision based on the pipeline economics is the recommended one. Based on the required gas flow, an initial diameter is assumed that results in a reasonable compression ratio (usually around 1.3-1.4 for transmission lines) and gas velocity, and the compressor station spacing is established by setting the maximum discharge pressure at the MAOP. Other diameters are tested and compressor station spacing calculations are performed again. The optimum diameter is determined based on minimizing capital and operating costs, resulting in a chart (the so called J curves, because of their shape) that will plot transportation ratio in US$/MMBTU against transportation capacity, based on predefined economic assumptions and risks.
Station Control Compressor station controls can be divided into two sections, unit control and station control. Digital technology is now used throughout both systems. The unit control utilizes a microprocessor which will control the turbine compressor unit to run to set points under the direction of the operator or the station control system. The set points can be flow or pressure. Commonly, a flow or suction pressure will be the control parameter with discharge pressure and/or suction pressure as overrides. The control protocol will include limits to ensure safe operation. These limits will include pressure and temperatures on discharge and suction on the compressor as well as speed and flow and pressure ratio in relation to surge. The unit control will monitor
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the compressor operation to ensure that it will not run into surge. If the operation of the compressor nears the surge line, the unit control will instruct the recycle valve to open and so maintain safe operation. Should the recycle condition continue for a time, and if coolers are not provided in the recycle line or compressor discharge, the unit will be shut down on high discharge temperature. In addition to control and safety, the unit control will monitor key operating parameters and provide video output on demand and printout on a routine basis to provide a continuous record of operation. These readouts and records can be used for troubleshooting and maintenance. The station control system will oversee the unit operation and also provide the interface between the operators and the plant. It will provide video and print data recording of all key station parameters. It has become common practice to operate stations and units remotely from central dispatch stations and the station control systems will report to the central station via a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
Compressor Housings Consideration must be given to buildings to house the compressor units or at the very least to provide some weather protection. In many areas the question of noise is a primary concern. Noise has to comply with local environmental regulations which will dictate the extent of acoustic treatment needed in the enclosures or buildings. Also, for some gas turbine units, more particularly high-performance aero-derivative types where casings are hot, special attention must be paid to unit enclosures with forced ventilation to ensure adequate cooling. This is discussed in the next section. The compressor housing will include an inlet filtration system and an exhaust system, both of which will
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incorporate silencing. Many gas turbine installations have adopted the pulse jet cleaning filters in place of fixed or moving media screens.
4.4 Environmental Considerations Noise is a significant environmental pollutant and reducing it is an essential part of compressor station design. Noise-reduction technology has reached the level that for most practical purposes a compressor station can be designed to contribute less than 3dB to the pre-existing background noise level. Local requirements shall be taken into account for a proper design. The design of the unit enclosures, buildings, exhaust and inlet silencers are subject to stringent specifications. Double-wall enclosures are frequently used to control unit noise emissions. Exhaust emission from the gas turbines now have to meet the environmental limits of the location. Modern gas turbines are designed with low emission combustion systems to meet these requirements. These systems may be dry or wet low NOx and are becoming the standard equipment for all gas turbines.
Design Considerations The design of a compressor station is closely related to the gas volumes to be transported, the gas quality, (MAOP), compression ratio, power requirements and the configuration of compressor units whether in series or parallel. A technical and economic approach must be applied in selecting the best arrangement for the gas pipeline project as well as an availability study for all the stations and units including failure analysis to allow the definition of standby units. When planning a compressor station or, for a new pipeline, a number of stations, certain considerations need be made.
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These include: a. Steady-state and transient capabilities and requirements of the system b. Growth requirements and capability c. Total cost of ownership and delivered cost to shippers and customers.
The first consideration involves the capability to cope with changes in flow capacity on all time scales (i.e., hourly, daily, and seasonally). The pipeline hydraulics relate pressure losses to the flow through the pipeline, determine the compressor operating conditions in terms of head and actual flow, and subsequently determine the required power from the driver. Contractual requirements and obligations, such as pressures and volumes at transfer points, have to be considered. The second consideration deals with the fact that the nominal capacity of a pipeline may grow when additional customers demand a higher supply of natural gas. In fact, many new pipelines start out with 50% and less capacity and grow to full capacity over several years, or are sized for easy expansion. Often, the prediction of the rate of growth shows a significant degree of uncertainty. The growth scenarios, if foreseeable, drive a station layout to allow additional power to be installed at the station or additional stations along the pipeline. The alternative scenario, where the pipeline usage declines over the years (e.g., because gas supply from the field declines), is also a possibility. Depending on the compressor station arrangements, compressor units size and the installed power percentage of the standby units per station, the effect of the CAPEX and OPEX for the station may overcome the advantage of having larger compressor units with better thermodynamic performance that require less fuel gas for operation. The fuel gas cost is also very important to be taken into account while doing the feasibility analysis for the gas pipeline project. Fuel gas plays an important role in compressor station and gas pipeline design. Fuel gas
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must be transported through the pipeline to serve the stations and therefore will take away transportation capacity that would be used for transporting gas to the market and providing revenue for the project. Fuel gas saved by an optimum compressor station design will also lower operation costs
REFERENCES
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1. Akhtar, M.S., Selection and Optimization of Centrifugal Compressors for Oil and Gas Applications. GPA Europe Spring Meeting, Bergen, Norway (May 2002). 2. Cleveland, T., and Mokhatab, S., Practical Transmission: Practical Design of Compressor Stations in Natural Gas Transmission Lines, Hydrocarbon Engineering, 10, 12, 41-46 (December 2005). 3. Kurz, R., and Ohanian, S., Modeling Turbomachinery in Pipeline Simulation, PSIG Annual Meeting, Bern, Switzerland (Oct. 15-17, 2003). 4. Kurz, R., Ohanian, S., and Lubomirsky, M., On Compressor Station Layout, ASME Paper GT2003- 38019 (2003). 5. Mokhatab, S., Poe, W.A., and Speight, J.G., Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission & Processing, 1st Edition, Gulf Professional Publishing, Elsevier Science, MA, USA (2006). 6. Santos, S.P., Series or Parallel Arrangement for a Compressor Station? A Recurring Question that needs a Convincing Answer, Annual PSIG Meeting, CA, USA (Oct. 20-22, 2004). 7. Pigging as a Flow Assurance Solution Avoiding Slug Catcher Overflow Aidan ODonoghue, Pipeline Research Limited, Glasgow UK, Presented at PPSA London Seminar 2005 8. http://www.pipeequip.com/site0409/index.php?option=com_joomgallery &func=viewcategory&catid=6&Itemid=85 9. http://www.egpet.net/vb/showthread.php?4074-An-introduction-topipeline-pigging. 10.http://www.bradfordbrothers.com/prod06.htm
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11.http://www.jenex.co.uk/txtvalves.htm 12.http://enr.construction.com/features/powerindus/archives/081105-1.asp 13.
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Abbreviations and acronyms AGA API American Gas Association American Petroleum Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers BS British Standard
DICA Direction Des Carburants (France) DIN DNV GRI ILI ISO German Standards Det Norske Veritas (Norway) Gas Research Institute (US) In-line inspection International Standards Organization
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IP
Institute of Petroleum (UK)
MAOP Maximum allowable operating pressure MFL Magnetic-flux leakage
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers (US) NDE NDT NPD Non-destructive evaluation Non-destructive testing Norwegian Petroleum Directorate Office of Pipeline Safety, a division of the US Department of Transportation (DOT)
OPS
SMYS Specified minimum yield stress TUV UT Technischer Uberwachungs Verein (Germany) Ultrasonic testing
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Assignment On Traps

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@00278986

Fig 2: PIG TRAP RECIEVER / LAUNCHER

In addition, for unmanned or particularly hazardous or frequent pigging

2.0 BLOCK VALVES

c) floating slab gates and d) wedge or expanding gates. .

Fig 7: Remote gate valve valve

Fig 8: Manual gate

Pressure Relief Systems

11.http://www.jenex.co.uk/txtvalves.htm 12.http://enr.construction.com/features/powerindus/archives/081105-1.asp 13.

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers BS British Standard

Institute of Petroleum (UK)

MAOP Maximum allowable operating pressure MFL Magnetic-flux leakage

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