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find a control law u such that, starting from anywhere in a region w, the
state x tends to 0 as t->inf.
Tracking: Given a nonlinear dynamic system described by
x' = f(x,u,t) Y= h(x)
and a desired output trajectory yd, find a control law for the input u such
that, starting from any initial state in a region w, the tracking error
y(t)-yd(t) goes to zero, while the whole state x remains bounded.
Robust Control:
In pure model based nonlinear control, control law is based on a
nominal model of the physical system - uncertainties are not
considered.
In robust nonlinear control, controller is designed based on
consideration of both nominal model and some characterization of the
model uncertainties.
Applicable to a specific classes of nonlinear systems and generally
require state measurements.
Adaptive Control:
Deals with uncertain or time varying systems.
Adaptive control is inherently nonlinear.
Applicable mainly to systems with known dynamic structure, but
unknown constant or slowly varying parameters.
Used mostly for SISO systems.
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CS685
Controlling
Robotic
- Lecture
Systems
Suppose that we would like the robot for follow particular trajectory.
We have already looked
at ways how to generate trajectories specified in terms of polynomials given the constraints in
terms of initial positions and velocities. From the trajectory generation step we will obtain desired
trajectories Bd(t), Bd(t), Bd(t) (e.g. where Bd(t) is a vector of joint variables of the manipulator)
as
functions of time. So one way how we can achieve the desired objective is simply generate torques
7(t), by substituting Bd(t), Bd(t), Bd(t) into equation 1 and obtain
(1)
7 = M(Bd)Bd + C(Bd, Bd)Bd + N(Bd, Bd)
Hence if we start with the same initial condition as the one we specified in our trajectory generation
step, we will indeed obtain the desired trajectories, thanks to the property of uniqueness of the
solutions of differential equations, given that the initial conditions are the same. This control
strategy is called open-loop control and would work well if the model represented by our equations
is perfect. In real life the models are rarely perfect and the are many other effects which are
very difficult to model explicitly. So for example if our initial condition would be slightly off say
B(O) 1= Bd(O) we would never be able to correct to this error. In our example the error can be simply
defined as:
e = B - Bd, e = B- Bd, e = B- Bd
What we would like to do is design a control law which will have a capability to correct for the error.
Hence we would to have some systematic means how to incorporate the error in the computation
of the control law (in this case the expression for 7) such that the final trajectory will gradually
converge to the desired trajectory.
The type of control law is called feedback control law and the
system together with the feedback control law is referred to as closed loop system. The choice of
appropriate control law will then guarantee that our system will indeed exhibit the desired behavior
in spite of the inaccuracies if the model and the errors in initial conditions. There area of control
theory offers many techniques for the design of appropriate control laws as well as quantification
whether the control law is doing "the right thing" .
Examples
Lets have a look at some examples and different components of the control law. In the
following examples we will assume that the output of the system y is directly the state x. Consider
mass-spring-damper
mechanism, first in the absence of any external forces
mx + ksx + kdX = 0
In the homework we had a chance to observe how the behavior of the state x = [x, xjT depends on
the choice of constants ks, kd and initial conditions. Hence the open loop dynamics of the system
IS
x(t)
-~ -~ ] x(t)
and the control input in this case is zero. Suppose now that we will apply some external force of
to the current position and current
the following form Fext = -kpx - kvx which is proportional
velocity of the mass. This would yield following dynamics equations
mx + ksx + kdX -
-kpx - kvx
(2)
(3)
Note that the second equation describes the system of the same type, but by adding the external
force terms, we effectively changed the coefficients of the system and hence change the system's
behavior.
Example
For mass-spring-damper
system above, suggest the formula for Fext such that the
dynamic equations of the closed-loop system will have the following have the following dynamics,
will behave as a simple point mass
x = Fext
We did this example in class (Fext will be some function on F).
Example
and no friction).
x = Fext
We would like the point mass follow particular
Xd, Xd, Xd. Suppose we first apply external force
trajectory
ahead of time
= Xd
Fext
If we simply use this control law the dynamics of the system would be
x = Xd
In case we would like to compensate for the possible initial errors in x, x let's consider the following
control law
Fext
with e
=x
- Xd and e
= x-
= Xd
kve - kpe
Xd - kve - kpe
(4)
e + kve + kpe
(5)
The above equations now describe the error dynamics. We can describe this dynamic system in
terms of state equations and investigate the behavior of the error as a function of time and choose
the constants kp, kv appropriately to yield the desired performance. In the context of robotics this
control law is also referred to as computed torque law. The Xd part of the control law is also referred
to as feed-forward term and it would be sufficient if our model is perfect.
Proportional
Derivative
Control
law which we can apply is to generate
and current position and velocities
= -kve
Fext
no feed-forward term.
In practice, when the
quite hard to achieve without the feed-forward
law leaves some steady state error. In order to
integral term can be added to the system.
= -(kve + kpe + ki
.
.
an open-loop
J edt)
system?
correlate
The proportional control law at each instance of time responds to the current error in position.
How fast should it respond is specified by constant kp which is called proportional gain. If
the gain is too high the system can overshoot and eventually lead to oscillations. Damping
can be used to prevent the oscillations.
The integral
control
provides
another
improvement
1.1
- kpe
Mobile
agent
control
strategies
to the control
the
for errors.
- low
level behaviors
In the context of mobile robotics, in many instances the task cannot be clearly specified in term
of trajectories, unless the agent is involved in some precise maneuvering, such as lane change in
the autonomous driving, or parallel parking. However there are many useful low level strategies
one can develop in order for the robot to move around in the environment and accomplish some
elementary tasks. The design of these strategies follow the same principles, but are more tied to the
environment the robot resides in. Before we review some basic strategies we will discuss different
ways how to represent environment and address the problem of finding a path from current to
desired configuration.
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