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Materials Science: ENGI-4032 LAB #3 CREEP DEFORMATION OF METALS Jonathan Evangelista Group #72 Experiment Performed: October 12, 2011 Experiment Report Submitted: October 19, 2011

Purpose: The purpose of this lab was to investigate how the factors of stress and temperature affect creep rates in metals (solder, specifically). Theory:

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.1 shows the setup of the lab experiment. A piece of solder with length Lo (Lo = 1) is tightened in place so that when the mass is lifted off of the stand, it creates a strain on the solder. The factors which are investigated in this lab are temperature and stress. The temperature which the metal is subject to is 20C. The weight of the mass varies depending on the experiment. Solder diameter is provided at 3mm or 0.188. The strain formula is: = (L/Lever Arm Ration) / Lo

Figure 1.2

When the solder ruptures, a new measurement is taken to compare the rupture length (see Figure 1.2) to the original length (Lo) of 1 inch. The final strain reading can be taken when the rupture length is calculated: final = (Lrupture - Lo) / Lo The pieces of the ruptured solder can be put back together afterwards to measure the change in length. Procedure A piece of solder, with 0.118mm diameter was placed in between two grips and tightened so that it would not slip under high strain. The measurement of the solder tightened between the metal was measured at 1 inch. After the piece of solder was tightened in place, a measuring device was calibrated to measure the change in length that the solder experienced. The stand used to keep the mass in equilibrium (see Figure 1.1) was removed from underneath it and the strain on the solder begun. Readings were taken from the measuring device to observe the change in length of the solder every 30 seconds to a minute (depending on the experiment). When the solder ruptured, or experiment time expired (depending on the experiment), the final time was taken. Once the solder had ruptured, or experiment time had expired, the solder was removed from in between the grips and placed back together. The final measurement of the solder was taken in order to observe the final change in length. Equipment -0.118mm Solder -Wire cutters -Grips (used to hold solder in place) -Screwdriver (used to tighten the grips) -Mass (varies depending on experiment number) -Stand for the mass (to keep the mass in equilibrium prior to beginning test) -Electric drill -Strain Gauge (measured change in length of solder) -Structure which was used to conduct the experiment (mass on one side pulling downward creating the strain on the piece of solder). -Stop watch

Results (PART A) Data: Sample 1 Sample length: 1 inch Diameter: 0.118 inches Cross Sectional Area: 0.0109 inches Load: 48 lbs Lever Arm ratio: 3:1 Stress: 4403 psi Overall Length: 2.375 inches Time (Minutes) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 L (inches) 0.2 0.24 0.25 0.263 0.275 0.289 0.303 0.318 0.331 0.346 0.361 0.379 0.395 0.412 0.43 0.449 0.468 0.488 0.507 0.53 0.551 0.572 Strain (in/in) 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.19 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17 17.5 18 0.598 0.625 0.658 0.678 0.707 0.739 0.773 0.808 0.845 0.886 0.93 0.978 1.031 1.092 1.178 0.199 0.208 0.219 0.226 0.236 0.246 0.258 0.269 0.282 0.295 0.310 0.326 0.344 0.364 0.393

***Rupture Time: 18min 10sec Note: Strain = (L/Lever Arm Ratio)/Lo

0.450 0.400 0.350 Strain (in/in) 0.300 0.250 0.200 0.150 0.100 0.050 0.000 0 5 10 Time (Minutes) 15 20 Strain (in/in) Linear (Strain (in/in))

Figure 1.3 Sample 1 Creep Strain vs. Time Graph The steady state creep rate for this sample is calculated as follows: s = t = slope = rise/run = 0.05 /4 = 0.0125 The change in length of this specimen from the time the specimen begun to experience strain until the rupture is 0.572 inches.

Data: Sample 2 Sample length: 1 inch Diameter: 0.118 inches Cross Sectional Area: 0.0109 inches Load: 39 lbs Lever Arm ratio: 3:1 Stress: 3578 psi Time (Minutes) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 DL (inches) 0.146 0.159 0.171 0.182 0.191 0.2 0.208 0.216 0.224 0.233 0.241 0.249 0.257 0.265 0.274 0.283 0.291 0.3 0.308 0.318 0.326 0.336 0.345 0.355 0.365 0.375 0.385 0.396 0.407 0.417 0.43 0.44 0.452 0.465 Strain (in/in) 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.061 0.064 0.067 0.069 0.072 0.075 0.078 0.080 0.083 0.086 0.088 0.091 0.094 0.097 0.100 0.103 0.106 0.109 0.112 0.115 0.118 0.122 0.125 0.128 0.132 0.136 0.139 0.143 0.147 0.151 0.155 17 17.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5 21 21.5 22 22.5 23 23.5 24 24.5 25 0.478 0.491 0.504 0.518 0.533 0.548 0.564 0.581 0.598 0.617 0.637 0.658 0.682 0.705 0.735 0.772 0.85 0.159 0.164 0.168 0.173 0.178 0.183 0.188 0.194 0.199 0.206 0.212 0.219 0.227 0.235 0.245 0.257 0.283

0.300

0.250

0.200 Strain (in/in)

0.150

Strain (in/in) Linear (Strain (in/in))

0.100

0.050

0.000 0 5 10 15 Time (Minutes) 20 25 30

Figure 1.4 Sample 2: Creep Strain vs. Time Graph s = t = slope = rise/run = 0.08 /8 = 0.01 The change in length of this specimen from the time the specimen begun to experience strain until the rupture is 0.850 inches.

Data: Sample 3 Sample length: 1 inch Diameter: 0.118 inches Cross Sectional Area: 0.0109 inches Load: 32 lbs Lever Arm ratio: 2:1 Stress: 2936 psi Overall Length: 2.375 inches Time (Minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 DL (inches) 0.25 0.251 0.252 0.253 0.255 0.256 0.257 0.258 0.259 0.26 0.261 0.262 0.263 0.264 0.265 0.266 0.267 0.268 0.269 0.2695 0.2705 Strain (in/in) 0.125 0.126 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.128 0.129 0.129 0.130 0.130 0.131 0.131 0.132 0.132 0.133 0.133 0.134 0.134 0.135 0.135 0.135

0.138 0.136 0.134 Strain (in/in) 0.132 0.130 0.128 0.126 0.124 0 5 10 15 Time (Minutes) 20 25 Strain (in/in) Linear (Strain (in/in))

Figure 1.5 Sample 3: Creep Strain vs. Time Graph s = t = slope = rise/run = 0.01 /20 = 0.0005 The change in length of this specimen from the time the specimen begun to experience strain until the rupture is 0.0205 inches. The second part of part A of the report is to determine the relationship between steady-state creep rate and applied stress by plotting ln vs. ln . The strain is found above by calculating the rise over run (slope for each individual sample). The stress is calculated at the beginning of each sample procedure: i.e. = P/A which is; stress = load / cross-sectional area For sample 1, = 48 lbs / 0.0109 inches = 4403 psi Strains 0.0125 0.01 0.0005 Stress 4403 3578 2936 ln s -4.38203 -4.60517 -7.6009 ln 8.390041 8.182559 7.984803

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

The above chart shows the relationship between steady-state creep rate and stress.

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8.45 8.4 8.35 8.3 8.25 ln s 8.2 8.15 8.1 8.05 8 7.95 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 ln -3 -2 -1 0

Figure 1.6: Above is the relationship between steady-state creep rate and applied stress. The k values are found by the following formula:

k = s / ^n
Where n is the slope. We calculate the slope by taking the rise over run at steady state which, in the case of figure 1.6 would be; n = 0.07 / 1 = 0.07 Therefore, Strain s 0.0125 0.01 0.0005 Stress 4403 3578 2936 ln s -4.38203 -4.60517 -7.6009 k ln 8.390041 0.006948 8.182559 0.00564 7.984803 0.000286 n = 0.07

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

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0.450 0.400 0.350 0.300 Strain (in/in) 0.250 Sample 1 0.200 0.150 0.100 0.050 0.000 0 5 10 15 Time (Minutes) 20 25 30 Sample 3 Sample 2

Figure 1.7: This is just a graph of all the above graphs together. Sample 1, sample 2 and sample 3 can be seen in figures 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 respeectively.

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(PART B) CREEP TEST Sample Diameter Lever Arm Ratio Load Temperature Sample Length Time (min.) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0.120 in 2:1 6.069 lbs C in (Lo) 0 5.131 0.041 0.058 0.073 0.088 0.102 0.116 0.13 0.144 0.158 0.171 0.185 0.198 0.212 0.225 0.238 0.251 0.263 0.279 0.299 0.323 0.348 15 5.054 0.055 0.079 0.101 0.121 0.142 0.162 0.181 0.201 0.221 0.241 0.26 0.28 0.299 0.329 0.369 rupture 22 4.562 0.059 0.083 0.105 0.126 0.147 0.167 0.188 0.209 0.23 0.252 0.276 0.308 0.35 rupture

Figure 1.7: Above is the chart of the data for the creep test which measures temperature as a factor.

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Figure 1.8: Above shows the steady state strain, natural logarithm of steady state strain, and the reciprocal of temperature in degrees kelvin. The corresponding graph is shown below (Figure 1.9).

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-4.9 -5 -5.1 -5.2 -5.3 -5.4 -5.5 -5.6 0.0033 Linear (SSR vs. Temperature Recipricol)

ln s

SSR vs. Temperature Recipricol

0.0034

0.0035 1/T

0.0036

0.0037

The activation energy (in the graph above) is calculated using the following formula: Q = -nk Where; k is the Boltzmanns constant = 8.31 J/mol-K n is the slope Q = -(0.0175/0.0001) x (8.31J/mol-K) = 1454.25 J/mol-K Shown below is the graph of strain with respect to time for Part B, where temperature is a factor.

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0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 Strain 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Time (Minutes) Temperature 1 Temperature 2 Temperature 3

Figure 1.10: Graph of strain with respect to time at 3 different temperatures (see Figure 1.8). Temperature 1 = 0 degrees Celsius Temperature 2 = 15 degrees Celsius Temperature 3 = 22 degrees Celsius

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Discussion The results which were obtained in this lab show the significance of how stress has such an effect on strain of solder. Through the two tests which were conducted, as well as information from previously conducted tests by others, the comparison can be made from one solder sample to another solder sample where the mass (the P factor) affecting the stress has an effect on the strain. It can be seen in Figure 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5, that as the mass which is putting the strain on the solder decreases, the time before a rupture significantly decreases, and in the last sample, a rupture was not even observed in the amount of time which was allotted in the experiment. The second part of this lab compared strain with respect to temperature. It was observed that when the temperature increases; and with the same stress; the rupture time decreases. Possible sources of error, which are not noticed in this lab, could come from human error when tightening the solder into the grips. If the solder is not tightened properly, the solder may slip. Another error may come from not calibrating the measuring device which measures the change in length of solder; an error is also possible in the reading of the measurement. None of these errors occurred in our lab. Conclusion The purpose of this lab was to investigate how the factors of stress and temperature affect creep rates in metals. In the case of solder, which was the metal used in our lab, the following conclusions can be made: When stress upon the solder increased, the strain on the solder increased, and the rupture time decreased. Basically, when the stress is greater on the metal, it will rupture in less time. When the temperature in which the solder is subjected to increases, the time it will take for the solder to rupture decreases, even if the stress on the solder is constant.