2 Languagingand Education

A Child's Languagc Usc: A Sccnario prois Follow l4-ye:rr-oldTatyirna rrsthe c<lnrputcr turncclon. Thc wcb-basccl gramTatyanauseshrrsrr clrop-clown rlrenunrrrkingit 1'rossible switch between t<l her thc theUkrainianin which her schooliniiis crlrrcluctccl, llussirrrr frrthcrspeaks n t o h e r ,a n d t h e F r e n c l rs h c w r r n t st o l e r r r n .A n c l w h c n f h e c o t t r p u t c r ' s t i c r o p h o n es t u r n e c o n , T r r t y r r n ra v i d l y l i s t e r r s< l t h c c l i f i e r e n t o i c c so f t h c t n a n y v i r t l g a m e t h a t a r e a v a i l r r b l ci,n U k r a i n i r r t t I l . u s s i r t tF,r c n c h ,l t n g l i s h ,o r r t t t yo t h c r s r , language back she fancics. Wetch thc scrccn rrs the chilcl scrrclsnrcss,rges a n df o r t h ,w i t h m u l t i p l c s i g n s ,w o r c l s ,a r r c l i s L r r r cs r . n b i n i l rtg c o n m r u r l r c a t e v lo o ncitrby, effectively with the nrany participants ()n thc othcr encl, s<lnrctin'rcs b u t m a n yo t h e r t i r n e sf , r r r r w r r y . Now listen to Tatyanrr rrs shc spcaks to hcr othcr tccnirgc sisters.Thc Ukrainian uses very differerrtfrorn that which shc spcakswith her trtothcr is she 'l'hc or the Russianwhich shc spc,rksto her fathcr. langurrgcshc hcrrrson television and radio depenclson who in tlrc hornc is holcling thc renrote control. rrs Differentchannelsoftcn bring othcr languagcs, other vrrrictics, the characters frorn rich to poor, frrlnr change from professionrrl w<lrl<ing-class, to adults children,and as pr()grilnrsoriginrtc irr different gcograpl'rical arerrs to for specific populations. Now enter Tatyana's school, but stol-rat the playground. There you scc o f t h e s a m e l a n g u a g e - b a c k g n r u n dn t e r a c t i n g , s ( ) m e t i m e sg o i n g , i and forth from languagepracticesof play ancl friendship to those of Other times, children of cliffcrent lrrnguagebackgrounclsare - playing,talking, engaging in langr-rage practicesas they relatc t<r

Peers. walk into a classroom. Tatyan:r, who was chatting comfortably with

ftiends the playground,is now sitting cluietly alt a desk. Sometimes, in

22

tsilinsudlism and Education the teachercalls for group work and Tatyana is :rskedto completea task with classmates.But the task is directed, tl-relanguage is controlled, and only t " a c c o u n t a b l e a l k " r o n t h e s u b i e c tt l f t h e l e s s o na n d i n t h e s t a n d a r dl a n g u a g e of instruction at the particular tirne is allowed by the teacher. If Tatyana is lucky, she is in a bilingual classroom,but even there she'snot allowed to Llseher multiple languagepracticesto cclmpleteschcloltasks' to communicate with ()thers, to think clearrly,to show the understandings acquired, the krrowledgeintcrnalized.The teacher carefully controls the lanis that is to bc used during instructiorr.Assessment done only using Eluage . ( ) f t e nj u s t i n t h e d o m i n a n t s c h o o l l a n g u a g e E v e n p a p e r a n d p e n c i l t a s k s ,a n d require only tasks usually the supports :lssessnent, zrcacletnic wherr tcchrr<tlogy o d w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e , e v < t i d f s o u n d s ,o f v i s u a l s ,o f o t h e r s i g n s a n d l a n g u a g e b t p r a c t i c e s h a t n . r a y e i n t h e c h i l d ' s l i n g u i s t i cr e p e r t o i r e . tatlk is often very different from that of thc childrerr.And the The tcacher's u c l i s c g u r s c s e d i n t h e c l a s s r o i l mi s v e r y d i f f e r e n tf r t l m t h e a u t h e n t i c ,m u l t i p l e t c o l n m u n i c r l r i o n h a t t a k e s p l : r c ei n t h e c h i l d r e n ' sh o m e r r n d i n i n f o r m a l s e t p s w t t i n g s . F , v e n e r r c h e r r sh o p r i d e t h e n r s e l v eo n u s i t t gr r n i t r l t o v i t t i v e e d a g o g y ( ( lkt F ) s e q t r e n c ca l s o l f a l l p r e y a t t i r n e st o t h e I n i t i i r t i o n - R e s p o n s e - F c e d b a c beenidentificd th ) r e f c r r e c t 9 a s I R E : I n i t i a t i o n - R e s p o n s e - F l v a l u a t i o r ra t h a s l a O , i n t h e l i t c r r t t r , r r(c a z c l e n l g t t t l ; S i n c l a i r& ( l o u l t h a r d , 1 9 7 - 5 ) s c o m n l o n t n and the with the tcacherquesti()l1il1g, student resp()nding, classrootl cliscottrse, and giving fecclback. evrrltrating the tcrrcl.rcr

Overview
w ln this chrrptcr, e will clisctrss:
e r langurtg,econstructlolls; l:rrrguagirtg irr cliffercnt contexts.

Introduction
of the Befgre we ex:1nrinc concept of bilingualisrnthat underliesalll understandings language b i l i n g L r ae d u c a t i o ni n C h a p t e r s3 a n d 4 , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h i n k a b o u t l are languageis both the rnedium through which school subiects taught irself,because is also an importanr subject studied in school. Bilingual education often irrrd l f i e i n v 6 l v c s d u c a t i n gn l a n g u a g e s . ru n c q u l l p o s i t i o n sn c l p o w c r . s o i t i s i m p o r t a n r languageshave come to have the powerful role that first to disclss how certain they have today. Educarorsand scholarsof bilirrgual eclucationalso need to be aware of the purthe standard acaand especially posesfor the imposition of certain languageccldes, demic language.Juxtaposingthese notions with the fluid ways in which languages

Languaging dnd Education with

23

v
not

to lan-

are used in the twenty-first century, what we will here call "languaging," allo."vs usto understandthe changesth.rt we must make conceptuallyin or-rr thinking about language support the chilclren'slanguagepracticesin classrooms. to In this chapter, we focus on the complex mle that bilingual schools play regarding til/hereas schools,even monolingual ones, must negotiatethe standard language. all languagethat tl-rey use and promote, and the intricate language pracfices of it students, is in bilingual schools that this complexity comes to the fore. In bilingualschools the heterogeneity languagepractices of involving two or more languages is much mclre intricate thirn the tw() standard languagesin isolation that schools use and promote. It is preciselv this tensic>n between the heteroglossiclanguage p r a c t i c e o f e m e r g e n tb i l i n g u a l ra n d h i l i n g u a l s t u d e n t s , n d t h e s t a n d a r dl a n g u a g e s a promotedin school, that makes bilingual eclucrrtion such a fertile ground for thrnki n g a b o u t l a n g u a g e . t i s t h e t a s k o f a n y b i l i n g u a ls c h o o l t o b u i l d o n t h i s t e n s i o r r , l a s i t a c k n o w l e d g e s n d u t i l i z . e sh e c h i l d ' s c o m p l e x l i n g L r i s t i c r a c t i c c st o e n s u r e a t p that the use of two or more st:rndard languagesrrre incorporrrtedinto the child's linguisticrepcrtoire.

LanguageConstructions Ianguage Constructing

M a k o n i o n c l P e n r r y c o o k( 2 0 0 7 ) h a v e p r o p o s e c lt h a t ( ) u r p r e s c n t c o n c c p f i o n o f language wirs originally ct>nstructecl statcs thirt wanted to consolidate politicrrl by p o w e r ,a n d i r r s c l d o i n g c s t a b l i s h e da n g u a g ca c a d e m i e sc n c o u r a g e d h e p r e p a r a l , t tion of gramnrilrs, dictionaries, and tleatises strerlgthen to anclstandardize lirnguages, a n d e n c o u r a g e d h e e n u n r e r a t i o n i l a n g u a g c si n w a y s t h a t r n a s k e dt h e i r d i f f e r t o e n c e s r s i m i l a r i t i e s . ' $ ( l i t h e g a r c l o l a n g u a g e c a d e r n i e s ,m o n g t h e f i r s t w a s r h e o r t a a A c c a d e m i a l e l l a( l r u s c a ,f o u r r d e d n F l o r e n c e n 1 5 7 2 t o u p h o l d t h c T u s c : r nd i i r l e c t c i i o f D a n t ea n d P e t r a r c h . n 1 6 3 . 5 a r d i n a l R i c h e l i e u o L r n d e dh e A c a d 6 m i e r a n g a i s e I C f t F .l to prornote clarity, simplicity, and g<xrd taste ir.rFrench. And in 7.1 the Real 3, AcademiaEspaiiola was estirblishedin Spain with its morro of "lnnpia, fila y da esplendor"(cleans, stabilizes, and givessplenclor), chrrmpioningSpanish(Casriliana) and keepingit urlcontamirrated. Throughout the eighteenthcentury, other language a c a d e m i e sl o u r i s h e d i n t u r o p e , a n d A r a b i c b o d i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d n s e v e r a l f i c o u n t r i e si,n c l u c l i n g y r i i r ,I r a q , E g y p t , a n d . f o r d a n .A c a d e m i e sn D a m a s c u sO a i r o , S i , Baghdad, Amm:rn ancl Rabat all work for their own interest in the standarcli z a t i o na n d s p r e a c o f A r a b i c ( I - a r o u s s i , 2 0 0 3 ) .O f f i c i a l a n d s e m i - < > f f i c ia g e n c i e s l al in multilingual African and Asian ccluntries are concerned with both lilnguirge purification, as well as languageselection.In Mal:rysia, Indonesia,and Singapore, -fhe where Malay is used, Handbook for the Formatitn ofTechnical Terms was agreed pon in 1975. u In contrast to these efforts to control language,there has never been an official English larrguageacaderny.The rnaior rep<-rsirory standard English is in dicfor tionaries,though there have been nrany individual guidebookson usage(one of the more famous being Fowler's Modern English Usage [1968, revised by Sir Enrest

24

Bilingualism and Education

In Gowers, Oxford, Oxford University Press]). 1755, SamuelJohnson publishedhis English,but rejectingwhat he called linguistic "embalmgreat dicionary, stabilizing Noah'Websterpublishedhis dictionary in 1827, removing ing." In the United States, "improprieties and vulgarisms," but staying away from prescription. That the construction of language, as we know it today, is tied to political control is evident, for example, in the case of Spanish.The year of the encounter between the Old and the New \il/orld, 1.492,is also the year of the conquestof the last Arab kingdorn of the Iberian Peninsulain Granada and of the expulsionof Jews by the Catholic monarchsl it is also the year of publication of Elio Antonio de Nebrija's 1anlmar, thc first grammar of a modern turopean language.Nebriia's work cxplicitly Iinks the standardizirtionof language,through a grammar, to the of c<rnscrlidaticrn politic:rl powcr, as it claims: "siempre ld lengua fue companera of del imlterio" (languagewas always the corr.rpani<>n empire). w T h c s o c i a lc o n s t r u c t i o no f l a n g u a g e a s n o t s i m p l y l i n r i t e dt o E u r o p e .I n K o r e a , alphabet organizedinto for exarrrple,King Sejong inventcd Hangul, the pl.ronenric t c t s y l l a b i cb k r c k si n t h e f l f t e e n t hc e n t u r y .H a n g u l r e p l : r c e dh e C h i n e s e h a r a c t e r sh a t had becn usccl. "constnrctecl" state lirnguagcswere then ln the cirse of colonized popr,rlations, 2 " r r c l n r i n i s t r a t i v e lry s s i g n e d "t o t h c r n ( M a k o n i a n c l P e t t r r y c o o k , 0 0 7 ) . B e y o n d r converted,con:rnd colonial officerswl.rocvangelized, strttes, thcre were rnissionaries ( 2 0 01 ) h a s s h t l w n h o w r cl t r o l l e c l ,r r n c l r c l m i n i s t e r ec o l o n i z e dp o p u l a t i o n s .F . r r i n g t < l n t n r i s s i o r r r r r i c . r n c l o l o n i r r lo f f i c c r si n r p < l s e dh c s c " i t r v e n t e d " n r o n o l i t h i cl a n g r " r a g e s rs c how thc rivirlry betwecn clescribes orrto specific tcrritorics.F<lrcxanrplc,Batitro(200.5) lccl two nrissionrrryorgrtnizitti<lns to separirtcorthographies for two languagcsin ( l r r r r c r o o n I r w r l n d oa r r c B u l u - w h i c h a r e r r u t u a l l y i n t e l l i g i b l cT h e s a n r e a p p c n e d h . l f s r n i s s i o r r a r i cc l c v e l o p e d i f f c r c n t s i g r r i n g y s t c r n s o r s c h o o l sf o r t h e D e a f i n s whcn t h c A f r i c r r nc o n r c x t ( M i l c s , 2 0 0 - 5 ) . i ( o ' a l a n g u : r g e ' n r a k cl st t l e M i i h l h r i u s l c r 2 0 0 0 : 3 l l ) h a s s a i c lt l . r a t h c " n < > t i o n f prtctices discursivc cneagein mLrltiple socictics where pc<lplc irr sense nrosttraclitiorral ( n lv r u r o n g t h c n r s e e s . " M i i h l l r r i u s l e r 1 9 9 6 : . 5 )c x p l a i n st h : r t " t h e i d e r r t i f i c a t i o o f l a n nrrnringis far frorl being an act of objectivcdescription." guagcsancirhcir subscclucnt ':r language'is T < A n c l s p c r r k i r r g l f t h c P a c i f i cr c g i o n , h e c o r r t i r r r - r c"s : h e n o t i o n o f outsidethose <lncwh<lse applicebilityto thc l)acificregion,rrnd in fact tlclst sitr-tations is lluropeanlrrrti()n-states,cxtrcnrelylimitecl"(1996:7). Romaine f<rund within nroclcrn us g w c ( ) n c l r r s i t h M i i h l h r i u s l e r h c n c l c s c r i b i n t h c c o n t p l e xl a n g r - r a g c ei n P a p u aN e w w ( i r - r i r r e a ;h c s i r y s( 1 9 9 4 l 2 ) : " t h e v e r y c o n c c p t< l f c l i s c r e t e: r n g u a g eis p r o b a b l y a s l s litcracy:rnd standardization. such a.rs cultural artiftrctfostcredby proccdures Fiuropean will be an artifact of classificatoryproAlty itttcmpt to coLlltt distinct langr-ragcs p c e d u r c sr i r t h e r t h a n : r r e f l e c t i o no f c o r n m u n i c a t i v e r a c t i c e s . "R e g a r d i n gA f r i c a , I S a n r a r i n( 1 9 9 6 ) h a s r e f e r r c dt o i t a s " i r c o n t i n e r r tw i t h < l u tl a n g u a g e s . " n g e n e r a l , "outsideand abovehuman beings" (Yngve separately harvc beencorrstitutecl languages to have little relartionship the ways in which people use language, 1996: 28) ar.rcl p r i r c t i c e so r w h a t Y n g v e a l s o c a l l st h e i r " l a n g u a g i n g . "l . a n g u a g i n g , , thcir discursive as Shohamy (2006b) says, refers to languagepracticesof people. [-anguages sociallyconstructed- this is the reasonwhy there is no consensus are on the number of languagesin the world. According t<>Ethnologze, collectedby

Langwaging and Education

25

"embalmremoving political encounter of ion of nio de Nebrija's

, to the nerd

In Korea,
Into

SIL International, a Christian-faith-based language-preservation society, there are 40,000 names for different languages,although the society counts close to 7,000 (Grimes,2000).I:,thnologue languages (Gordon, 200-5: pag.) again notes that "the no definitionof languageone choosesdependson rhe purpose one has in identifying a language." Language truly a social notion that cannot be defined without referenceto its is speakers and the context in which it is used (Heller, 2007).It is also true, however)that language is a psychologicaland grammarical notion. For example, the mentalgrammars of person A and person B may be more similar to the grammars of personA and person c, although whether A and B end up speaking the same language a sociopoliticaldecision.It is important then to recognizethat, despite is the fact that languagehas a psychologicaland linguistic component, ir is the social contextin which it is used, and the wishes ancl power of its speakers,that determinesits role - especiallyin schools. The state

rs fhat

werethen Beyond
I, conn how

languages
between )s In

happcned the Dcaf in kes lirtle practices of lannptlon. "

language' is
those

f. Rornaine Papua New probablya non. y proAfrica, In general, language, Languaging, consensus collected by

It is common practice to associatcr starc with a single language. For example, it is generallythoughr that French is spoken in France whereas Spanish is used i1 S p a i n a n d t h a t D a n i s h S i g n I - a n g u a g es u s e d i n D e n n r a r k ,w h e r e a sC o s t a R i c a l ; i SignLanguage used in Costa Rica. However, with rnultilingualismbeing rhe norrl is i n m a n yc o u n t r i e s s u c h a u a s s o c i a t i o n a s b e e nc a l l e di r r t < q u e s t i o n . i n c et h e p u b . h l S f i c a t i o n f A n d e r s o n ' s n f l u e n t i a lI m a g i n e dC o m m u n i t i e s( 1 9 8 3 ) ,i t h a s b e e nw i d e l l ' o i accepted that nation-states were inraginedand narrated into being. A nation-state i s a m e n t a lc o t r s t r u c t r a d eu p < l f a f f i n i r i e s u c h a s l a n g u a g cw i r h i m a g i n e dp e o p l e . n s ( A n d e r s o n 1 9 t i 3 : l - 5 ) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e s en r l t i o n - s t a t e a r e i r n a g i n e dc o n r m u n i r i e s s because "the members of evcn the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow members,ltleet them or cven hear of thcnr, yet in rhe rninc{of each lives t h ei m a g eo f t h e i r c o n r m u n i o n . " I l u t a l t h o u g ht l r c - s n a t i ( ) n - s t a t eu n i t e " i r r a g i n e d " e s communities, tl.reyoften divide "real" communities that share languageancl cr.rlture.Perhaps trost obvior.rs the example lrcre is tl-ratof African nari()ns. the Berlin Ar C o n f e r e n co f 1 f l 8 - 5 p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i c sw e r e c l r a w r ra t r i g h t a n g l e st o t h e c o a s r e , line,and neither linguistic areas nor f<lrmer kingdorns were cclnsidered. That nation-states are constructedis confirrned by the fact that in the beginning of the twentiethcenturl, rhere rvcre only sixty s<>vereign stetes.At the end of \Worlcl War II there were seventy-f<lr-rr states;today there are approximately 200, with the numberchanging frcquently. The constructionsconrinue. The linguistic consequctrces the construction of nation-stetL-s of have lreep great. Few stateshrlveever been monolingual in their makeup, ancleven today there are very few countries in the world that can bc considered linguistically homog e n e o u ss e e [ . e w i s , 1 9 8 1 ) . I c e l a n d i r n d p o s s i b l y K o r e a a r e p r o b a b l y t h e o n l y ( clear-cut caseswhere the entire autochthonous population usesone and the same language the majority of its social interaction. The rest of the world. whether for countriesin the Anrericas,Africa, Asia, Europe, clr oceania, and without raking into account recent immigration patterns, have ahnost never been inhabited by people who share one common language. And yet, rhe predominant ideology

26

Bilingualisnt and E.ducation

rnonolingualismwith the norm, whereby the dominance of one tends to assclciate langr-rage within the bordersof a political entity is consideredas more natural)more desirable, rnore efficient, and more productive for the sake of cohesion than realitywarrants. In 1967, Mackey wrote that "bilingualisnr, frrr frotn being exceptional,is a ltroblent which affects the majority of the world population" (11; our italics;an t u n f o r t u n a t e w a y o f p r e s e n f i n g h e i s s u e si n v o l v e d ) .I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s G r o s j e a n ( 1 9 8 2 v i i ) e s t i m a t e d h a t a t l e a s th a l f t h e w o r l d ' s p o p u l z r t i o n a s b i l i n g u a l ,s i n c e w t as there werc thirtv times as many languages there were countries.In 2000, Grimes i l i s t e d ( r , 8 0 9 l e n g u a g e sn o v e r 2 0 0 c o u n t r i e s . (2003) has pointed out that, in the past, a languageused to be the propMackey indicirted b,v the narle itself; for c'xarrrple,linguaanglictt.lingua erty rf its r.rscrs, with r()mdnLtrustica. Br,rtwith the rise of the state, language becamc associated t h c l a n r l i r r w h i c h i t w a s s p o k e n . I - e s st h a r r 2 5 p e r c e n to f t h e w o r l d ' s 2 0 0 o r s o (Tucker, 191)8).This has c<runtriesrec<lgr.rizc tw() ()r urore <lflici:rl langLrages f<>r imp<lrtant c()nsequenccs education, since it tunrs ()ut that although thereare r l o r e b i l i r r g u i r l r n d n r r r l t i l i n g u a il n c l i v i c l u a l is r t l r e r a i t h a n r n o n o l i n g u a l s ,n d "vorld rn<rrel:rnguages than states,the fact that education takes place in the de jure or in de facto5official languagerncansthat rnost children irr thc world are educated a AItlr<luglr natior.r-statcs have beenmental may langirage other tlran rhat <lf the l.r<lrnc. its arrd imagir.red corrstructs, consequcnces not irnaginaryfor minoritizedlanguage arc c o m m u n i t i c sr v i t h i n i t . T o c l r r y , s ' n v e l i s c u s su r t h e r i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ,g l o b a l i z a t i o na n d t h e m o b i l i t y a f c of popul:rtit>ns has nradc us conscior.rs the fact that specificlanguages not of do bclong t() territorics ()r stiltes. llether, langurrges belorrgt<>the people who speak But this crcateschilllenges politthenr, who are in differcnt geogrirphicalspaces. to icarlsfatesthat organize educrrtionalsystenrs :rnd that incrcasingl,v have to educate c h i l d r c n w h o c l o n o t s p e a kr h e s c h o o l l i r n g r . r a g . r th o m e . ic CloLurlization The norrrs in the rlrgrrnizationof wrlrk ancl nrethodsof production broughtabout b y n e w c o n r n r u r i i c a t i o ne c h l r o l o g ya n d g l o b a [ i z a t i o nh i r v e g r e a t l y i m p a c t e da n t l gurrging practices the twenty-firstccntury (Maurais and Morris, 2003; New London in ( i r < r r r p , 2 0 0 0 ) . F c t t e s ( 2 0 0 . \ : 3 7 1 s u n r r n a r i z e sh c g e o p o l i t i c a l a n d t e c h n o l o g y t chirngesand their efiect or-tlanguagecornnrur.rities: Ni'rtronal ccorrr>rrics become rr()reirrtcgraretl thc g,lobal htrve frlr in economy; money anclworkcrshavc lrecomc rtruchntore nrobilc;the peccof tcchnological change has accelerltcd an unbelieveble to growthof conrmunication extcnt;:rndthc explosivc and i l t f o r r r r a t i <n c t u , o r k ss t > r rt h e v c r g c ' o f " a r r r r i h i l r r t i r rp a c c . "I r r c r c a s i n gey ,e r y >r i lv sg lattguirgc cotnmunity nrustbecort-tc :lwilreoi its positionin ir "clynanric worldsystem of lrngurges"chzrr:rcterizcd v:rstanclexprrrding clifferences status by in and use. ln the twcnty-firstcentury, we have witnessed the creation of new economic trading blocs and new socioecononric and sociopolitical organizirtionsthat have affected

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28

Bilingualism and Education

Table 2.1 Internet !7orld Usersby Language

Language English Chinese Spanish Japanese French Clerman Arabic Portuguese Korean Italian Rest of languages
Mrniwatts Mrrrketing Ciroup,200ti

Millions of Users 427 233 r22 94 67 63 60 -58 3.t 34

Lt.)

o/oRepresented

30% 17% 9%
ao/

5% 4% 4r% 4"4
10/ ao/

"l5,%

Between2000 and 2008, the greatestlanguagegrowth on the internet was experi( e n c e db y A r a b i c ( 2 , 0 6 2 " A ) ,f o l l o w e d b y P o r t u g u e s e 6 6 8 " h ) , C h i n e s e( 6 2 2 % ) , a n d then French (452%). English experiencedonly a 201 percent growth in the last decade(Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2008). According to an analysismade in Ireland about the demand and supply of foreign languageskills in the enterprisesector(Expert Group on Future Skills Needs, 2005), approximately 50 percent of users worldthe Google web-search utility wide choosea languageother than English to access August (basedon data sourcedfrom Google Inc.; www.google.com./press/zeitgeist.html, Many 2004). And rrew software has made the availability of different scriptseasier. allowing consumersand usersto access websitesare using multilingual strategies, information in the languagethey prcfer. Machine translation is readily available. Thcre are even wcbsitesthat allow internet usersro communicate with each other or in sign languagcs.And Internet pr()grams such as Camfr<lg, MSN Messenger Skype allow Deaf people to reach out beyond national boundariesand seedifferent the in sign languages use.For the Deaf con.rmunity, improvementin cochlearimplant has technology has changed the boundaries of the community, and sign language had to be renegotiatedas important in the education of the Deaf. Although F,nglishis widespread in the media, and in news in particular, with the are used more and more. Since BBC and CNN predominating,other languages of establishnrent Al .lazeerain Qatar in 1,996,Arabic has had an important interin national presence the news media. In 2003, Al Arabiya was launchedfrom Dubai, with Saudi backing. And in 2005, Telesur started its transmissionin Spanishfrom TelevisionNerwork Caracas.In Canada,on September1, 1999, the Aboriginal Peoples (APTN), with programming relevant to First Nations and Indigenouscommunities around the world, was launched.Approximately 30 percent of all programmingis i n I n d i g e n o u sl a n g u a g e s . T 'With the advent of DVDs, viewers have options of languagesor subtitles,using Audio Programming(SAP), this as a way to developbilingual proficiency.Secondary 1990, enablesone to seea televisionprogram that availableon televisionsetssince

Langwaging and Edwc:atictrt 29 that is, has text that accompaniesthe video, or is in different is close-captioned; is languages. l7hereas the close-captioning especiallyuseful for the Deaf corlmunity,8the languageoption of SAP allows for a bilinguzrltelevision experience.For starting fall 2005, all prime-time television shows on the second largest example, U.S.televisionnetwork, ABC, are available in SAP dubbed in Spanish ot closeThis not only makes it possible for U.S. Latinos who pref-erSpanisht<r captioned. watchtheseprograms, but also for Anglophorlesto improve their Spanish.In addition, subtitlesallow U.S. l-atino viewers to strengthen their English skills, while the dubbing of television programs develops their formal Spanish.An American womanmarried to a Deaf Italian and living in Rome watchesnrovieson DVD with and Italian subtitles. But sometimes,languagesare switched so EnglishdialogLre that the American wonlan can hear ltalian and the Italian man can practice his N r e a d i n g f E n g l i s hp r i n t ( C o l e , p e r s o n a lc o m m u n i c a t i o n , o v e m b e r 2 6 , 2 0 0 5 ) . I n o TVs and VCRs have a button similar to the SAP button which allows the Japan, viewerto turn off the lapanese dubbing and listen to the prograrn in its original ( , l a n g u a g eR o b W e r n e r , p e r s o n : r lc o m m u n i c a r i o r r O c t o b e r 1 2 , 2 ( 1 0 6 ) . l t i s t h c n possible watch Yankee llanresin English, AI Jazeerain Arabic, or the tretwork to o n e w s h a n n e l s f F r a n c e ,S p a i n ,K o r e a , a n d o t h e r s .a l l i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l l a n g u : r g e s . c pcoplervh<r technologyirnclbetterpublic fturding for scrvices, Because irnprovecl of areDeaf can conrmunicatewith hcirring people over the irrternct, vicleclrclaying," A andotherfornrsof written comnrunicatir>n. personmay useAmericansign language d a n d b o r r o w s i g n s f r o n r o r h e r s i g n l a n g u i r g c s u r i n g a s i n g l e c o n v c r s a t i o n ,a n d anotherperson may use a webcarn t() sign with rrnother viewer anc{,at the sanre in time, send instant messages ir written language to that viewer ((iole, writtc'n 3. 2007). communication, January cliscursive e()nstructions of The techrrologies the two'rty-firstcentury have enr.rbled that function simultirneouslyin spaceand time. Wl-ratis differcnt today from tl.re: arld twcntieth century is thirt we waysin which people lirnguagedin the nirreteenth i r c e c a ns i m u l t a n e o u s l:y n c l o l l a b o r i r t i v c l y n g : r g en m a n y d i f f c r e n tl a n g u a g e ) r : r c t i c c s l instarrt r-nessagirrg chirtting. And and at the same time. as happens in electr<>nic in so doing, ther:eis a ffleaslrreof "agency" that did not exist prior to the teclrrevolution. Thar is, spcakersarc now free to choose a broader rarrgcof nological practicesthan those <lffercdby the irnmediatecommunity and the school; language and they can use then'r in ways that irre rlot reflected in mtire irrstitLrti<irralized practicesof schools ancl official publications. language Lingua francas are one way in which conrmunicirtion across the statc borders hasbeenachieved.Lingua francas are often eitlrer nurnericallypowerful languages English, or Spanislr,or a planneclinternational lrrrrguage suchas Arabic, C-hinese, language,was inventeclby an suchas Esperanto.Esperarrto, artificially constrLrcted L.L, Zamenhof at the encl of the nineteenthcentury to serveas a secondlanguagc, An in order to foster internationaI peace and understandir.rg. international sign for Deaf langr-rage users has also been developed.None of these artificial system linguafrancashas been completely successful. English,Graddol (2006) tells us, is a growing lingua franca, especiallyin Asia (see Tsui and Tollefson, 2007). In many countries the learning of English is cona sidered basic skill, to be taught in school alongsideMath and Literacy. And yet

experl), and the last inIreland

(Expert worldutility August

ier, Many t0access

availa ble. other ror different implant has , with Since the
lntef -

Dubai, ishfrom Network

nltres ng ls
uslrlg

(sAP),
m that

30

Bilingualism dnd Educati<tn

today thar the procesl

English does not enjoy complete hegemony in the world. Mandarin is also growing as ir lingua fr-anca. And rhere are other langueges gro'lvth.ln Nonh experiencing Africa :rnd West Africa, Arabic is growirrg much more quickly than English. In the United States,Spanishcompete's with English. Global English may be on the rise, b u t s o i s g l o b a l C h i n e s e ,g l o b a l A r a b i c , a n d g l o b a l S p a n i s h .A s a f i r s t l a n g u a g e , Englishis being challcngedby both Spanishand Hincli-Urdu, and is said to be falling frorn second to fourth place (Chinese holds the first place). Dernographically, A r a b i c i s g r o w i n g f a s t e rt h a n a n y o t h c r u ' o r l d l a n g u a g e( G r a d c l o l , 0 0 6 ) . 2 T h a t t h c l i n g u i s t i cf k r r v ,e v e n i r . r h c m e c l i a , s n < >r r o w u n i d i r e c t i o n ao r f a v o r i n g i t t l E n g l i s hh i r s b e e n r n u c h c l i s c u s s eb y C r e c l d o l( 2 0 0 6 ) . G r a c l d o lg i v e ss o n r ci n t e r e s r d ing cxanrples. L,:rst h'r Asia, Chiueseand .frlpancsc vier,vers m()re interested soap :trc in ()per:lsfrr>rnKorea than those from the UniteclStates,ancl.fapanese Manga comics a r e l l r ( ) r ei r n ; r o r t i r n t h a r r E n g l i s hc o n r i c s .T h e i n f l L r e r r co f B o l l y w o o d , t h e H i n d i e film lar.rguage industry in lnclia.competes rvith Hollyrvood in all of Asia. And Spanish talenouclas(so:rp<>peras) increasirrgly arc scen by North Arnerican houscwives. In irrct, the S;ranish-languagc Urtit,isirht,thc fifth largesttclevision sfation in the U.S., h a s a g r o w i n e A n g l o p h o n cv i e w i n g a u c l i e r r c e . I n t c r n t so f s e c o n c l - l a n g u au s e r s , u t < l n e h L ( M a n d a r i n )h < l l d s i r s t p l i r c e a n d i s ge P ra , f er.nerging extrenrclvirnportant in other F.ast rts Asian c()Llntries, such as South Korea. The tlrst (.onfucius Institutcdr'clicated tcrrchingl)utonghuaopenecl Scoul,South to in K < r r c a , n N < l v e n r bre 2 0 0 4 , a n d o t l r e r s h a v c < l p c n e di n t h c L l n i t e c lK i n g d < l m t h e i , l S , L J n i t c d t i l t e s A f r i c a , A u s t r a l i a ,a n d ( l o n t i r r e n t i rF . u r o p eT a b l e 2 . 2 d i s p l a y s h e t e n . t written lanuu:rges wlrich hrrvethc most scconcl-langurlsc users(exprcsscd rnrllions). in ) n W c s h o u l de n d t h i s s c c t i ( ) n r r g l o b a l i z - i r t i ob y 1 ' r o i n t i n(g u t t h e p c r s i s t c nitr l p o r t o (1996)cells"globalrurcc<rfthe local (Oanagrrrajrrl\ 1999,200.5e), whar AppaclLrrai of i z r t t i < l n r o r n b e l o w . " R e c e n t l y ,t h c t c r n r " e l o c r r l i z a t i o n "h r r s l r e c nc o i n e d t o n o t e f t h c p r e s c n c c f t h c l o c r r li r r t h r ' g l o b a l a n d v i c e v c r s r l . r o t a 1 9 9 7 c o n f c r e n c e n o A o " ( i k r b a l i z a t i o r .ltr r c l l n d i g c n o L r ( , u l t u r c . " R o l a r r c l { o b c r t s o n . l e f i n c cg k l c a l i z a t i o n s l a s " t h e s i r n u l t r r n e i t* t h c c < l - p r e s e n c c o f b o t h u n i v e r s a l i z i n g n c l p r r r t i c u l a r i z i n g y a " t e n c l e n c se i. As nrrtionrrl iclentities havebcconrcfraenrc'ntecl thrr>rrgh wcakcningof the nationthe s t a t ec o r t s t r u c t i ( ) l t h e r e l a t i < l n s h i b e t r , v c e ln r n g r r l g c n c li d c n t i t y i s n r r l r er c l e v a n t r. p r a Tablc 2.2 Seconcl-l.rtnguage LJsers I 2 .)
Mrrnderirr I'.nglish F I i rd i r n Sprr ish l{ussiarr B c r r g lri Portugucsc
trrIll-iJlI

Fishman (

Some of to be m< most to state, of part of t recognitr mentatic organize Language

than ever :

Languag

Languagir

-+
5 6 7 =n l0

t,0.52 .508 487 417 277 2ll l9t l2u

t-j6

French sc .frtprrne

( I j r o n r : I - i g t t r e 1 . . 1 7 , i r l d r L r l . 2 0 0 ( r , b a s c Lo n O s t l r t ' , l . ( ) 0 - 5 l

Closeyour us to do, r open your the words Shakespe or of the e a Native A for expres practicesc and states languagin bolic of the codified int for Pakista speaksit. I symbolicsi acquireda Qur'anic A by the Rom Churches; Coptic, thr Ge'ez,used the Therav of the Eas peoples.Fc communica

Languaging and Education growIn North In the the rise, language, befalling

31

today than ever (Canagirrajah, 200-5b). Responding to scholars and critics who view the processof globalization as rnaking cthnicity and language differences unnecessary, Fishman (2001: 460) notcs: that were supposed of Someof thc very pr()cesscs globalizrtion rrnclpost-tnodernrsm contributed to to be rnost clcleterious purportedly "parochial" identitresh:rveactr.rally 'l'he of increasingr-rbicluity the civil re enrergcnce "plrt-iclcntities." rrs most to their rrrrcl, thereforc, of a shareclsupra-ethniccivil nationalisrnas state,of civil lrrrtionrrlism part of thc identity constcllrrtionof all citizens,has rcsulted in rrorc r:rther thernless lcvel rtnd a trorc widespreadintplcof recognition rrulticulturrrlisrnrrt thc institr-rtiortal n te m e n t a t i o uo i l o c a l c t h n i c i t i , i l s : r c o r . l n t c r b i r l a n co c i v i l r r a t i o n : r l i s ra t t h c l e v e l o f pilrt-idcrltitv. organizccl L a n g u a g ep l a y s r r v i t a l r o l e i n t o d a y ' s g l < l b a l i z e dw o r l c l , a n d i t i s t r t o r c i n t p t t r t r t t r t thanever itt ctltterttiott.

ally,
favorirrg lnterestln soap comics HindiSpanish ives.In

theU.S..
and is h Korca. , South m, the the tcn millions).
lmport"globillto note ic on
lzaflon

Languaging Languaging llurguagcs ancl

( P y w C l o s e o u r c y c sa n c ll i s t c r r i t l . ry o u r " i n n c r e a r " r ' t s a t r i c i a l a r i n i ( 2 0 0 0 )h a st a u g h t t u s t o d o , t o c h i l c l r c r r a l k i n g t o e r r c h( ) r h e r i n r r c l r r s s r o o mi,n r r p l a y g r o t l l t d .O r e l o p e n y o u r c y c s e n c l s e c [ ) c r r f s c l . r o oc h i l c l r e ns i g r r i n g .B r i n g t o y ( ) u r r n i r l c l ' s y e n o t h e w < l r c l s f c l r r r r r r c t c ris r r n r o v i e , a t c l c v i s i o ns h o w , a p l a y , o r t l r c w o r c l s < l f rtnclProust olr rr pilge, or evcn those <lf ll pcrsoll you l<lvc, Ocrvlrntes, Shakespearc, Or thc worcls of a praycr uttered in of the culrril you hevc jLrstcxchrrngccl. l'rerrr or p . l i r n g u a u c l ) c o p l el a n g u a g cf o r t . n r r t ' t yu r p ( ) s e sT h c y l a r t g u a g e . a N a t i v eA n r c r i c r r n (Agcr,200l). But language rr f, f o r c x ; r r e s s i o n o r i n t c r r t c t i < l n , n r lt ( ) e x p r c s sr c f c r c t r c e c p r a c t i c e s i r n l r l s < lb c t u r r r e c li r r t o s o n r e t h i n ga b o u t w l r i c h p c < t p l c , o l t r t t t t t t t i t i e s , c ( c h s a n d s t a r e s r r v co p i n i o r . r r r n d f c c l i n g s( A g c r , 2 0 0 1 ) . T h a t i s , l : r n e u r r g p r i r c t i c e s ) r bccotttesyt'ttrrlso i.rctrrs rr syr/,r()/ systant(liishnran, 1996); tlrey cr.ttr languaging p s Th c b o l i co f t h c s p c e c h o n m r u n i t vi t s c l fr l r o f s r r c r e c l n c s s .u s , l a n g u a g i n g ,r r l c t i e cr l r c has lrcconre illlportr'utticlentitymitrker ar1 LJrclu Iior exrrnrplc, into languagcs. codificd r on ic f o r P r t k i s t a n ia f t c r i n c l e p e n c l c r r c r l,t l . r < l u g h l y a n r i r r o r i t yo i P a k i s r a n i s r c r u a l l y s i t . l . i k c w i s e ,t h c w i r y i r r w h i c h p e o p l e u s c ( l e r i b b e a n( l r c o l c h a s i u p o r t a n t speaks l s fc s s y m b o l i c i g r r i f i c a r r co l r n , r n y( s r c f o r c x i l n l p l eW i l l i s , 2 0 0 2 l . S o r r t er r n g u a g ch a v e l la r r g u a g ca r e B i b l i c a l H c b r e w ; s F s a a c q u i r e c l s i l n c t i t yc l i n r e n s i < l n . x a n r p l eo f s r r c r c c u , Q u r ' a n i cA r r r b i c ;S r r n s k r i t t h c l a n g u a g eo f H i n c l u i s n .rt' t n ctlh c V e d a s ; l - a r t i n , s e d usedin sorneOrthodox Eastern Olcl (lhurch SLrvonic, bythe Ronran(latholic (ihr-rrch; I h C h u r c l r c s A v es t r u t , t h c l a n g u a g c o f t h e Z < t r o r t s t r i i t t r r o l y l t t l < t k ,t h e A u e s t a ; ; C o p t i c , t h c l i t u r g i c a l l a r r g u a g co f t h c ( i o p t i c O r t h o c l o x C ) h u r c h ;O l c l T i b e t a n ; o ra G e ' e zu s e di r r t h c l i t u r g y o f t h c E t h i o p i a r rO r t h o c l o x C h r , r r c l .P ; l i , t h e l a r t g u a g e f , ( s l l L r d c l h i s n rc r i p t u r e s t l r e P a l i ( i r r n o r r ) ; e v c r a ls c r i p t t r r a l a n g u a g e s s t h eT h e r a v a d a and the ccrcnroni:ll languagesof lndigelrous of the lrasterrrOrthockrx Ohr-rrches; e t, p e o p l e sF o r n r r r n yN a t i v e A r n e r i c r r r r sh e i r l a r - r g u a gp r a c t i c c sa r e i n s t r u m c n t so f . l w c o m m u n i c a t i o n i t h l i v i n g a n c lr r n c e s t r i lo r s p i r i t u a le n t i t i e sa s w e l l , a n d l a n g u a g e

rizing
nati()n-

relevrrn t

32

Bilingwalism and Education

The Anishinaabe, also known as Ojibwe, and the notion of "spirit" are intertwined.rz believethat their language,Ojibwemowin, was given to them at their time of creation as human beings.Their languageis therefore viewed as a gift which must be honored, and is the only languagethat can be used in their ceremonies. Kipp (2002: 17) explains: Tribal languagcs containthe trihal genesis, cosmology, history,and secrets within. lVithoutthemwe may becorne pcrmanently or inevocably lost, changed.am a Pikuni I and kn<rw why. In our language,am a nizitapiwa, rcalperson. derives I a It from how for nry langu:rge treats forn"r "1" or "rne" spoken "rtiz," arderivative nr:stum, the as of or rny bocly.When I speakPikuni,my bociyand spirit speakto kizitapiwa, another real oersort. Furthernrore,languagefor many Native Amcrican comnrunitiesdefinesplace - the Nirtivc languages. Fclr ecologyof hornelandcan be spoken and Llnclerstoocl thrclr.rgh (2002: 30) st:rtes: "Our languagetells us about Zuni Pucbkr mcmbcr L,n<ltc ex:rnrple, o u r u m b i l i c a lc o r c l st h : 1 tg o o u t a c r o s st h e l a r r d s c : r p eh e v a l l e y s , h e t e x t u r eo f t h e t, t e l l ( ) u l 1 t 1 r i n s ,a n y ( ) n s c l i n r a t e ,t h e c r e a t i o no f b e i n g s .B e c a t r s w e h a v e b e e n i n t h e c , silnre place for a very, very long time, throul3h this langr-rage, can affect sclmewe s t h i n g . M y u n c l e r s t a n d i n ig i n n r y v o c a b u l a r y . " :rre Somc lrrnguagcs <lralancl :lre not written, for example sonreAmerindian lang u i l g e s( ) r s o u r eo f t h e " t r i b a l l a n g u a g e s "o f I n d i r r .A n d t h e n t h e r e a r e l a n g u a g e s is of thrlt are sigrred and not writtcn. A sign langu:rgc a linguisticsystem manual/visual, not vocal/aurrrl, communicationwith its own phonological,n'r<lrphokrgical, syntactic, g l a n d s e m a n t i cr u l e s ( C o l e ,f o r t h c o r n i n g ) . " . f u s t i k c a l l c h i l d r c n ,D e a f c h i l c l r c n r o w up and larrguirge thcy l)rrrticiprtc in soci;rlintcractionsrrnclas thcy network with as r i r e l : r t i v e sf,r i e n c l s , : r n d n e n r b e r s f t h e c o m r l u r . r i t y r r c l i f f c r e n t a y s . l ) e i r f c h i l d r e n o w i d o n < l t a l l c o m n r u n i c i r t en t h e s a m e w a y s : s o m e p r e f e r t o s p e a ka n d u s e : r s s i s t i v e t s m d e v i c e s o h c : r r( ) t h e r s , o m c L l s e a i n l y s i g n i n g , : r n ctl h e n t h e r e a r e s o m e w h o u s e ( p b o t h s p c c c h: r n c ls i g r r i n g F o r w r i t t e n c o r n r n u n i c a t i o nD e a f c h i l c l r e n ) p e r a t e r e t t y l. , r T , m u c h i n t h e s a m e w a y a s < > t h ec h i l c l r e n . l r e y r e a c ln e w s p a p e r sw r i t e l e t t e r so r ernails,send text mess:lges over the phone, and skirn thror,rghtextbooks. l.angr-rages not fixed c<ldes then'rsclves; by are they are fluid coclesframed within ( " o ), s o c i a lp r a c t i c e s . 'H < l p 1 - r clr9 9 t t : 1 . 5 7 - t r i f < l rc x : r m p l e , : l r g u e s :T h e r e i s n o n a t u r a l fixed strr.rcture language.Itathcr, speakcrsbrlrrow hcavily from thcir prcvious to , e x p e r i e n c e s f c o r n m u n i c a t i o ni n s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c c s( ) n s i r n i l a r t o p i c s , a n d o w i t h s i m i l a r i n t c r k r c u t o r s . y s t e m a t i c i t yi,n t h i s v i e w , i s a n i l l u s i < l np r o d u c e db y S thc partial settling or sedintentation of freqr-rentlyused forn.rs into temporary i, ts s y s t e m s "( o u r i t a l i c s ) .A c c o r d i n gt o t h i s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n t i s n o t l a n g r - r a g eh a t t e x i s t ,b u t d i s c o u r s e s lh a t i s , w a y s o f t a l k i n g o r w r i t i n g w i t h i n a c o n t e x t .F o l l o w i n g Michel Foucault, discourseconceiveslanguage as a form of social practice that naturally occurs in cor"rnected speechancl writtcn text with those whcl participate Yngve (1996), Shohamy (2006\, and Makoni and Pennycook(2007) in the event.15 go beyond discourseto say that there is only languaging:social practicesthat are actions perforrned by our meaning-making selves.\Vhat we have learned to call of dialects,pidgins, creoles,and academiclanguageare instances languaging:social

Languaging and Education

33

practices that we perform. In the section belclw, we rurn our attention to these oracticesas they have been studied within traditional languageconceptualizationi. Dialects In consideringthe role of languagepracticesin bilingual education, the notion of dialectis of specialimportance. For linguists, the term "dialect" is a neutral term used for varianrs of :r specific language. Romaine (1994) defines dialect as ,.a subordinatevariety of a language," and refers to regional dialects, associatedwith a place,socittldialecfs,associated with soci:rlclass,and historic,tl dialectsreferring to ancestors presentlanguagevarieties.There are also etbnic dialectsspoken by of e t h n o ln g ui s r i c g r o u p s . i However, lay people often reservethe term "dialect" for languagesor ways of usinglanguagethat are socially stigmarized.For exarnple,lnany people think that what they speak to friends and farniliesin informal setringsis a dialect, and what theyspeakin sclror>l a language.Indeed, when stateswant to ensurethat people is who engage in certair.rlirnguaging practices remain oppressed, these practices are often referred to as dialects; although when the speakersof these so called dialects achievepolitical power, they are then often designatedas languages. Max Weinreichis often quoted as having said that "a Lrnguageis a dialect with an arrny a n d a n a v y " ( s e e R o m a i n e , 1 9 9 4 : 1 2 ) . T h i s s e r v e sw e l l t o r e n r i n d u s t h a r t h e differencebetween what people call a dialcct :rnd a language is mosr oftel nor l i n g u i s t i cb u t s o c i a l ,a n d h a v i n g t o d ' w i t h t h e p o w e r o f i t s s p e a k e r s . , A f r i k a a n s ,t h c r e e i o n a l l a n g u a g e s f S p a i n i r n d m o s t o f E u r o p e , o euechua, and L u x e m b u r g i s h r e e x a m p l e s' f t h i s p r o c e s s . f r i k a a n s i n S o u t h A f r i c a w a s c o n a A sidered dialect of Dutch until the 1920swhen the languagewas stantlarclizecl a and its statusraisedas a resultof the success the Afrikarrer political movernent.During of the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, (latalan, Basclue(E,uskarar,') and Galiciair (Gallego) r.vere refcrred to as dialccts by rneny in the Sparrish,speaking world. They were not taughf in schools,exccpt in "urrdergror-rnd" eff<>rts such as the ikastriast7 i n t h e B a s q u e o u n t r y . U p o n l " r a n c o ' s e a t h ,t h e n e w S p a n i s h c l n s t i t u t i o n f l 9 7 B c d C o recognizedSpanish as the official larrguage of the stirtc, and named Catalan. Euskara' and Cialician as oftficial regi<lnal languagesin the respecriveregiclls. Recently, the term lengua regictttdl(regional langu:rge) has been replacedl.tylengua propia (own language), indicatingth:rt Catalan,L,uskara, and Galicianare even m()re t h a n r e g i o n a ll a n g u a g e st;h e y a r c o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e s f t h t i s e n a t i o n a l i t i e s u s t a s j o c a s t i l i a n( s p a n i s h r 8 ) ,r r d i r l l o t h e r sa r e s p a i n ' so w n . I n m u c h t h e s a m ew a y , m a n y a of the dialectsof Europe, as thcy hnve previously been called, have now received institutionalsupport and a change of status to "regiclnal language," as a result of the Council of F.urope'sturopean Charter for Rcgional or Minority Languages. I n L a t i n A r n e r i c a ,Q u e c h u a , s p o k e n b y 8 r o l 2 n i i l l i o n s p e a k e r s c r g s sp e r u , a Ecuador,Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, and Colonrbia, is often designated a dialect. as only recently, and with its oflicialization in peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, hrrs Quechuaachievedstatlls as a language,even though this designationalso obscures the fact that there are multiple varietiesof Quechtrir,many of which are not mutually intelligible(Hornbergerand Coronel-Molirra,2004). Srmilarly.accordingto the

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3 4 Bilingualism trnd Education

constitution of Luxcmbclurg, Luxemburgish is a language,although linguistically s o m e c o n s i c l e i t a R h e n n i s hd i a l e c t . r M a n y l a y p e o p l e a l s o r t s s u m e h a t d i a l e c t sa r e v a r i e t i e so f a l a n g u a g et h a t a r e t ntututrlly intelligible, that is, speakersare able ro undersrand each other. But, of c o u r s e ,m l r t u a l i n t e l l i g i b i l i r yh a s l i t t l e t o d o w i t h l a r r g u a g ea n d m o r e t o d o w i t h , people, since it is people who uuderstirndeach other. And nrany casescontradict t h e a s s t r m p t i o n h r r t d i a l e c t sa r e m u t u a l l y i n t e l l i g i b l ew h e r e a sl a n g u : r g e a r e n o r . t s For exarnple,Srveclish, Norwegian, rrnd Danish are consiclered different languages, a l t h o u g h t h e y r r r e I n u t u a l l y i n t e l l i g i b l ea n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s r e n o r l i n g u i s t i c ,b u t a political atrc'l cultttr:rl(l{ornaine, 1994).We speirkof dialectsof Chineseeventhoup;h a t l c : , r sei g h t o f t h c n r r r r em u t t r a l l yi r r c o r n p r c h e n s i b lH . n d i , P u n j a b i ,a n d [ J r d u a r e t ei i r l l c l o s c l y r c l r r t c crl r n c l ,f o r t h e n r o s t p i r r t , n r u t u i l l l y i n t e l l i g i b l c ,a l t h o r - r g hl r e y u s e t c i i f f e r e n s c r i p t s .A f t e r I n c l i ab e c r r m en d e p e n d e n tH i n c l i l e a d c r s l a i r n e dt h a t t l r d u t i , c anclPtrniirbir,vere clirrlccts IIindi. With thc irrdcpenderrcc Pakistan, of of Urc'lu became r c c o g r r i z e cr sa t o t r l l l y c i i f f e r e r rlta n g u : r g e d o p t i n g : r n A r a b i c s c r i p t , w i t h P u n j a b i rl a r r l s or c c c i v i n sr c s i o r r a lr c c o g n i t i o ni n l n d i a . I t t t l r e c o r r t c x to f A f r i c r r , l 3 e t i b o( 2 0 0 5 : 2 ) g i v e s L r st h e c x a m ; r l eo f t h e C h a g g a p e o p l ea t r h c f o o f o f \ ' l o L I n tK i l i r u : r n j a r ow h o c o n s i c l c t h c n t s e l v es p e r t k e r o f o n e , r s s l r r t t e t r r r g a , t h o r r g hl i n g u i s t i c a l l y h c r e ; r r c r h r c c c l i f f e r e r rs p e c c l 'fro r n r s w h i c h a r e cl t t n t l t n r u t t r r t l l vr t t e l l i g i b l c I t t c o t r t r a s t , p e r r k c r o f S e s o t h < S . t s w a n r r , n c lS e p e c li in i . s s 1e a s o u t h c r nA t ' r i c as e ct h c t n s c l v c a s s p e a k i n gt h r c e d i f f e r c n t l a n g u a g e sa l t h o L r g hh e y s , t a r e l l l u t L l a l l yi r t t c l l i g i b l e n d c o u l c l b e c o r r s i d c r e c la r i e t i e s f o n e l i r n g r r a g c . l v o B e c a t t s e h e c l i f t e r e n c c sr c t ' " v e e r t ' , v I a tp c < l p l cc i r l l l a n g u e g c r p c l r , r , h a t h c 1 , t l c a l l c l i a l e c t i r r e o f t c n s o c i r l l v c ( ) n s t i t u t c ( Ii , i s l r e f t c rt o u s et h e t e r n r " ' " ' l r i e t i c s "o i s t langLragc' practiccs rvl'rcn s;reaking cliffercnt of ways in which peoplel:rngurrl;c, whether i r r s t r r r r d a r ( l) r n o r r s t a n c l a r d r r y s .l t i s i n r p o r t e n tt o e m p h a s i z et,h o u g h , t h a t t l . r e s c t w v r r r i c t i e s r c n ( ) t i s o l a t c c w h o l e s , b u t c o n s i s to f t c r t t u r e s h i r t c o n t e i n a n c l o u t o f a l t t h e l a n g t r r r g i n r h a t p c ( ) p l ec l o , w i t l t t h e c l i f f r ' r e n l i n g r r i s t i c c r r r u r c sh a t r r r r r k e r p g t f t L tlrcir lingrristic cpcrtorrc. r P i c l g i n sr r r r c l r c < l l c s c A t r o t h c r l r t r r g u a g c( ) p r ct h e t i s i n r p o r t i l n t i o r b i l i r r g r r : r l c l u c a r o r s r c 1 , l i r / g i zas r d t c a lr L ' r c ( ) l ( s l.) i d g i r t sa l c c l c f i r r c cb y ' l i r r g , u i s ra s l r t r r g u e g c t h a t c o r l c i r r t o b c i r r g i r r l s s c o n t r ' l c s i t r r a f i o n sa n r l a r c u s c c lb y s p c a k c r sw i t h r l i f ' f c r e n lti u r . q u r l gb a c k g r < l u n c l s t , e t t > c o t t r t t t r t t t i c r t tte ,p i c e l l l ' t o t r a c l co r i n p l a n f i r t i ( ) n o n t c x t s .F o r u s , t h e y a r e j u s t v c r r t t o t h c rr n r r r t i f t ' s t i r t i o rft h o w p c o p l c l a n g u r g e .S t r u c t u r a l l ys p c r r k i n gp i c l g i n s r e o , a s i r r t p l i f i c t lr;h a t i s . t h c l ' h a v c l i t t l c r n < l r p h o l o g a n c lI i n r i t c cs y n t a x ,r r n d r h c y a r c l r o I y l r n L r t r r r r i l il n t c l l i g i b l e r v i t h t h c l a n g L r a g er o r r r r v h i c h t h c y c l c r i v e t h e i r l e x i c o n . f l)idgins :.rrcalrval's lealncclirs sceonclI,rnguages. In cotrtrast, rvhcn pidgins becornenrrtivizerlancl strrnclarcliz.ed, rrcloptecl ancl as the lrrngrragc the honre by thc crrtircpopulrrtion, of they are l<nown,.rs crcries.(,reolcs arc saricl lte lexically ancl structr-rrally to corrplcx, rlnclrrrc learnecl first lirnguages. as - Atlirnticcrcolesand l)acific Twtl nrai<lr groLlps <licreolcsare r-rsurrlly clistingr-rishecl c r e o l e s A t l a r t t i cc r e t l l c s v e r ce s t a b l i s h e c lr i r n a l i l l , ' c l L r r i nh e s c v e n r c c n t r n d c i g h . r p tg h t e e n t h c e n f u r v i n W e s t A f r i c a a n c l t h e ( l a r i b b c : l n ,r t s a r e s u l t o f t h e s l a v e f r r r d e .

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Languaging dnd Education 35 Pacific creoleswere developedin the nineteenthcenturv lvith recruited and ir.rclentured laborers. The crecllization<lf these lirrer pidgins was rnore gracl-ralth:rn the abrupt change with Atlar"rtic creoles. The best-known Atleutic creole is Haitian Crcole, the co-official language,i,rlongside French,of Haiti since 1987, and widely spoken by the vast majority of Haitians. In the Pacific area, Tok Pisin, an English-based creole spoken by more than half the population of Papua New Guinea, Hiri Motu, an indigenous creole, and English shareofficial statusin PapuaNew Guinea, aldrough Englishis the official all m e d i u r n f e d u c a t i o n .B i s r n a l r i s t h e n : r t i o n a ll a n g u a e eo f V a n u a t u , b L r ti t i s f o r r o bidden sclro<>1, in where Errglishand Frcnch:rreused (Ror.nirine, 1994).Dcspitebeirrg w e l l - a c c c p t cld n g u i r g e y s r e m s h a t a r e p a r t o i t h e l a n g u a g i n go f n r i r n v ,c r e o l e s , a s t a so t h e r s t i g m a t i z e d r a c t i c e s h a v e v e r y l i t t l e o i f i c i a l p l a c ei n s c h o o l .A s i g n i f i c a n t p , Educati<ln exception the JamaicanBilinguaIPrir.nary is Prcljcct where langualiepractices that ir.rclude Clreole are being usec'l educate(Devonishand Oarpenter,200-5). to Y e t c l : r s s r o o m isn . f a m a i c a , H a i t i , P a p r - r a e w C l u i n e a , n d V a n u a t u h a v e a l w a y s N a b e e nb i l i n g u a l i n r c a l i t y , s i n c e c r e o l e s a r e p a r t o i t h e l a n g u i r g i n gp r a c t i c e so f c h i l d r e n: r n d o f t h e t c i r c h e r s . , M i c h c l I ) e ( i r a f f ( 1 9 9 9 ) h r r s r r l g r r c ca g a i n s tw h r t h e c a l l s " c r c o l c c x c c p t i o n i l l l ism," that is, thc iclc-a that becrrusc creolcs hircl no tinre t() ilrc()rp()rirtc the pirrentl a n g u a g c s ' c o r n p l cg r 2 l n l n l l r s ,r r n d b c c , r u s eh e v a r e s ( ) n e w , c r c o l c sa r c s i n r i l a r x t t o e a c h o t h e r : l n d c l i f f c r c r t tf r o r n o f h e r l a n g u i r g c s . ' I n f a c t , i f y o r - r o n ) p i l r et h c " c e v o l u t i o n r n c ls t r u c t u r c s f l - . n s l i s h i t h t h r r t o i ( i r c o l c s ,l ) e ( i r a f f r r r g u e st,h e r c i s o r w n o w a y t o d i s t i n g u i s l o n c f r o n r t h e o t h c r . T h i s i s f h c s r r n r c L r i n rr n a c l c y M u y s k e n r c b ( 1 9 8 8 : 3 0 0 )w l . r e n c s a y s :" T h e v e r y n o t i o n o f a ( l r c o l c l r r n u u a g f r o r n t h e l i r r h e g u i s t i c o i r r t o f v i c w t c n c l st o c l i s a p p e airf < l r r c < i o k sc l o s c l y ;w h e t w e h a v c i s j u s t p l j, I n t h i s r e c ( ) n s t i t u t c ( li c w , r r c r c o l c n . r r r ru s t b c t h c p e r t i e l s e t t l i n so f a langulge." v l a n g u r r gP r r c t i c c s ,o f l i r n g u a g i r r gr y '1 - r g 1 ; p l ct h c l i f f e r c r )lti u r l l u x g cb a c k g r o u n t l s , c l wi a n d u n t l e rc c r t r r i us o c i r t lc i r c u r n s t l l n c e s . T h e l a n g u r r g i r ro f c r e o l es p c a k e r s r r k c sc l i i i c r e n tf c r r t u r c s r o n r t h c i r e n t i r c l i r r g f t g u i s t i c c p c r t o i r c . l - h c yo t t e r rn r o v ec l o s c rt o t h e s t a n c l e r cs,p c a k i n gr v h a t l i n g u i s t s r i refer to its rrn rlcro/r,c/.()thcr tiures, their lanuueginu hrrs rn<lrc fci.lturcsof the c r e o l e t s e l f , l e a c l i n gl i u g L r i s t t o r e f c r t o t h i s v a r i c t y . t s t l t t r s i l c L -T h e c h o i c e o f s i t w o r d st o c l e s c r i b t h i s l r r n g r r a g i np o s i t i o n st l r c a c r o l e c tr r ss u p c r i o rt o t h e b a s i l e c t . g e B u t v i e w e df r o n r t h c p c r s p c c t i v c f t h e s ; r c a k e r r r n c ln o t f r o n r r h e l a r r g u a g et s c l f , , o i c r e o l e - s p e e k cc h o o s c a n d l r l c n r i f c a t u r c s f r o r r r t h c i r c n t i r c l i n g r r i s t i c c p c r t o r r r ' , rs r m a k i r r gh e i r l a r r g r r e g i r r g o l c r e s l - r o n s i v o s t r r n d , r r r l r c r c o l c f c i r t L r r ec l c p c n i l i r r g nr s t tc o o n t h e i r c < l n r r n u n i c a t i ' i,nc e n t i r n c li t s f u n c t i o r r . 't

L a n g u a g ei n s c h o o l Academiclangudgc I f o u r c o n c e p f i o r o f l r r n g u a g c a s b c e n c o n s t r u c t c ( |< l f t c nt h r o u g h s o c i < l - p o l i t i c r r l r h . r a t h e r h : r nl i n g u i s t i c r i t e r i a .t h e n r h e l a r r g u a g c f s c h o o l ,c s p c c i a l l y h i r t w e h a v c o t c w learrnecl call thc "strrnclarrl to langurrge,"is the ultinratccrcrtfior.t. Coulrlrrs rrcrrtlcn'tic ( 2 0 0 5 : 2 1 . 5 ) c i e f i u e s t a n c l a r dr r s " i i p r e s t i g e v a r i e t y o f l a n g u a u c ,p r o v i c l i n g a s written institutionalizecl norrl as a rcfcrcnce iorrn for such purposcs ls l,urgr-rrrge

36

Bilingualism and Edwcation

teachingand the media." Wright (2004:54) says:"A standardlanguageis the means by which large groups become and remain communities of communication. The norm is decidedand codified by a central group, disseminated through the institutions of the state such as education and then usageis constantly policed and users dissuadedfrorn divergent practices, both formally and informally." Standardization occurs by fixing and regulating such featuresas the spelling and the grammar of a languageirr dictionaries and grammar books which are then used for prescriptive teaching of the language.What is important is to recognizethat standardizationis not an inherent characteristicof language, but an "acquired or deliberately and ( a r t i 6 c i a l l y i m p o s e dc h a r a c t e r i s t i c " R o m a i n e , 1 9 9 4 : 8 4 ) . T h e t e r m o f t e n u s e d i n opp<lsitior.r standard is "verr-urcular:" tcl the local languagepractices. The standard that is taught in school is sometimesnot spoken anywhere. For example, a Moroccan native speakerof Tamazight (Berber)tt' -"y also be fluent in c o l l o c l u i a lM o r o c c a n A r a b i c . I n s c h o o l , h o w e v e r , h e i s t a u g h t t o r e a d a n d w r i t e o n l y i n m o d e r n s t a n d a r dA r a b i c ( M S A ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , o r e a d t h e Q u ' r a n , a s w e l l t as to pray, this Moroccan usesclassicalArabic. It is importrlut to emphasizethat the results of the c()nstnlction of a standard l a n g u a g e r e v e r y r e a [ . I n s c h o o l s , v e n b i l i n g u a l o n e s ,i t i s t h e s t a n d a r dl a n g u a g e a e that is valued for teaching,learning, and especially assess tcl what is being learned. Schoolspay a lot of attention to the teachirrgof languageitself, sometimesto the interrral mecharrics thirt characterizethe language- what some call "grirmmar" other times to its use in meaningful contexts,especiallyin reading and writing. But languageis central in school becauseit is also the means through which teaching a n d l e a r r . r i n g c c u r s . ( ) f t e n t i m e s , h o w e v e r , t h i s u s e o f l a n g u a g ei n s c h o o l , a s o " c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e t e a c h e ra n d l i r n i t e d t o w h a t i s c < l n s i d e r e dt h e s t a n d a r d , " l r a s little to do with errcouragingchildren's intellectLral inquiry and creativity or with The childrcn's lanl_l,uaging. ability to use the standard languageis a developmental g < l a l f e d u c a t i o n , L l tr c s t r i c t i n g h c l a n g u a g i n g f s t u d e u t s r a ys e v c r e l y i r n i t t l - r e i r o b t o n I comurunic:rtive and intellcctual p()tenti:11, their possibilitiesof beconringbetter ilnd educated. Strrr.rdardiz.rrtior.r and literacyare intrinsicallv linked,bcc:ruse, Rolnainehas pointed as ollt, "the acquisiti<ln litcracy presupposes cxistence a codifiedwritten stancloi the of ard, and standardizationdependson tl.reexistcnceof a written forn-rof language" ( 1 9 9 4 : 8 6 ) . B e c a u s ei t c r r c y r e l i e so n t h e s t a n d a r d ,t h e s t a n d a r c l a n g u a g ei t s c l f i s l tarrght explicitly in school, and it certdinly needst<t bc taught. Wright (2004: 44) has pointed oLlt that "a standard is more easily acquired than an in-group varietl' t h a t i s n o t c o c l i f i e d . "W e : r r e n o t q u e s t i o n i n g h e t e a c h i n go f a s t a n d a r dl a n g u a g e t i n s c h o o l ; w i t l r o u t i t s a c q u i s i t i o n ,l a n g u a g en r i n o r i t y c h i l d r e n w i l l c c l n t i r r u eo f a i l t and will not have equrrl accessto resollrcesand opportuniries. But we have to recognizethat an exclusiuefocus on the standard variety keeps or.rtother languaging prrrctices that are children's authentic linguistic iderrtityexpression. Chapters In 1.1and 14 we will tunr to how to teach the standarcllanguagein linguisticallyarrd c u l t u r a l l y r e l e v a n tw a y s , a n d i n C h a p t e r 1 2 w e s u g g e s t a y s o f b u i l d i n g o n t h e w l a n g u r r g i n g f b i l i n g u a lc h i l d r e ni n c l a s s r o o m s . o Tbe exclusit,euse clf arstand,rrcl variery fclr school has important irnplicationsfor bilingual education.As we shall see,the languagepracticesof immigrants, but also

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Languaging and Education themeans

37

. The
theinstituandusers ardizaglammar
tlve

zationis tely and used in . For fluentin and write as well a standard language learned. to the ar" t. But teacl"ring school,as " has or with rental limit their ins better pointed has iffen stand" language itself is

of Indigenous peoplesand other minoritized and Deaf communities.are influenced by contactwith dorninant languagepractices,as well as by the exclusion of home language practicesfrom all formal domains, and most especiallv schools,sometimes for generaticlns. a result, the minoritized larrguage As pracricesof the holre oftel havelittle to do with the standard n-rinoritylanguagetaught in school. 'Without a lot of caution,the school'sinsistence using onl1,the standard variety of the home on language can be detrimental, and may even aggravatethe linguistic insecurity that manyminoritv speakersfeel. Characteristics S k u t n a b b - K a n g a s t r c lT o u k o m a a ( 1 9 7 6 ) , w o r k i n g r v i t h F i n n i s h i n r n i g r a n r s i 1 rr prclPosed Sweden, that there is a differencebetween the way in which languageis usedin acadernictasks:rncl in cr>nversation ancl intimacy. Tl'resurfttcefLuencry x> evident cclnversational in [angu:rge rlclst often suglp<lrted cues rhirr have little is by t o d o w i t h l a n g u : r g et s e l f .F o r c x r r m p l e ,i n p l a y i n g b a l l i n a p l a y g r o u n d ,c h i l d r e n i , w i l l g e s t u r cp < l i n t ,r r s kq L l e s t i o r l s c p e a tt h e s a n r ec o m m a n c l su s e t h e i r b g c l y ,t h e i r r, , faces, their l.rancls. writrng t() \onrconc wc knclw intim:rtely, much c:rn be left In u n s a i d e c a t t s eh e t l c : r n i t t g i s o f t e n c a r r i e c lb v w h a t w e k n o r v a b g g t t h e o t h e r b t p e r s o l lI' n P e r s o t t a d i a l o g u c ,w c o f t e n a s k t h e o t h c r p e r s o n t o r e p e i r t ,t o c l a r i f y , l a n d t o p r o v i c l er t n c x a t t t p l c .C r - r n r r n i n(s 9 l 3 l b ) h a s c a l l e d t h i s u s e e f l a n g g i r g e l langu:rge prilcticcsthat arresLrpprlrted rrrcaningfr-rl [rv irrterpersonal and situati6lal c u e s " c o u t e x t u a l i z e d i r n s u a g e . "( l r n t c x t u a l i z e d l a n g u a g c ,s u p p o r t e d b y p a r a l linguisticcttcs, is what one rrscs for htsic intarperstntol t'ommttnicatipz, whrrt C u m m i n s a l l s" B I ( . S . " c C o n t e x t u as u p p ( ) r t C u n t t l i n s ( 2 0 0 0 )e x p l a i n s c a n b e c x t e r n t l . h a v i n gt 6 c f t rw i t h l , , aspects tllc inpr-rtitself, as in crrses of where larrguagcusc rrll<lwsfclr redunclarrcy, a n d i s s p o k e nc l e a r l y .B t r t c o u t e x t u a ls u p p o r t c : r n a l s o b e i n t e r n a l , h a v i n g t o c l o w i t h t h e e x p e r i e r t c e sr,r t c r c s t s , : . r nn ilo t i v i r t i < l ntsl i a f i n t e r l o c i r t o r s a v e .T h e n r o r e i c h students knttw and ttnclerstrrnd, e:rsie it is frlr tl.remto rnakc senseof acirdemic the r l a n g u a g e .i r r c e h c r c i s i r r r en a l s u p p o r t f r > ru r d e r s t i r n c l i n gh e n e s s a g e s . s t r t T o c < l m p l e t e c h < l o t a s k s ,a r r c le s p e c i a r l la s s c s s l n c n t s k s ,a n o t h c r d i f f e r e n ts e t s l y ta o f l a n g u a g e k i l l s i s r r e e d e c S t u d c n t si n s c l . r o on e e d t < l b e a b l e t o l s e l a u g u a g e s l. l w i t h o u ti r r l y e x t r a l i n g L r i s t is u p p o r t , i n r v a y s r h i l t a r c v c r y c i i f f - e r e n t o r n t h c w a y c fr in which wc Llsclirnguagemost of thc time in real life. That is, dec<tntextualized language what is neeclecl orclcr to participrlte in the ll(E/lRF (lnitiati6nis in Response-F,vah"ratiorr/Feedback) that is scl comnron in classr1;11m cyclc discgurse, in order to read texts that are devoid of ;ricturesarndother cues, ()r texts that are aboutthings studentskntlrv nothirrg abor-rt. f)ec()ntexrualizecl languageis also what students need in ttrder to write the academicessrlys that require an unknown audience with whotn conttnrtnic;,tticlrr important, :rnd in taking nrultiple-choicetests is thatforce only one ilnswer. Irr speirkingabclut the neeclfor these decclntextualized l a n g u a g e k i l l s , c u ' m i n s ( 1 9 s1 b ) c a l l s t h e m c o g t i t i u e A c a d e m i c L a n g u d g e s Proficiency(CALP). cummins (2000: ch. 2) posits that academiclanguage,both oral and wriften, is associated with higher-orderthinking, including hyporhesizing, evalurrring, inferring, generalizing, predicting, or classifying.And yet, (,-umminsarguesthat cALp is not

(2004: 44)
varlety

language to fail have to languagInChapters

Ily and on the

tions for but also

38

Bilinpudlism and Edttcation

superior to BICS,and that developmentally they are not separate but develop within a matrix of social interaction. A nrajor goal of schooling is to expand use of decontextualizedlirnguagethat cl.raracterizes academic registers,but to
so, (lummins tells us, social interaction and the contextualization of academic la gr.rllge r:lcficcs is most c\sentinl. p Redsons ln clrder to reflect on why thc standard lar.rguageis irlrposed in schools, we have

first describe lrow certain languagesor specificvarietics are forced on particula g r o u p s .I t i s o b v i < l u s h a t m o r e p o w c r f u l g r ( ) u p si r . l r p o ste e i r l i r n g u a g e n t h e t h o p o w e r f u l . T h i s i s t h c c i l s e ,f o r e x a n r p l e , f S : i r n i s n d R o r n a i n F i n l a n d w h o h a v e o a t o l e a r n F i r r n i s h , h c r e a sF i r r r r s o n o t l r e e c t o s p c a k t h e o t l r e r l a r r g u a g e s w l d i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . S i n r i l a r l y ,c h i l d r e n i r r r h e U n i t e d S t a t e sd o n o t h a v c r o l e a r n S p a n i s h r O h i r r e s e , h e r c i r s J . Sl.. a t i r r o ,( l h i n c s c ,o r N a t i v e A m e r i c a nc h i l d r e na r e o w L e x p e c t e dt < l l e r r r nl r n g l i s h . I n s < l t l ec o u n t r i e s , h i l c l r c r a r c s c h o < l l e cn : r l a n g u a g cs p < l k e n n l y b y a p o w e r c r il o f r - r lr n i n o r i t y w i t h i n t h e c ( ) u n t r y ,r ' r n dn < l t b y t h e r n a j o r i t y o f s p e a k e r sT h i s i s t h e . c a s c ,f r l r c x a r n p l e ,o f H a i t i , w h e r c u n t i l r e c e n t l yc h i l c l r e nw c r c s c h < l < l l es o l e l yi n d F r e n c h ,a l t h < l L r go n l y t h e e l i t c w e r e F r e n c h - s p e r r k e r si,t h r n o s t H a i t i a n ss p e a k h w Hrritiarr(ircole. This ecluceti<lnrrl practiccprivilegedthosc who spoke Frenchar home, s e v e r e l yc u r t a i l i n g c d L r c a t i o n ao ; l p o r t L r n i r i c so r t l r < l s e h o w e r c s c h < l o l e dn a l f w i l a n g u a g ct h c y c l i c lr r o t u n d e r s t a n c l[.. i k e w i s c ,i n n r a n y A f r i c a n a n c lA s i a n c o u n t r i e s , cluringcolonial firles, eclucrrtion took pllcc <lnly irr the colonial lrrrrguage, eclucating a n i r t c l i g c n < l u si t e t ( ) s c r v t :a s b r o k c r s b c t w c e r r h e c o l o n i a lp o w c r r u l d t h e I n d i g e n cl t or.tspopulrrtiotr, rrttcl ellsLlring rhat orrly a few becrtnreeclLrc:rtcd. The ;lractice c o t t t i t t u e s o c l a y i n n r i r r r yA f r i c a n c o u n t r i c s ,g r . r r r r r t n t e e ir h a t t h c p o w c r s t a y si n t ng t h c h r r n c l s f t h e I n c l i g e n o uc l i t c . o s ( l < l r s o n( 2 0 0 l ) p o i n t s t o h o w p r c j u c l i c c g a i n s tu s c r s< l f n < l r r - s t r u r d a vd r i e t i e s a ra of a langLraee as olcl as thc history <lf languaue is itsclf.llor cxirrnple, Biblerccounts the t h o w p r o l r u t t c i r r t i ootf t h c w o r c l " S l r i b b o l e r h " r r sr r s c ctlo d i s t i n g u i s h h e c o n q u e r e d w t F . p h l e i n r i t e sw l r o s c c l i r r l c u t s. r c k c . l. r n / J / s o u n d , f r o n r t h e v i c t o r i o u s ( i i l c a d i t e s , , l , W h c l r c v c ra n l r p h r r r i r n i r cr i c c l t ( ) p r r s sf o r r r ( i i l c r r c l i t c " t l . r cn r c n o f ( l i l c a d a s k e d t h i n r , ' A r e y o l r i u r E p h r r r i n r i t c ? ' lh e r e p l i c d , ' N o , ' t h e y s a i c l , ' A l l r i g h t , s a y i " S h i b b o l c t h . " ' I f h e s r r i c l ',S i [ r b o l c f h , 'b e c a u s c c c o u l c l n ( ) t p r o n ( ) u n c e h e r , v o r d h t c o r r c c t l y ,t h e y s e i z e d r i r n a n d k i l l c c lh i n r e t t l r c i < l r d s f t h c . f < l r d a nl." o r t y - t w ot h o u l o s r r n cF . p l . r r r r i r n i tw c r c k r l l c c la t t h a t t i r n e " ( B o o k o f . fu c l g e sl 2 : . 5 - 6 ) . l es 'l'hilrkirrg about rhe siturrtion <lf whrrt hes becn callccl Africarr American ( V c r n r r c u l a F . n g l i s hA A V t r ) o r F l b o r r i c s irs i n s t r u c t i v cn t h i s r c g a r c lA l t h o u g hm a n y r r i . s c h < ; l a r ( s c ee s p e c i a l l y. r r b o v 1 9 7 2 ) h t v e c l e a r l y s h o w n t h a t A A V I r i s l o g i c a la n d s l r c g u l r t r ,a n d t h i r t i r s g r r t n r n r r r t i c ra n d p h o n o l o g i c i r c h r r r r r c t e r i s t i c s n n o t l t c t h e rl l a crtuseof poor rrcadcrnicpcrf<lrrliurce,the fcrttures that characrerizctl'ris variety contiltuc to lrc stignratizecl. F,venin schools rvith r.nanyAfricrtn Antcrican teachers a r t d i l r n c i g h b o r h o o c l w l r e r e n r o s t r t r c A f r i c a n A n r e r i c r r n sr,l n l y a n L , n g l i s h t a n d s s rrrd is ircceptcd,clevelopecl, rrncluscd in rlssessnrent. Thc wiciespread[riirs against Iron-strrnclrrcl varieties linglish,cspccially of bias ag:rinst fcaturcs associated with AAVE < r rL , l r o n i c sr a sn r u c h t o c l o w i r l ' rr a c i s r n , s s h o w n i n t h e r c s c a r c h f B a u g l r( 1 9 9 7 } , l a o

Langwaging and Education jointly expandthe but to do l d e m i ca n -

39

wehave tcl l p a r t i c ua r on the lcss u'ho have present

to learn

children are bya powerT h i si s t h e s o l e l yi n n ss p e a k i n g at h()rre. rd ir.r a n countnes. , eclucating t h eI n d i g e n The practice
stlrys lll

rd varieties recor-rnts Bible red conclue the (iilcaclites. Gilcrclesl<ed All right, say the word
y-t\\r()thou-

n American ugh rnany is krgicrrland cannotbe rhe this virriety n telrchers Englisstandh bias agarinst rvith AAVE

( Baugh1997).

This racism that is associated with lirrrguage wl'ratTove Skutnabb-Kzrngas is (2000) h a st e r m e d" l i n g u i c i s m . " There are many other cxamples n'orldwide of using language to limit educat i o n a la n d o c c u p a t i o n ao p p o r t u n i t i e s l V l a k o n ia n d P e n n y c o o k 2 0 0 7 ) p r o p o s et h a r l ( . when the "constructecl" African languag;es u,ere introdr-rced into local communitiesas official languages,they actually accentuatedsocial diffcrences,since rhey couldonly be acquired through forrrrrl educatiorrand not everyonc hacl access to s c h o o lL i k e w i s e ,P e n n y c o o k( 2 0 0 2 ) h a s s h o w n h < x v l a n g u a g eu s e i n e d u c a t i o ni n . c o l o n i aH o n g K o n g w e r e r e s p o n s i l r l f o r c r e a t i n g" d o c i l e " p e o p l e ,a b l e t < lc o o p e r l c a t ei n t h e i r o w n e x p l o i t i r t i < l n . o o t s ( 1 9 9 9 ) h a s p r o v i d e de x a m p l c so f l r o w h e a r i n g R educators :rve naintainecl tlreir colrtr()l over Dcaf conlnunities by,imposing h signing bans.Iticcnto (2003) has dert'tonstratcd l'rr>rv policiesrtgainstbilingual education in thc UnitcclStatesnrrryhave uruch to cl<lrvith controlling the srarc'sgrowing b i l i n g u a l i s r:nn d c n s u r i n gt h a t o p p ( ) r t u n i t i c s c n r a i ni n t h e h a r r d s f r n c l n o l i n g u a l s . r r o I n t h e s a m ew a y , ( i a r c i a ( 2 0 0 - 3 ) C l a r c i aa n d M e n k e n ( 2 0 0 6 ) a n d M e n k e n ( 2 0 0 8 ) , h a v e u g g e s t ctc l a t t h e q r ' w r r r g i n s i \ t c n c e n t h c t r s e ' o fs t r r n c l r r rw r i t t e n H n g l i s hi n s h i cl high-stakes assessment thc [JrritcclStates hirs to do ',vith gatc-kccping; that in i s , t h e a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l w h o g o c s f o r w r r r c l ,a n c l e n s u r i n g t h a t o n l y t h o s e w h < r c a n w r i t e F , n g l i s hn a t i v c l \ , , a n c l w i t h o u t a n y f e a t u r - e s f l r r r r g u a g c o n t a c t , c a l t o \rli/rittenstarrclarcl access higher educrtfiorrlrrtl prrofcssional pr>.sitions. ltrrglish in U . S .s c h o o la s s e s s l n e n t s i n c r e a s i n g l y s e d t o c r e a t c c l i f i c r c n c c s e n v e e nr r o n o i u b l i n g u a l a n c lb i l i n g u a l s h i c h i t r c t h e n u s e da s g r r t c - k c c 1 ' r in rg c h r r n i s r n o r p r o m o s w nc fs t i o n , h i g h - s c h o o g r a c l u a t i o t ra n c l c o l l c g c c n t r r r n c e( f o r n r o r e o n a s s c s s n r c n s,c e l , t Chaptcr .5). 1 T h eo h s c s s i , r r ti t h l , t t t g t r . t g r 't t t ' r t o r i t ' s , w c l l r t st l t t ' s c h o o l ' sr r s i s r c r r ie er r s i n g v c. :ts i n o n l y" t h e s t a n d a r c l " o t e a c h ,l c r r r n ,a n d r l s s e s s ra s t h e r rm u c h t o c l o w i t h t h c c o n t h ceptof gouernntclttdlity proposccll.tl' Foucrrrrlt (199 | ). Fotrcaultf<lcuscs how as on " l a n g u a g p r r l c r i c c s r c s L t l l t c " t h c r v i t y s i r i ' " v h i c h l a r i g u r r g es u s e c l . r r d c s t a b l i s h e i a (, l a n g u a g h i c r a r c h i c s n l v h i c h s o n r c l r r n g u r r g c s ) r s o n r e w i l y s o f u s i r r gl a n g u r r g c , e i a r e m o r e v a l u c d t h a n o t l r c r s . T h i s h r r s t o b c i n t e r p r c t e dw i t h i n t h c f r r r r n c w o r k o f " h e g e r n o r r yc l e v c l o p c tb y A n t o n i o ( i r a n r s c i( 1 9 71 ) w h i c h c x p l a i n sh o w p e o p l c " l a c q u i e s c e i n v i s i b l cc u l t u r a l p ( ) w e r . F . r i k s o r ( 1 9 9 6 : 4 . i ) c l e f i r r c sh e g e n r o n i c to " r practices" "routinc irctioltsr.rncl r-ts unexanrinecl lrclicfsthrrt rlre c()nson.lnIwith the cultural systenr tncanitrganclontology within which it n'rakcs <lf sense trrkecertrrin to a c t i o n s ,n t i r e l l ' w i t h < l un r r r l c v o l c nitn t e n t ,t h a t n o r r c t l . r c l cs y s t e n r i r f i c a l l r . ' l i rtn i c e t ss ht lifechances ntetn[rcrs stigrnetized ttf <lf rroups." ()ur r<lr-rtinc language prlrctices beconrc "regulatory"rlcchauistnswl-richurrcorrscirlr-rsly crcatc cirtcgories erclusiorr.Thus. of o u rd i s c u r s i vp r a c t i c c s r c o n c o f t h e r r o s t o b v i < l u s x r r r n p l co f h e g e n r o n yn w h i c h e a c s i w e a l l , a n d e s p e c i a l l y d u c r r t o r sp a r t i c i p a t e . c , A s t h e p r e c e d i n gs e c r i ( ) l l s a v c s l r o w r r ,( ) u r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i < l< l f l a n g u a g ei s h n oftenlimiting and cloesn()t reflcct fhe colnplcx wrrys in lvhich peoplc ldnguagc. A s f a r a s b i l i n g u a l c d u c a t i o n i s c o n c e r n e c li,t i s c s s c n t i a lt h a t e f f o r t s b e r n a d c t o i n c o r p o r a t e h e s e f e i r t u r e so f p c o p l e ' s l a r r g u a g i n g n p r > l i c y , u r r i c u l u m , a n c l t i c i n s t r u c t i o n a l l a n n i n g . I t i s r n o s t i r n p o r t a n t t r l u n d e r s t r r n ctlh e i u r p o r t a n t r ( ) l e p different langurrge varietiesancl languagepractices,including pidgins rrnd creoles, h a v en e d u c a t i o n . i

40

Bilingualism and Edr'tcatiort

Conclusion
l,anguage is an important aspect, although by no means the most important' in is .u,rrid.ii,lg the topic of bilingual education. Becauselanguarge so familiar, we with a seriesof assumptionsabout language that have to be questioned operate in order to think :rbout bilingulrl educzrtion.In this chapter, we have considered has been constructedthrotrgh sometimes l:rnguage how our conception of star-rdard discursivepractices.Through thesepractices, oppressivepractices,and other times -"r,y ,rf us have become convinced of the naturalnessof the standard language and of its neutrirlity. as language ir conceptSo as to enableus to underIn this chapterwe cleconstructed stand its power and potential as a discursivetool. In so dcling,we have questioned practices th:lt on the surface seem n:rtural, lrut that have the effect of exerting opportunity. Thirt langttageis a social construction, linked control and restrictini , i, o f t h e r r a t i o n - s t a f e s a f a c t . B u t t h a t l a n g u a g e a s s o c i a l l yc o n to the coltstructi()lt f o r c h i l d r e n ' se d u c a t i o ni s a m o s t i n l p o r t x n t r e a l i r y . h structed, as real implications s t D e s p i t ct h e c h a n g e s o o u r c o n c e p t i o no f n a t i o n - s t a t e a s a r e s u l to f g l < l b a l i z a t i o n , in as it l.rrrs the past. distancedfrom languageirr schocllcontirluesro opcrate lnostly the real ways in wliich children languagc. of as as Wc reirnirginelartguage langu:rgepractices'larrgLr:rging a rcs()urce imnglanguagingwithout bridlcs, languagingwithor-rtprejudices,inits full realia inari<rn, \We focus here not that are supportcd by technologytoclay. r>fntodesartd mcarrings discursivepracticesthat constitute what we languagcper se but on the nrr-rltiple r>r-r tlostly by states use in bilingtralschoolsis cletermir"red call lrnguagilg. Thc langurtgc o t ( ) b e e d u c a r e ciln c l n e l : r n g u a g e r t h e o t h e r t h a t c o n t r < l lw h e t h c r a l l c h i l d r e n a r e be valued.But bilingualschools is 6r i1 many, 9r rvhetherthe children'slanguaging to their potenrirtl to lte trirnsforntativemtlst build on the children's comfhirr act ()11 what we have to plcx langr-raging also clevclopthe languagillgpracticesof scho<lls, l t l e a r r r c d o c a l l " s t a n d i r r da c a d e n r i cr r n g u a g e . " i t I n C h a p t e r s . 3 a n d 4 , w c r u r r l r o e x e n r i n i | r g h e c ( ) n c e p tc l f b i l i n g u a l i s r n t s e l f , to a ntore sociopoliticallevel in Chapter 4, but always considerchangilg ernphasis p ir i , r g l r i h , . , g u " l i s n n r h e i r r r e r r c l a t i o n s h ic r e a t e db y l r n g u a g i n g ,a n d t h e a g e n c yo f t h o s ew h o l a n g u a g e .

Qucstions for Reflection Give someexamples. to L What does it nreanfor languages have beenconstructed? on the ways in which lana 2 . H o w h a v e g l o b a l i z i r t i o n n d t e c h n o l o g yinrpacted g u a g ei s u s e d ? m 3 . W h a t d o e s l a n g u a g i n g e a n ? H o w d o e s i t differ from a language? rX/hatis 4. What is academic languageand what are some of its characteristics? its role in schools? 5. Discuss "language" and "dialect" as presentedin this chapter. Give examples o f i t s s o c i a lc o n s t r u c t i o n .

Languaging and Education

41,

unportant,rn familiar, we questioned considered someumes practlces, language usto underquestioned of exerting i o n ,l i n k e d socially cor-rt reality. globalization, from of imagits full rcalia herenot what we by states or the other schools s comwe have itself, consideragencyof

5. !7hat are pidgins and creoles?Do they have a role in bilingual education? 7. Reflecton your personal experienceswith language practices. \{/hat factors your decision to languagein one way or another? influence

Further Reading
Corson,D. (2001). l,anguage Diuersity and Educcttion. Lawrence Erlbaun.r,Mahwah, NJ. Coulmas, (200-5).Sctciolinguistics.The Study of Speakers' Choice. Cambridge University F. Press, Cambridge. Graddol,D. (2006). Englisb Next. \Yhy Global English May Mean the End of "English as a ForeignLanguage.'TheBritish Council, London. Available at: www.britishcouncil.orgy' learning-reseirrch-english-next.pdf . Makoni, S., and Pennycook, A. (2007). Disinuenting and Reconstituting Languages. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon,UK. Maurais,J., and Morris, M.A. (eds.) (2003). Languages in a Globdlising Wctrld. Cambridge UniversityPress,Carnbridge. Miihlhdusler,P. (19961. Lingrtistic Ecology. Language Change and Linguistic Imperialism in tbe Pacific Rcgion. Routledge,Lorrclon. Romaine, S. (1994). Language in Society: Atr Introduttiort to Sot:ktlinguistics. Oxford UniversityPress,Oxford. Secondedn. 2001.

examples. which lan-

? What is examples