Practical child abuse and neglect prevention

The National Child Protection Clearinghouse has operated from the Australian Institute of Family Studies since 1995. The Clearinghouse is funded by the Australian Government Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs as part of the Australian Governments response to the problem of child abuse and neglect. The Clearinghouse collects, produces and distributes information and resources, conducts research, and offers specialist advice on the latest developments in child abuse prevention, child protection, and associated family violence.

A community responsibility and professional partnership

Adam Blakester

In this paper, Adam Blakester explores the factors that have led to success in a number of promising Australian community initiatives where responsibility is being taken for the wellbeing of children and young people to prevent child abuse and neglect.

In this issue
Introduction Practical child abuse and neglect prevention The Australasian Statutory Child Protection Learning and Development Group Conference highlights Fine Judgements workshop on understanding child protection errors The Victorian Childrens Court Clinic Implementation of prevention at a population level National Child Protection Clearinghouse activities Literature highlights Conferences and events 1 2 11 12 13 15 20 22 23 26

ince embarking on a holistic community development child abuse prevention strategy in 2004, the NAPCAN Foundation has learnt a great deal about the success factors of community-based primary prevention strategies. Community participation is essential for successful primary prevention initiatives, as its members are best placed to know the communitys strengths and aspirations, vulnerabilities and needs. Active community involvement is essential in developing genuine long-term capacity and sustainability. In fact, a common barrier to effective child abuse and neglect prevention strategies is insufcient community involvement, responsibility and ownership.

Prevention of child abuse and neglect is a whole-ofcommunity responsibility and as part of that community members, professionals, service providers, agencies and local organisations need to work together in collaboration. The role for professionals in partnering with communities is to bring skills, resources and services to support the implementation of community-based solutions. When professionals learn from and support communities, the relationships created become powerful partnerships for change and enhancing positive outcomes for children.

Commonwealth of Australia 2006 This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Commonwealth Copyright Administration, Attorney Generals Department, Robert Garran Ofces, National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600 or posted at www.ag.gov.au/cca Views expressed in Clearinghouse publications are those of individual authors and may not necessarily reect Australian Government or Institute policy. Australian Institute of Family Studies 300 Queen Street, Melbourne 3000 Australia Phone: (03) 9214 7888 Fax: (03) 9214 7839 Email: ncpc@aifs.gov.au Internet: www.aifs.gov.au Compiled by: Ellen Fish Edited and typeset by: Woven Words Printed by Almar Press ISSN 1447-0039 (Print) ISSN 1447-0047 (Online) Print Post Approved PP349181/00604 2
NCPC NEWSLETTER VOL. 14 NO. 2, WINTER 2006

The case for child abuse and neglect prevention

Thankfully, most Australian children grow up in a loving and caring family environment. However, child abuse and neglect continue to be among the most serious social problems Australia faces, given the number of children and young people affected and the complex and lasting impacts of the harm they experience. Every year, for the last six years, every indicator of child abuse and neglect has increasedreports, substantiated (conrmed) cases, care and protection orders, and the

number of children living in out-of-home care (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006). Today, a child protection report is made every two minutesa rate that has more than doubled over the last four years. A child is substantiated as having, or being likely to have, suffered child abuse or neglect every 11 minutes, which was more than 34,000 individual children in 200405 alone (AIHW, 2006). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are over-represented on each of the above indicators of child abuse and neglect. The arrival of Europeans in Australia brought foreign illnesses, such as inuenza and smallpox, which have been estimated by some commentators to have caused the deaths of 2030 per cent of the Indigenous population and have had lasting negative consequences for Indigenous peoples. The lasting impact of colonisation has contributed towards the over-representation of Indigenous peoples on indicators of child abuse and neglect. In the Bringing Them Home report, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission (HREOC) concluded that some of the underlying causes for the poor outcomes experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and for the over-representation of Indigenous children in substantiated child maltreatment and out-of-home care rates were: the legacy of past policies of forced removal and cultural assimilation; intergenerational effects of forced removals; and cultural differences in childrearing practices (HREOC, 1997). The economic cost of child abuse and neglect was estimated to be $5 billion in 2003 (Keatsdale, 2003), and a further $769 million in 2004 was determined to be the cost of family violence on children (Access Economics, 2004). In total, therefore, this estimated cost of child abuse and neglect is more than Australias annual income from meat exports (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005). Given the size of the problem, and the psychological, emotional and physical damage that can result, child abuse and neglect represents one of the greatest barriers and threats to the wellbeing of Australian children, young people

Case study 1
Windale: A child abuse prevention success
Windale, in the New South Wales Lake Macquarie region, was originally established as a suburb by the New South Wales Department of Housing. In 1999, Jesuit Social Services rated Windale as the most socially disadvantaged community in New South Wales (where community was dened by postcode areas). A comprehensive three-year community renewal process improved the situation. Proving that preventing child abuse is possible, Windale moved from the worst 1 per cent in terms of child protection notications in New South Wales in 1999 to the best 25 per cent in 2003. Windale achieved this outcome primarily through the establishment of a community centre attached to the local primary school. The community centreknown as the Alcazar Centrewas led by a community committee with broad representation. Programs initiated included:

locally created scholarships and the Department of Housings relocation of some families to make schools more accessible; the involvement of fathers in making various contributions to the life of the school and a general increased involvement by parents in school life; a Shop Smart nutrition program; improved street lighting, enabling safe travel at night, and a Windale welcome landmark, building community pride; and the sponsorship of school and sporting needs by local businesses.

Over time, Windale Primary School became a hub of the community, later being used as a blueprint for the Schools as Community Centres initiative across New South Wales. The Alcazar Centre was given an Award for Excellence by the Director General of the NSW Department of Education and Training.

Observations
The Windale community demonstrated that reducing and preventing child abuse and neglect is possible. In the same way the causes of abuse and neglect are complex and diverse, the solutions can be different to what we might expect. The positive community-based initiatives at Windale had a buttery effect: small or seemingly insignicant steps are ultimately making a signicant difference to the children of Windale.

parenting classes; the staged introduction of preschool-aged children to schools; joint exercise and sociability groups for isolated mothers; an Aboriginal health service and community nursing; the identication of talented youngsters and provision of academic extension opportunities;

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and the next generation of children and adults. It affects mental, emotional and physical health, levels of violence and crime, addiction, educational attainment and employment. The consequences can be lifelong and it has been found that the perpetration of violence and abuse can also be passed on to future generations (Tomison, 1996). Australian state and territory government funding for child protection has increased in all jurisdictions over the last ve years, with recurrent expenditure totalling $1.2 billion in 20042005 (Australian Government Productivity Commission, 2006). The Australian Government spent $4.2 million on child abuse prevention in the same period (Australian Government Department of Family and Community Services, 2005). However, preventing child abuse and neglect must be given much greater focus by Australian society. In a Michigan study investigating the costs of child abuse compared to the costs of child abuse prevention, the authors concluded that, while the incidence of abuse could not be reduced to zero, investments in prevention could be cost-effective, even if they achieve only modest reductions in abuse events (Caldwell, 1992). The US Perry Preschool study found an economic return to society of more than US$17 for every tax dollar invested in an early care and education program, and signicant benets in employment, earnings, home ownership and nancial wealth (Schweinhart, 2004). These data show that, rather than responding after abuse or neglect has occurred, it is through child abuse prevention that we create potential for the greatest social and economic returns on our investment.

Effective prevention
Primary prevention strategies are particularly aimed at preventing child abuse and neglect from occurring at all. To date, successes have been hampered by our relatively limited knowledge about wellbeingthe very goal we are seeking. The eyeball of prevention in Figure 1 distinguishes the three roles of prevention: primary preventionuniversal policies and programs that promote wellness to increase the number of families functioning well; secondary preventionpolicies and programs, targeting families experiencing problems and at risk of maltreating children, that work to reduce those problems and the likelihood of child maltreatment; and tertiary preventionpolicies and programs that are post-abuse initiatives intended to ensure no further occurrence of child abuse or neglect (Prilleltensky, Nelson, & Peirson, 2001).

Figure 1 Eyeball of prevention

Interventions

Proactive/universal policies & programs promote wellness

Proactive/high-risk policies & programs prevent maltreatment

Reactive/indicated policies & programs prevent deterioration

Families functioning well

Families experiencing some problems

Families at risk of maltreatment

Child maltreatment occurs

Families require intensive protection services

Context

Source: Prilleltensky, Nelson, & Peirson, 2001, p. 13.

The ecological and hierarchical structure of wellness shown in Figure 2 describes what we know is common sense: that the wellbeing and vulnerability of children is connected to the wellbeing and vulnerability of their parents, families, communities and society at large (Prilleltensky et al., 2001). Effective prevention strategies must promote wellness and reduce risks across every level of this ecology. This principle is well understood when dealing with an epidemic like Sydneys giardia outbreak. Treating patients alone could not solve the epidemic; the root causes had to be addressed (that is, the toxicants entering Sydneys

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water supply). However, child abuse and neglect is much more complex than a giardia outbreak; it is a social pandemic requiring adaptive solutions and social change (Scott, 2006). There is no single prescription, service, program or intervention that can stop child abuse and neglect; however, even small community-based strategies can aid in the prevention of child and abuse neglect. The Oenpelli case study demonstrates an ecological approach to enhancing wellbeing.

Case study 2
Yingana project, Oenpelli, Arnhem Land: Enhancing wellbeing
In September 2003, the Oenpelli community of remote Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory was awarded a NAPCAN Foundation micro-grant. Bolstered by the support and resources at the disposal of NAPCANs Northern Territory Ofce, the grant funded a facilitator and a project team comprised of ve community elders (who were also mature-age students at the Northern Territorys Batchelor Institute of Tertiary Education) to produce a locally based prevention tool that was culturally appropriate for Bininj people (language group of Oenpelli). The grant application read: As traditional land owners living in isolation, Bininj people have many issues. We do not want our children removed and want to work in partnership with key people in promoting the protection of children and young mothers Bininj way It is a whole of community approach. At that time, data showed that of the 156 children in Oenpellis community a signicant number (88) were experiencing symptoms of poor nutrition and failure to thrive, as follows: Small children (stunted) Underweight Wasted (malnourished) Anaemic (insufcient iron in the blood) 19 43 20 6 Each of these initiatives were applied both as the basis for parent education and forming a starting point for partnerships with local professionals, services and agencies. The communitybased initiatives became an induction kit for workers coming to Oenpelli, allowing them to begin building on what has already been achieved. The Yingana project received the Vocational Education and Training Award for Excellence for 2005. Their Creation Mother CD-ROM is now on sale and proceeds will enable the team to fund future projects and child-friendly initiatives.

Observations
The Oenpelli community have developed and implemented a truly ecological approach to the wellbeing and safety of their children, with strategies on every level of the ecological and hierarchical structure of wellbeing: Child level Parent level Community level Societal level Improving nutrition and healthy mothers Positive parenting messages Partnerships with elders and services Respect for Indigenous culture and knowledge

Child welfare agencies frequently intervened to remove children from their families and the community. The Yingana project aimed to improve child nutrition and wellbeing, and decrease the number of child removals, by enhancing traditional parenting. In the rst year of the project, the project team used the following strategies to enhance traditional Bininj mothering: production of a T-shirt incorporating the traditional painting of the Creation Mother; development of a series of 12 paintings, together telling the Creation Mother story; production of educational posters on child nurturing (in the Bininj language); writing a book telling the Yingana project story; developing a professional induction presentation, with the communitys rst-ever use of Microsoft PowerPoint; developing an innovative multimedia CD-ROM that used animation tools to tell the Creation Mother story; and developing strong, sustained collaborative relationships across the community.

This initiative was led entirely by the community. Yet, importantly, the team was able to access and use support from a range of professionals, including NAPCAN and the Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. This is only the beginning, and the team are continuing to expand on the work to create more resources for their community and to further their work preventing child abuse and neglect. The project ably demonstrates the small beginnings approach of community developmenttype work (producing a buttery effect, as mentioned previously). It highlights the value of communities being supported (and respected) to take responsibility, rather than being forced to change. This active support enables active involvement, ownership and, ultimately, sustained capacity. Cultural appropriateness is a further critical factor for the success of any prevention strategy, and is traditionally a particular challenge for Indigenous, and non-mainstream, child-friendly community initiatives. Yinganas incorporation of a traditional dreamtime story showing the importance of maternal health is culturally appropriate and respectfully demonstrates the value of the ancient wisdom of Indigenous people.

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Figure 2 The ecological and hierarchical structure of wellness

Values ,

ies resources, programs, polic

Child

Parental & family

es Values, re sources, programs, polici

Community
s Values, reso urces, programs, policie

Societal
Values, resources, programs, policies

Source: Prilleltensky et al., 2001, p. 9.

Windows to wellbeing
Both the Windale and Oenpelli projects demonstrate the clear purpose of reducing maltreatment and improving the wellbeing of children. Primary prevention is effectively about the creation of wellness for children, families, communities and society as a whole. To reduce or eliminate maltreatment is not enough. To create sustainable child-friendly communities, we must create wellbeing while taking steps to reduce harm. However, while our knowledge around child abuse and neglect is relatively extensive, our knowledge of what constitutes wellbeing (and how we can measure it) has only just begun being explored. A review of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005) information paper, titled Key issues relating to children and youth, highlights that the current data regarding children and wellbeing in Australia is largely harm- and problem-centric. The risk with harm- and problem-based wellbeing indicators is that wellbeing will be viewed as simply the absence of harm. In fact, wellbeing is much more than merely the absence of harm. The Australia Institutes A manifesto for wellbeing states: We need a set of national wellbeing accounts so that we can monitor our progress. They should report on the quality of work, the state of our communities, crime rates, our health, the strength of our relationships, and the state of the environment. Governments should be judged by how much our wellbeing improves, not by how much the economy expands (Hamilton, Eckersley, & Denniss, 2006). Case study 3 describes a series of art-based workshops for children in Macarthur, New South Wales, and the importance young people place on social relationships in contributing to wellbeing. The visions of wellbeing from NAPCANs work in Macarthur were explored with service providers. Figure 3 depicts the comparison of their different priorities. The children viewed relationships as the most important priority and goal and, while service providers recognised that relationships are the most important ingredient for wellbeing, they were arguably the most complex outcomes to demonstrate and measure. As a result, service providers focus was primarily on the delivery of services and needs, which are signicantly easier to measure. However, if it is relationships rather than needs that are most important, the delivery of needs can be both an output and an outcome. While it is important to focus on meeting basic needs in the shortterm, service providers must also recognise the importance of enhancing relationships in order to produce positive community change in the long term. What are required are holistic models of service delivery that recognise the primary importance of relationships. This difference in priority between service providers and young people is a potential risk to the achievement of the key outcomes of wellbeing and safety of children and young people. Case study 4 claries what is being suggested as the way to deliver services, while prioritising the importance of relationships to childrens wellbeing.

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Case study 3
Kid-friendly Macarthur
As part of National Child Protection Week 2005, NAPCAN embarked on an ambitious project to work with children and young people in south-west Sydneys Macarthur region to create their vision for a child- and youth-friendly community. A series of art-based workshops were facilitated by renowned Aboriginal artist Tex Skuthorpe. The workshops involved some 80 children and young people from a dozen schools, groups and services. During the workshops, the children each produced a series of four paintings reecting visions of how they would like their community to be in 100 years time, for their great grandchildren. In recounting the stories of what their paintings meant, the children and young people stated (in order of importance) the qualities they believed were important (see table to the right). and natural. The provision of services and having basic needs met was ranked last in young peoples vision for the future. The Macarthur work showed that children and young people viewed relationships as the highest priority for wellbeing. Positive outcomes for children and young people in areas such as education, health, safety and employment may be possible if we deliver sustained outcomes in the form of meaningful relationships for children and young people. 1. Respect respect each other, the environment, and ourselves everyone equal peace and loving all working and living together no racism access to health services cheap public transport more teachers and further education life skills education meaningful employment stable services neighbourhood, shops, parks, youth facilities healthy environment

2. Multiculturalism 3. Services

Observations
Contrary to the views of many adults, children between the ages of 8 and 18 described an inclusive vision of the community they wanted to create for their great grandchildren. The underlying issue that can be observed in young peoples responses under the areas of respect, multiculturalism and friendly spaces issues is the value placed on relationships. Thus we can conclude that the issue of most importance to children and young people was relationships with family, friends, teachers and the community. The next most important issue was the environment, both built

4. Friendly spaces

Figure 3 Comparison of Macarthur childrens and service providers priorities

Relationships

Environment

Relationships

Base needs

Environment

Self

Base needs

Self

Case studies 1 to 4 demonstrate practical initiatives and outcomes which are aligned with the indicators and qualities of community resilience and risk (depicted in Table 1). The risk and resilience indicators are drawn from a range of national Australian strategies and frameworks, including the: National Agenda for Early Childhood, Pathways to Prevention; Development and Early Intervention Approaches to Crime in Australia, National Anti-Crime Strategy; National Drug Strategy, Australias Integrated Framework 20042009; National Action Plan for Promotion, Prevention and Early Intervention for Mental Health; and National Youth Suicide Prevention Strategy.

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Table 1 Community qualities for childrens wellbeing and safety

Resilience Risk

Social connectedness Respect for cultural diversity, identity and pride Available, accessible and appropriate services which respond effectively Existence of supportive social relationships and networks Participation of children and families in community life and community groups Family-friendly work environments and culture Early identication and support for families and children at risk of poor outcomes

Cultural norms concerning violence as an acceptable response to frustration Social or cultural discrimination, including cultural ignorance Media portrayal of violence Social isolation; lack of infrastructure; housing and urban conditions (unhealthy cities) Lack of support services Socioeconomic disadvantage Social norm of providing cures rather than preventative support

Case study 4
The difference relationships can make
The importance of relationships is generally accepted as a key element in children and adults level of resiliency when confronted with crises and/or life stresses. For example, a social worker in Sydney had worked with a particular family for over a decade. During this time, the son of the family had become a teenager. One day, the social worker was feeling very low, struggling to nd the strength and courage to face another session with the son, knowing just what he had survived over more than 10 years. The following conversation took place: Worker: Can you tell me, how is it you have survived? What kept you going? Boy: Every day, when I used to get on the bus to go to school, the bus driver used to ask me: Hows my little ray of sunshine today? I knew then that I was someone; that I mattered.

Observations
At the same time the bus driver was fullling the required service of taking children from home to school and back again, the driver delivered a relationship (though probably never knowing the difference it made to the boy). The bus driver showed the boy he was valued and valuable. This was the real outcome.

Case study 5
Building community responsibility
The Whitsunday Islands community in Queensland has actively participated in National Child Protection Week (NCPW) for many years. Inspired by the Child Friendly Challenges in NCPW 2005, they decided they wanted to keep prevention of child abuse and neglect on their agenda all year round. In September 2005, a community action group was formed. Their main focus was on taking steps towards making the Whitsundays more child-friendly, including a partnership with the World Health Organization Safe Communities Project. To date, the groups actions have included: a whole-of-community Christmas event bringing together children, families, police, remen, businesses and service providers; a brochure titled: Child protection in the Whitsundays, containing information on child abuse and neglect and contact details for all service providers in the region; and

the establishment of two working groups: o the Child Protection Group, which will organise community education throughout the year and facilitate National Child Protection Week; and o the Access to Recreation Group, which will establish affordable recreation for nancially disadvantaged children with scholarships and an inaugural sport expo, to be held in October 2006.

Observations
With their purpose of improving wellbeing and reducing risks of harm, and their main resource being time and passion for childrens wellbeing and welfare, the Whitsundays community has demonstrated the ability to develop a locally relevant action plan, and establish partnerships with service providers and business to bring their action plan to life. The involvement of children and young people has been central in all of their activities.

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The case studies demonstrate the practical ways communities can get involved to put these national strategies and frameworks into effect in their area. Case study 5 demonstrates the development of a locally relevant action plan, and the establishment of partnerships with service providers and businesses to bring that action plan to life.

Conclusions
The lessons, case studies, anecdotes and models presented above demonstrate the early stages of how communities can, and are, taking responsibility for working to improve the wellbeing of children and young people and, in turn, helping to prevent child abuse and neglect. The involvement of community has brought important knowledge to the table. In many cases, communities have created simple and meaningful plans that deliver an ecological approach to the dual objective of improving wellbeing and reducing risks of harm to children and young people. The buttery effect metaphor has been used to describe the fact that, from the small and signicant steps being taken, the potential is for big things to grow. Three signicant benets of community responsibility were highlighted: Goals. Exploring and determining a picture of wellbeing and safety is a powerful way to involve communities and children in determining which outcomes are a priority and their vision for the future (such as the kids of Macarthur telling of the need to focus on relationships rst and foremost); Content. The case studies demonstrate communities ability to develop plans relevant to their context and culture and make progress towards their vision of wellbeing and safety (such as the Oenpelli community creating a maternal health campaign from their own Bininj Creation Mother dreamtime story); and Process. With a clear and valued vision for the future, and a relevant and realistic action plan, each community studied has been able to bring services and other resources to the implementation process (such as the Whitsundays community, who have achieved so much with passion and time). In closing, it is important to recognise the message given by communities taking responsibility for the wellbeing and safety of childrenthat we all have the ability to play a part in enhancing the wellbeing of children, families and communities. Indeed, when it comes to the mission of preventing child abuse and neglect before it starts, childrens wellbeing and safety is everyones business.

NAPCANs ve-step plan for a child-friendly Australia

A child-friendly Australia, free from harm, one community at a time: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ask children and young people to create their vision for a child friendly community. Be creative! Develop a simple plan of action, again working with the kids. Form a group of local partners and other key stakeholders (checkout NAPCANs Community Action Kit). Begin the child-friendly journey. Involve NAPCAN. We can promote your story and work, connect you with our network and partners and more

References
Access Economics. (2004). The cost of domestic violence to the Australian economy: Part 1 & 2. Canberra: Ofce of the Status of Women. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2005). 2005 year book Australia. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2001). Child protection Australia 199900. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2002). Child protection Australia 200001. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2003). Child protection Australia 200102. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2004). Child protection Australia 200203. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.

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Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2005). Child protection Australia 200304. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2006). Child protection Australia 200405. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2005). Information paper: Key issues relating to children and youth, 2005. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government Department of Family and Community Services. (2005). Department of Family and Community Services Annual Report. Canberra: Department of Family and Community Services. Australian Government Productivity Commission. (2006). Report on Government Services 2006, Volume 2. Canberra: Australian Government Productivity Commission. Caldwell, R. A. (1992). The costs of child abuse vs child abuse prevention: Michigans experience. Michigan: Michigan Childrens Trust Fund and Michigan State University. Hamilton, C., Eckersley, R., & Denniss, R. (2006). A manifesto for wellbeing. The Australia Institute. Retrieved 23 June 2006, from http://www.wellbeingmanifesto.net/about.htm. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. (1997). Bringing them home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families. Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. Keatsdale. (2003). Report into the cost of child abuse and neglect in Australia. Albion, Qld: Queensland Kids First Foundation. Retreived from http://www.kidsrst.com.au/ page.php?partid=45. Prilleltensky, I., Nelson, G., & Peirson, L. (2001). Promoting family wellness and preventing child maltreatment: Fundamental for thinking and action. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Schweinhart, L. J. (2004). The High/Scope Perry Preschool study through age 40: Summary conclusions and frequently asked questions. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation. Retrieved 4 July 2006 from http://www. highscope.org/Research/PerryProject/perrymain.htm. Scott, D. (2006). Sowing the seeds of innovation in child protection. Paper presented at the 10th Australasian Conference on Child Abuse and Neglect. Wellington, NZ. Retrieved 4 July 2006 from http://www.nzfvc.org.nz/accan/speakers/scott. shtml. Tomison, A. (1996). Intergenerational transmission of maltreatment (Child Abuse Prevention Issues, No. 6). Melbourne: National Child Protection Clearinghouse. Available from http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/issues6.html.

Adam Blakester is the Executive Ofcer for the National Association for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (NAPCAN) Foundation.

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