anatomical position superior inferior anterior posterior cephalad (cephalic) caudad (caudal) dorsal ventral proximal distal medial

lateral superficial deep sagittal section midsagittal section parasagittal section longitudinal section frontal (coronal) section transverse (cross) section brachium (brachial) antebrachium (antebrachial)

base arm light source iris/diaphragm condenser epithelium simple squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar stratified columnar pseudostratified ciliated columnar transitional goblet cell mucus cytoplasm cell membrane cell junctions apical surface

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY, TERMS TO KNOW cubitum (cubital) (the elbow or olecranon) antecubital (opposite and anterior to the cubitum) popliteal gluteal pubic femoral lumbar oral orbital cervical thoracic body cavities cranial cavity spinal cavity thoracic cavity pleural cavities pericardial cavity mediastinum abdominal cavity peritoneum pelvic cavity abdominopelvic quadrants MICROSCOPY AND HISTOLOGY TERMS TO KNOW filter mechanical stage coarse adjustment fine adjustment objectives basal surface basement membrane cilia keratinized cells non-keratinized cells integumentary system epidermis stratum corneum stratum lucidum stratum granulosum stratum spinosum stratum germinativum (stratum basale) melanin melanocyte keratin

abdominopelvic regions umbilical epigastric hypogastric iliac lumbar hypochondriac cell tissue organ organ system integumentary skeletal muscular nervous endocrine cardiovascular lymphatic respiratory digestive urinary reproductive immune system

scan low power high power oil immersion oculars keratinocyte dermis hair follicle arrector pili muscle sebaceous gland sweat gland apocrine eccrine Meissner's corpuscle Pacinian corpuscle Langerhans cells Merkel cells papillary layer dermal papillae reticular layer hypodermis (subcutaneous)

CONNECTIVE TISSUES, CARTILAGE, BONE TISSUE, BONES AS ORGANS, BONE CONTOURS TERMS TO KNOW A. Connective Tissue: Exercise 6 connective tissue elastic c.t. chondrocyte areolar (loose) tissue fibroblast (fibrocyte) cartilage adipose tissue extracellular matrix hyaline fibrous connective tissue elastin (elastic) fibers elastic (dense regular) collagen fibers fibrocartilage reticular tissue reticular fibers matrix B. Bone Tissue Haversian system (osteon) canaliculi osteoblast Haversian canal lacunae osteoclast Volkmann's canal osteocyte C. BONES AS ORGANS lamella (concentric, epiphysis yellow marrow interstitial) epiphyseal disk (plate) periosteum compact bone epiphyseal line endosteum cancellous bone medullary cavity articular cartilage diaphysis red marrow D. BONE CONTOURS process spine sinus condyle trochanter meatus tubercle fossa notch tuberosity foramen groove SKELETON: THE SKULL & AXIAL SKELETON TERMS TO KNOW A. THE SKULL cranium frontal bone parietal bones temporal bones mandibular (glenoid) fossa external acoustic meatus zygomatic process mastoid process internal acoustic meatus foramen lacerum jugular foramen carotid canal occipital bone lambdoidal suture foramen magnum occipital condyles hypoglossal canal sphenoid bone optic foramen sella turcica foramen rotundum foramen ovale superior orbital fissure ethmoid bone cribriform plate crista galli perpendicular plate conchae nasal bones lacrimal bones maxilla zygomatic bone palatine bone vomer bone paranasal sinuses (frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid) mandible coronoid process angle of mandible mandibular condyle hyoid bone coronal (frontal) suture lambdoidal (occipital) suture squamosal (temporal) suture sagittal (longitudinal) suture fetal skull anterior fontanel posterior fontanel sphenoidal (anterolateral) fontanel mastoid (posterolateral) fontanel

B. AXIAL SKELETON: vertebrae cervical atlas axis odontoid process (dens) thoracic lumbar sacrum coccyx body of vertebra vertebral arch pedicles laminae

spinous process articular processes superior inferior transverse process transverse foramen vertebral foramen intervertebral foramen intervertebral disk cervical curve thoracic curve lumbar curve scoliosis APPENDICULAR SKELETON THINGS TO KNOW olecranon process coronoid process semilunar (trochlear) notch radial notch styloid process carpus navicular (scaphoid) lunate triquetal pisiform trapezium trapezoid capitate hamate metacarpus phalanges pelvis (os coxae) ilium greater sciatic notch iliac crest ischium lesser sciatic notch ischial tuberosity pubis pubis tubercle symphysis pubis acetabulum

kyphosis lordosis sternum manubrium body (gladiolus) xiphoid process true ribs (vertebrosternal ribs) costal cartilages false ribs (vertebrochondral ribs) floating ribs head, neck & tubercle of rib clavicle

scapula glenoid cavity (fossa) coracoid process acromian process spine infraspinus fossa supraspinous fossa vertebral border axillary border superior border humerus head anatomical neck greater tubercle lesser tubercle deltoid tuberosity capitulum trochlea coronoid fossa olecranon fossa lateral epicondyle medial epicondyle radius head radial tuberosity styloid process ulna

obturator foramen femur head neck greater trochanter lesser trochanter linea aspera lateral condyle medial condyle tibia lateral condyle medial condyle tibial tuberosity medial malleolus fibula head lateral malleolus patella tarsus talus calcaneus navicular cuboid cuneiform (1, 2 & 3) metatarsus phalanges

ARTHROLOGY: MUSCLE HISTOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, MOTOR POINTS, BODY MOVEMENT TERMS TO KNOW Types of joints: synarthrosis amphiarthrosis diarthrosis fibrous joint sutures syndesmoses cartilaginous joint symphyses synchodroses synovial joint articular cartilage articular capsule synovial membrane Muscle Types: smooth muscle cardiac muscle skeletal muscle muscle fiber myofibril myofilaments bursa ligament types of synovial joints gliding (plane) hinge pivot condyloid saddle ball-and-socket elbow joint ulnar collateral ligament radial collateral ligament annular ligament knee joint patellar ligament quadriceps tendon fibular collateral ligament tibial collateral ligament anterior cruciate ligament posterior cruciate ligament lateral meniscus medial meniscus lateral & medial patellar retinaculum deep fascia

myosin actin A band I band Z line sarcolemma

sarcomere motor neuron neuromuscular junction motor unit

The following terms relate to the lecture portion of the course and will not be studied in the lab: action potential synaptic cleft T-tubule system excitation-contraction pre-synaptic membrane sarcoplasmic reticulum coupling: post-synaptic membrane Ach (acetylcholine) axon terminals synaptic vesicles motor end plate subliminal (sub-threshold) stimulus threshold stimulus latent period motor unit (spatial) summation (recruitment) wave (temporal) summation tetanus flexion dorsiflexion plantar flexion extension abduction adduction rotation circumduction supination pronation inversion eversion elevation depression protraction retraction epimysium perimysium endomysium fasciculus (fascicle) muscle fiber origin insertion agonist antagonist synergist fixator tendon aponeurosis

MUSCLES I: HEAD, NECK, TRUNK TERMS TO KNOW platysma masseter temporalis orbicularis oris orbicularis oculi trapezius splenius capitus splenius cervicis semispinalis capitus semispinalis cervicis semispinalis thoracis longissimus capitus sternocleidomastoideus pectoralis major deltoideus serratus anterior pectoralis minor external intercostal (intercostalis externi) internal intercostal (intercostalis interni) subscapularis latissimus dorsi infraspinatus teres major teres minor levator scapulae supraspinatus rhomboideus major rhomboideus minor erector spinae quadratus lumborum

anconeus coracobrachialis biceps brachii brachialis brachioradialis triceps brachii supinator pronator teres pronator quadratus flexor carpi radialis flexor carpi ulnaris palmaris longus

MUSCLES II: ARM, ABDOMEN, PELVIS TERMS TO KNOW flexor digitorum superficialis abductor pollicis brevis flexor digitorum profundus flexor retinaculum extensor carpi radialis longus extensor retinaculum extensor carpi radialis brevis thenar muscles of thumb extensor carpi ulnaris external oblique extensor digitorum communis internal oblique extensor indicis transversus abdominis extensor digiti minimi rectus abdominis flexor pollicis longus aponeurosis of external extensor pollicis brevis oblique extensor pollicis longus linea alba abductor pollicis longus MUSCLES III: LEG TERMS TO KNOW gracilis sartorius tensor fasciae latae hamstring group biceps femoris semimembranosus semitendinosus iliopsoas psoas major iliacus triceps surae gastrocnemius soleus Achilles tendon tibialis anterior tibialis posterior peroneus longus peroneus brevis peroneus tertius flexor hallucis longus flexor digitorum longus extensor hallucis longus extensor digitorum longus crural compartments anterior lateral posterior

gluteus maximus iliotibial tract gluteus medius gluteus minimus piriformis adductor longus adductor brevis adductor magnus pectineus quadriceps femoris group rectus femoris vastus lateralis vastus medialis vastus intermedius

NERVOUS SYSTEM I: HISTOLOGY, SPINAL CORD

neuron multipolar n. unipolar n. bipolar n. dendrite nerve cell body (cyton) axon endoneurium fasciculus perineurium epineurium Schwann cell myelin neurilemma node of Ranvier neuroglia astrocyte central canal microglia conus medullaris oligodendrocyte cauda equina ependymal filum terminale neurofibrils denticulate ligament saltatory conduction meninges sensory (afferent) neuron dura mater interneuron arachnoid mater motor (efferent) neuron pia mater collaterals epidural space white matter subdural space gray matter subarachnoid space posterior (dorsal) root cerebrospinal fluid anterior (ventral) root spinal tract spinal ganglion posterior median sulcus spinal nerve anterior median fissure NERVOUS SYSTEM II: SPINAL NERVES: SPINAL CORD REFLEXES, PERIPHERAL NERVES spinal segment obturator n. visceral reflex cervical plexus lateral femoral cutaneous n. hyperflexia brachial plexus sacral plexus hyporeflexia lateral cord superior gluteal n. pathological reflexes musculocutaneous n. inferior gluteal n. autonomic nervous system medial cord pudendal n. sympathetic nervous system median n. posterior cutaneous n. vertebral (paravertebral) ulnar n. sciatic n. ganglion posterior cord tibial n. collateral ganglion axillary n. common peroneal n. preganglionic neuron radial n. superficial peroneal n. postganglionic neuron lumbar plexus deep peroneal n. parasympathetic nervous femoral n. somatic reflex system NERVOUS SYSTEM III: THE BRAIN & CRANIAL NERVES A. THE BRAIN meninges post-central gyrus hypothalamus metencephalon dura mater temporal lobe epithalamus (hindbrain) arachnoid mater occipital lobe pineal body cerebellum pia mater central sulcus mammillary bodies Purkinje cells falx cerebri lateral fissure hypophysis (pituitary) pons superior sagittal sinus longitudinal fissure infundibulum cerebellar peduncles arachnoid granulations corpus callosum optic chiasma fourth ventricle (villi) basal nuclei third ventricle cerebral aqueduct choroid plexus fornix mesencephalon myelencephalon telencephalon (forebrain) lateral ventricles (midbrain) (hindbrain) cerebrum septum pellucidum corpora quadrigemina medulla oblongata frontal lobe diencephalon (superior and inferior pre-central gyrus thalamus colliculi) parietal lobe intermediate mass cerebral peduncles

KEY TO HUMAN BRAIN SECTIONS There are three human brains, each sectioned in a different plane: sagittal, coronal and horizontal. Locate the following structures in the sections and then try to visualize in your mind their threedimensional shape and relationships. The letters following each name are the labels on the brain sections. telencephalon (forebrain) neocortex (NC) corpus callosum (CC) septum pellucidum (SP) basal ganglia caudate nucleus head (CNH) body (CNB) tail (CNT) putamen (PT) globus pallidus (BP) substantia nigra (SN) red nucleus (RN) limbic system hippocampus (HIP) fornix (F) amygdala (A) lateral ventricle (LV) diencephalon (forebrain) epithalamus pineal body (PB) habenula (NA) thalamus (T) intermediate mass (IM) pulvinar (PU) medial geniculate body (MGB) lateral geniculate body (LGB) hypothalamus (HT) mammillary body (MB) infundibulum (I) hypophysis (H) optic nerve (ON) optic chiasma (OC) optic tract (OT) third ventricle (3V) foramen of Monroe (FM) mesencephalon (midbrain) corpora quadrigemina superior colliculus (SC) inferior colliculus (IC) cerebral peduncle (CP) cerebral aqueduct (CA) metencephalon (hindbrain) pons (P) cerebellum (C) cerebellar peduncles anterior (ACP) middle (MCP) posterior (PCP) fourth ventricle (4V) myelencephalon (hindbrain) medulla oblongata (MO) spinal cord (S) A amygdala ACP anterior cerebellar peduncle AV arbor vitae C cerebellum CA cerebral aqueduct CC corpus callosum CNB caudate nucleus, body CNH caudate nucleus, head CNT caudate nucleus, tail CP cerebral peduncle F fornix FM foramen of Monroe GP globus pallidus T thalamus H hypophysis HA habenula HIP hippocampus HT hypothalamus I infundibulum 3V third ventricle 4V fourth ventricle IC inferior colliculus IM intermediate mass

LGB lateral geniculate body LV lateral ventricle MB mammillary body MCP middle cerebellar peduncle MGB medial geniculate body MO medulla oblongata NC neocortex OC optic chiasma ON optic nerve OT optic tract P pons PB pineal body PCP posterior cerebellar peduncle PT putamen PU pulvinar RN red nucleus S spinal cord SC superior colliculus SN substantia nigra SP septum pellucidum

B. CRANIAL NERVES olfactory nerve olfactory bulb olfactory tract optic nerve optic chiasma optic tract oculomotor nerve trochlear nerve trigeminal nerve mandibular division maxillary division

opthalmic division abducens nerve facial nerve statoacoustic (vestibulocochlear) nerve vestibular nerve cochlear nerve glossopharyngeal nerve vagus nerve accessory nerve hypoglossal nerve SPECIAL SENSES: EYE, EAR TERMS TO KNOW

cribriform plate optic foramen superior orbital fissure foramen rotundum foramen ovale internal acoustic meatus jugular foramen hypoglossal canal

EYE: sclera choroid retina cornea iris optic nerve suspensory ligament macula lutea fovea centralis optic disc vitreous body aqueous humor trochlea EAR: auricle (pinna) external acoustic meatus tympanic membrane malleus incus stapes eustachian tube osseous labyrinth membranous labyrinth endolymph, perilymph

lens ciliary body canal of Schlemm pupil caruncula conjunctiva lacrimal gland (superior and inferior) lacrimal puncta lacrimal ducts (superior and inferior) lacrimal sac

nasolacrimal duct superior rectus inferior rectus lateral rectus medial rectus superior oblique inferior oblique levator palpebrae superioris

vestibule oval window round window cochlea scala tympani scala vestibuli cochlear duct organ of Corti tectorial membrane hair cells

vestibular membrane basilar membrane vestibular apparatus semicircular canals utricle saccule macula crista ampullaris (ampulla)

BIO 136 Histology Study Guide

A tissue is a group of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions. There are four tissue types in the human body: Epithelial tissue - found as the lining and covering of organs and body cavities, the secretory parts of organs and glands, the transport membranes of capillaries and alveolar sacs, and membranes which lubricate organs. Connective tissue - supports as bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments, protects as the bony cavities and as protective immune cells in the blood, and stores nutrients. Nervous tissue - the tissue which carries information in the form of impulses throughout the body. Muscle tissue - contracts to perform movements such as skeletal muscle movements, propulsion in the GI tract, and pumping blood in the heart. Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, anchored by a basement membrane consisting of a basal lamina made of glycoprotein (similar to the glycocalyx on the apical surface) and a reticular lamina made of collagen. Epithelium is named according to structure, arrangement, and shape. Shape: squamous - thin, flat cells cuboidal - cube shaped cells columnar - column shaped cells Structure and arrangement: simple - one layer thick stratified - multi-layered pseudostratified - appears stratified but isn't transitional - stretchable ciliated - has hair-like cilia Selected epithelial tissues common in the human body: See [Epithelial Histology] Simple squamous epithelium: the thinnest tissue, used in membranes and walls of capillaries and alveolar sacks. [Example] Simple cuboidal epithelium: secretory and absorptive tissue in glands as well as the liver and kidneys. [Example] Simple columnar epithelium: the secretory and absorptive lining of the GI tract. [Example ] Stratified squamous epithelium: the epidermis of the body's skin. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium: (a.k.a. PCCE) the lining of the respiratory tract. [Example] See also: [PCCE] [cilia SEM] [cilia diagram] Transitional epithelium: the stretchable tissue in the urinary bladder and ureters. [Example] Connective tissue consists of a variety of widely spaced cells within an intercellular matrix. The term extracellular matrix (ECM) can also be used, but usually is applied to the attachments of cells, including other cell types, not just those in connective tissues. These

cells are all derived from mesenchyme stem cells. The matrix may be loose, dense, or have other specialized characteristics, it may have one or more types of fiber, and has a ground substance with semi-solid to fluid gel or other materials. All of these features determine the structure and function of the variety of these tissues found throughout the body. Cell types: fibrocyte (also fibroblast) - the generic or characteristic cell for each type of connective tissue. In the loose and dense tissues the name fibrocyte or fibroblast is used depending on the predominant action and stage of development of the cells. A fibroblast is actively secreting matrix, usually in growing tissue, while a fibrocyte is a mature cell, no longer active in building tissue, but still important in maintenance and managing homeostasis. The same designation is used for cells in other connective tissues, e.g. osteocytes and osteoblasts in bone, chondrocytes and chondroblasts in cartilage. A cell designated as a -clast is dissolving the matrix. For instance osteoclasts are important in bone remodeling by breaking down old matrix before it is replaced. These cells come from a different cell line than the blasts and -cytes. Other cells which occur in certain connective tissues, especially the loose varieties, are: mast cells - similar to basophils in the blood, they play a role in inflammatory reactions by secreting histamine and heparin. macrophages - phagocytic cells derived from monocytes which are part of the body's first line of defense against invading microorganisms. These cells have a variety of names depending on the tissue such as histiocytes (lungs), Kupffer cells (liver), Langerhan's cells (skin), microglia (nervous tissue). plasma cells - a type of lymphocyte which secretes antibodies; these plus other white blood cells wander in from the blood. Matrix components: A loose matrix such as in areolar tissue has much fluid-filled space in between its structural components. A dense matrix does not. Three types of fibers may be found singly or in combination: collagen fibers- high tensile strength with some flexibility. Found in inelastic types of tissues. Collagen is actually a glycoprotein formed into a triple helix, and is found as many as 19 different varieties in various tissues in the body. elastic fibers - provide organs and tissues with the ability to stretch and recoil. These fibers are thin and interwoven with collagen fibers to prevent tearing. Elastic fibers are made of the protein elastin formed into a cross-linked network within the tissue. reticular fibers - made of the same molecules as collagen but thinner, they form an internal mesh-like network within organs. This produces an endoskeleton or stroma for soft organs such as the spleen, liver, etc. The ground substance: a viscous, clear substance with a high water content which occupies the space between the cells and fibers. It is composed of proteoglycans (glycoproteins) with attached glycosaminoglycans (def) or GAGs. Important GAGs are hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparan sulfate, keratan sulfate (produces keratin). See [The Structure of a Proteoglycan Complex]. The proteins fibronectin and laminin may also be part of this matrix. A semisolid gel makes cartilage firm yet flexible. See [Connective Histology] Connective tissue proper - composed of two types: loose connective tissue

dense connective tissue Loose Connective Tissue, a.k.a. areolar tissue: Loose connective tissue is found as part of the dermis of skin, in the underlying supportive layer (called the lamina propria) of the GI, respiratory and genitourinary tracts, also found in serous membranes, and as the body's interstitial tissue. This is the most abundant connective tissue and its matrix contains most of the body's interstitial fluid. Areolar has all three types of fibers. adipose - Sometimes considered a specialized connective tissue rather than connective tissue proper, adipose is an exception to the general characteristics because its cells are closely packed and it has little matrix. The adipose cells store lipid in a large vacuole which fills each cell. Adipose is important for shock absorption and insulation and is found around many organs such as the heart, eyes, kidneys, spleen etc. as well as under the skin and in the medullary canal of long bones. Subcutaneous fat is a major stored fuel for aerobic activities. Adipose is also found associated with the serous membranes of the body. [See Adipose l.p. and Adipose h.p.] Dense tissues: Dense irregular - Has few cells, mostly fibroblasts, and many fibers, principally collagen, arranged in an irregular pattern to provide strength and withstand stresses to which the organ may be subjected. It makes up the deep layer of the skin's dermis, and it produces the supporting submucosa of the hollow organs (e.g. GI tract), and the capsules of synovial joints. Dense regular connective tissue - Also known as fibrous or inelastic connective tissue it forms the structure of tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses, fascia, and fibrous joints. It has almost entirely collagen fibers (certain ligaments, called elastic ligaments, have more elastic fibers) in densely packed arrays, with rows of cells between the fiber bundles. reticular tissue - found as the internal support (stroma) of the kidneys, spleen, liver and many other soft organs. Has reticular fibers only. elastic connective tissue - found in the walls of the large arteries and in the stroma of the lungs and sparingly in certain elastic ligaments (e.g. those of the spinal column). It makes the arteries flexible to absorb the pulse pressure, and gives the lungs their recoil. Cartilage: considered a specialized connective tissue and not connective tissue proper. It has semisolid gel made principally of the glycosaminoglycans chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid. The gel gives the cartilage a distinct shape, lots of water turgor, and flexibility. Cells in cartilage are found within spaces called lacunae. The lacuna allows the cell to be bathed in fluid from which it receives nutrients and gets rid of wastes by diffusion. Substances diffuse very slowly through the gel and cartilage itself is avascular. hyaline cartilage - has organic collagen fibers but they are very finely divided and cannot be seen in the light microscope. Staining gives the matrix a texture which is referred to as the ground substance. Hyaline is the most common type of cartilage, found in the nose, attached to the ribs, as articular cartilage, and as the cartilage model for bone development. elastic cartilage - has dense bundles of elastic fibers and is rare, found only in the epiglottis and ear. fibrocartilage - has dense bundles of collagen fibers, it is the major component of the intervertebral disks and the symphysis pubis. Vascularization of tissues and Tissue Repair. The ability of tissues to repair themselves is related to their blood supply. Tissues well supplied with blood capillaries can usually exhibit functional and rapid repair compared with poorly supplied tissues.

There are two types of repair: functional or parenchymal repair in epithelial tissue in which the function of the replaced cells continues, and stromal repair in or scar tissue in which fibrous tissue knits the damaged parts together but doesn't perform the tissues original function. Epithelial tissue generally exhibits functional repair. Most epithelial tissues exhibit rapid mitosis and the original function is normally retained. Although the tissue itself has no blood vessels, vessels are a short distance away in the supporting connective tissue which is usually areolar. Epithelial tissue in the skin, in the linings of organs in the GI and respiratory tracts, in the liver, in many glands, and in blood vessels can all replace and repair themselves, the limiting factor generally being the degree of damage and other nutritive and health factors. Connective tissues, with notable exceptions, have poor vascularization and therefore slow repair and replacement. And the repair of connective tissues, except for bone, is stromal repair, scar tissue which binds the organ but is not the same as the original tissue. The exceptions are areolar, which is the route for blood supply in the skin and in many internal organs, bone, which is richly supplied with blood vessels, and adipose which also has extensive blood supply. Bone repairs itself much more rapidly and effectively than, for instance, cartilage or fibrous connective tissue (tendons and ligaments). Fat repairs itself and continue to grow if you let it. Epithelial membranes (organ membranes) - these are combinations of epithelial and connective tissues which have specific functions. Serous membranes - combined of simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue. Secretes serous fluid as a lubricant for sliding of the tissues. Found as the pericardial sack which prevents friction and abrasion when the heart beats; as the pleural membranes around the lungs; as mesenteries attaching the intestines; as peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs. Mucous membranes - combined of columnar (may be ciliated or p.c.c.e.) epithelium with areolar connective and smooth muscle. Forms the structure of the GI and respiratory passageways. Specialized glands, or cells called goblet cells, secrete mucus to protect the lining, lubricate the propulsion of food, and remove particulates form the respiratory tract. (See simple columnar epithelium description, above) [Note: the noun mucus has a different spelling than the adjective mucous] Synovial membranes are not epithelial membranes but are included here for comparison. They form joint capsules which lubricate joints, and bursae which lubricate the movements of tendons and ligaments. They are composed entirely of connective tissue. The cutaneous membrane, a.k.a. the skin, is the organ of the integumentary system. It is composed of several layers including the epidermis made of stratified squamous epithelium, and the dermis made of areolar and dense irregular connective tissue, well as the hypodermis or subcutaneous layer. The Integument The integumentary system is the protective cover for the human body. It has one organ, the skin, a.k.a. the cutaneous membrane. Functions of the skin include: protection - protects against invasion of microorganisms, protects from water loss and dehydration. defense - contains macrophages, lymph nodes and other structures which identify pathogens and provide first line of defense against them.

sensation - the skin contains sense organs for light touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. secretion - the skin secretes the precursor to Vitamin D (this is then activated by processing in the liver and kidney), and melanin. thermoregulation - by diverting blood into or away from the skin the body can release or conserve heat. Most people would add excretion to the list. The skin does excrete very small amounts of urea, but is not a significant organ of excretion. By far, most of what is released on the surface of the skin is water, and water, not salts, is what you need to be sure to replace. Most people get way more salt than they need in their foods. The epidermis is composed of several layers: The stratum basale (a.k.a. stratum germinativum) undergoes constant mitosis to replace the cells exfoliated from the skin's surface. The new cells push up into the intervening or transitional layers toward the surface. The stratum spinosum or "spiny layer" consists of cells attached to one another by fibrous desmosomes which enable the skin to be pulled and stretched without the cells pulling apart. As the cells push up through these layers they accumulate large amounts of keratin (a glycoprotein) and this substance forms dense granules in the stratum granulosum. Some areas of the skin, notably the palms and soles have an additional layer, the stratum lucidum or "clear layer" which makes them thicker in order to resist pressure. The outermost layer is called the cornified layer because its cells are stiff and horny. In fact the horns of some animals such as the rhinoceros are made of exactly this material. This layer may be quite thick, 20 cells or so thick, and is constantly sloughing off. It is this process which produces the flaky skin seen in dandruff and other conditions. The cornified layer will increase in thickness when subjected to continuous pressure and abrasion. This is what produces the "corns" and calluses seen on the feet and hands. The rate of skin replacement varies from one area to another but averages about 2 weeks. Melanocytes are derived from neural crest cells, and maintain a significant neural connection. They associate mostly with the cells of the stratum basale. All races have about the same number of melanocytes, in association with the other epidermal cells They secrete melanin in granules which are taken into the epidermal cells by endocytosis. Melanin helps protect the cells from UV radiation. Melanin varies in color among the races from a brown to a reddish tint. In addition to melanin, skin color is influenced by the presence of blood vessels and carotene. In light skin the melanin is broken down rapidly by enzymes from the keratinocytes. Skin Cancer (See Also: [Skin Cancer Screening] [Skin Cancer][Melanoma]) Cancer occurs when genetic changes result in turning on, or not turning off, genes which regulate normal cell division and tissue growth. In the case of skin cancer the stimulus for such changes usually lies in exposure of the skin to UV radiation. Three basic types exist: 1) squamous cell carcinoma: A moderately dangerous cancer that occurs in the skin cells of the intermediate or transitional layers of the epidermis. Normally these cells undergo apoptosis, the suicide or self destruction which results in the protective layer of flattened, dead cells found in the outer cornified layer. And the acceleration of apoptosis is an important response of these cells to sun exposure. If apoptosis fails then these cells can become abnormal and produce cancer. 2) basal cell carcinoma. An abnormal growth of the basal cells. These cells are normally protected from UV exposure by the melanin secreted by nearby melanocytes. This form of cancer can usually be successfully treated surgically if caught in time. 3) melanoma. This is a cancer of the melanocytes which is the most dangerous because it often metastasizes to other tissues and organs.

The diagram of a hair root shown in the pdf file (p. 79) illustrates the anatomy of the hair and associated structures, as well as the blood supply to the skin which allows it to act in thermoregulation. Vessels immediately under the epidermis can be perfused with blood to allow heat to be radiated to the environment, or they can be bypassed with shunts connecting arteries and veins to allow the blood to return to the warmer core of the body. The hair itself, together with the fingernails, is made of flattened keratinized cells thickly stacked together. Melanin granules secreted around these cells give hair its color which can vary as can skin by the amount and color of the melanin granules. Hairs can also be raised by piloarrector muscles to produce "goose bumps", also part of thermoregulation. The hairs are bathed by an oily substance called sebum which helps the skin to remain moist. Lanolin, which has been used in many cosmetics, is sebum from sheep. MECHANICS OF MUSCLE FUNCTION A skeletal muscle acts by contracting, or shortening, thereby pulling one of the bones to which it is attached (the insertion) closer to the other bone to which it is attached (the origin). For example, the brachialis originates on the humerus and inserts on the ulna. When it contracts, it pulls the ulna closer to the humerus, or flexes the forearm. All muscles cross at least one joint, and it is only at this joint that the muscle can create movement. The brachialis, for example, can generate movement only at the elbow joint. Some muscles cross two joints and can therefore create movement at two different joints. The rectus femoris originates on the anterior part of the pelvic girdle and inserts on the anterior proximal tibia, so it crosses both the hip and knee joints. It can either flex the thigh or extend the lower leg, depending on which other muscles are contracting at the same time. Since joints can be moved in more than one direction, there must be muscles on more than one side of the joint to give it a full range of movement. The brachialis crosses the anterior side of the elbow joint and when it contracts, the elbow is flexed. To extend the elbow joint, another muscle is needed on the opposite side of the joint; this muscle is the triceps brachii which crosses the posterior side of the elbow. The brachialis and triceps brachii are said to be antagonistic muscles because they pull the forearm in opposite directions. The hip joint is capable of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction; to create these movements there must be muscles crossing the anterior, posterior, medial and lateral sides of the joint. A simple way to figure out the action of any muscle is to look at the origin, insertion and joint and determine what kind of motion is created at the joint when the insertion is pulled closer to the origin. You should be able to do this with all the muscles you study during the next few weeks. On the next page is a list of origins and insertions for some hypothetical muscles. Using a skeleton or your own body as a model, figure out the action each muscle would have. Use a cut rubber band with one end placed on the origin and the other end on the insertion. Observe the movement which occurs when the insertion moves toward the origin. Some muscles may have more than one action. Definitions of the different kinds of actions can be found in the textbook.

Muscles are named according to characteristics such as shape, location (often origin to insertion), action, structure and size. Use the name to help remember where the muscle is and what it does. ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Thoracic vertebrae Occipital Sternum Mandible Anterior ribs Proximal end of humerus Dorsal side of radius Dorsal side of metacarpals Ventral side of ulna Ventral side of third phalanx Posterior side of Posterior side of pelvic girdle fibula Posterior side of Calcaneus femur Anterior side of tibia Dorsal side of metatarsals

1. temporalis 2. masseter 3. sternocleidomastoideus 4. pectoralis major

5. pectoralis minor 6. deltoideus 7. serratus anterior 8. subscapularis

9. trapezius 10. semispinalis capitus 11. splenius capitus 12. longissimus capitus 13. levator scapulae

14. rhomboideus minor 15. rhomboideus major 16. supraspinatus 17. infraspinatus 18. teres minor

19. teres major 20. latissimus dorsi 21. sacrospinalis

1. coracobrachialis 2. biceps brachii 3. brachialis 4. triceps brachii 5. brachioradialis 6. pronator teres 7. pronator quadratus 8. flexor carpi radialis 9. flexor carpi ulnaris

10. palmaris longus 11. flexor digitorum superficialis 12. flexor digitorum profundus 13. flexor pollicis longus 14. supinator 15. extensor carpi radialis longus 16. extensor carpi radialis brevis 17. extensor carpi ulnaris 18. extensor digitorum communis

19. extensor digiti minimi 20. extensor indicis 21. extensor pollicis brevis 22. extensor pollicis longus 23. abductor pollicis longus 24. abductor pollicis brevis 25. adductor pollicis

CROSS-SECTION THROUGH RIGHT FOREARM

A. Radius B. Ulna C. Radial artery, vein, nerve D. Basilic vein E. Median nerve F. Ulnar artery, vein, nerve G. Cephalic vein

1. Extensor carpi radialis brevis Anterior 2. Pronator teres 3. Extensor carpi radialis longus 4. Brachioradialis 5. Flexor carpi radialis 6. Palmaris longus 7. Flexor digitorum superficialis

8. Flexor carpi ulnaris 9. Flexor digitorum profundus 10. Extensor carpi ulnaris 11. Extensor pollicis longus 12. Extensor digitorum 13. Abductor pollicis longus 14. Flexor pollicis longus

CROSS-SECTION THROUGH RIGHT THIGH Anterior 2. Sartorius A. Femur 3. Adductor longus B. Femoral Artery and Vein 4. Adductor magnus C. Great Saphenous Vein 5. Gracilis D. Sciatic Nerve 6. Semimembranosus 1. Vastus medialis 7. Semitendinosus

8. Biceps femoris (long head) 9. Biceps femoris (short head) 10. Vastus lateralis 11. Vastus intermedius 12. Rectus femoris

CROSS-SECTION THROUGH LEFT CALF A. Tibia B. Fibula C. Interosseous membrane D. Anterior crural intermuscular septum E. Posterior crural intermuscular septum Anterior Crural Compartment 1. tibialis anterior 2. extensor digitorum longus 3. extensor hallicus longus Lateral Crural Compartment 4. peroneus longus 5. peroneus brevis Posterior Crural Compartment 6. tibialis posterior 7. flexor hallicus longus 8. flexor digitorum longus 9. soleus 10. gastrocnemius

1. psoas major 2. iliacus 3. quadratus lumborum 4. piriformis 5. gluteus maximus 6. gluteus medius 7. gluteus minimus

8. adductor brevis 9. adductor longus 10. adductor magnus 11. gracilis 12. sartorius 13. rectus femoris 14. vastus medialis

15. vastus intermedius 16. vastus lateralis 17. semimembranosus 18. semitendinosus 19. biceps femoris 20. tensor fascia latae

21. tibialis anterior 22. extensor digitorum longus 23. extensor hallucis longus 24. peroneus longus

25. peroneus brevis 26. gastrocnemeus 27. soleus 28. flexor digitorum longus

29. tibialis posterior 30. flexor hallucis longus

SPINAL NERVES OF THE ARM

Nerve axillary Origin posterior cord (C5, 6) lateral and medial cords (C5,6,7,8; T1) lateral cord (C5,6,7) posterior cord (C5,6,7,8; T1) Distribution motor: deltoid, teres minor sensory: area over distal part of deltoid motor: flexors and pronators located in forearm sensory: lateral of palm, first four digits motor: flexors located in upper arm sensory: medial side of upper arm; ventral side of forearm motor: all extensors of arm and hand sensory: dorsal side of arm; lateral of dorsal side of hand motor: flexors located in forearm and hand sensory: medial part of hand, both th th dorsal and ventral; 4 and 5 fingers

median

musculocutaneous

radial

ulnar

medial cord (C7,8; T1)

SPINAL NERVES OF THE LEG

Nerve lateral femoral cutaneous femoral Origin L2,3 Distribution sensory: lateral side of thigh

L2,3,4

motor: muscles on anterior side of thigh sensory: anterior side of thigh; medial half of lower leg motor: adductors of high and knee sensory: proximal medial part of thigh motor: gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, tensor fasciae latae motor: gluteus maximus sensory: posterior side of thigh

obturator

L2,3,4

superior gluteal inferior gluteal posterior femoral cutaneous pudendal sciatic

L4,5; S1 L5; S1,2 S1,2,3

S2,3,4 L4,5; S1,2,3

sensory: genitalia, perineum, anus motor: see tibial and peroneal branches sensory: see tibial and peroneal branches motor: see superficial and deep branches sensory: proximal lateral part of lower leg; see superficial and deep branches motor: hamstrings; posterior compartment of lower leg sensory: distal posterior part of lower leg motor: lateral compartment of lower leg sensory: distal anterior part of lower leg motor: anterior compartment of lower leg sensory: part of dorsal side of foot

tibial branch

common peroneal superficial peroneal deep peroneal

Axillary deltoid Median flexor carpi radialis palmaris longus pronator teres Musculocutaneous biceps brachii

teres minor

flexor digitorum superficialis flexor digitorum profundus flexor pollicis longus

pronator quadratus abductor pollicis brevis flexor pollicis brevis

brachialis

coracobrachialis

Radial triceps brachii brachioradialis supinator extensor carpi radialis brevis Ulnar flexor carpi ulnaris flexor digitorum profundus

extensor carpi radialis longus extensor carpi ulnaris extensor digiti minimi extensor digitorum communis

extensor indicis extensor pollicis longus extensor pollicis brevis abductor pollicis longus

(medial half) adductor pollicis

flexor pollicis brevis (deep part)

Obturator adductor brevis adductor longus

adductor magnus gracilis

Superior Gluteal gluteus medius gluteus minimus Inferior Gluteal gluteus maximus Femoral sartorius Sciatic biceps femoris

tensor fasciae latae

quadriceps femoris

semimembranosus

semitendinosus

Tibial gastrocnemius soleus

flexor digitorum longus flexor hallucis longus

tibialis posterior

Superficial peroneal peroneus brevis

peroneus longus

Deep peroneal extensor digitorum

extensor hallicus longus

tibialis anterior

A = axillary n. R = radial n. Me = median n. U = ulnar n. Mu = musculocutaneous n.

CP = common peroneal n. O = obturator n. DP = deep peroneal n. PF = posterior femoral cutaneous n. F = femoral n. SP = superficial peroneal n. LF = lateral femoral cutaneous n. T = tibial n.