Bit

The IPOS Cycle:
IOPS cycle is an organized procedure through which all processing within a computer takes place. And it takes place through four operations. 1. Input 2. Processing 3. Output 4. Storage
1. Input Operation: In the input operation, data is entered or otherwise captured electronically and is converted to a form (machine language) that can be processed by the computer. 2. Processing Operation: In the processing operation, the data is manipulated to process or transform it into information, which is usable for people. And it takes place through four steps, which is called the machine cycle. 3. Output Operation: In this operation, the information, which has bben processed from data, is produced in a form usable by people. Examples of output are printered text, sound, and charts and graphs displayed on a computer screen. 4. Storage Operation: In the Storage Operation, data, information, and programs are stored in computer process able form. Diskettes are examples of materials used for storage. All the operation of IPOS cycle in done on the machine cycle. Machine cycle consist of four parts. 1. Fetching 2. Decoding 3. Executing 4. Store
Decode
Execute ALU
CU
RAM
Input Storage Area
Program Storage Area
Output Storage Area
Working Storage Area
By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas
1. Fetching: In this process the data is fetched from the program storage Area send to Control Unit. 2. Decode: In this process the fetched data in CU is decoded to machine language, all the information are Scand the operands and operations are set and sent to ALU. 3. Execute: During the execution cycle, or E cycle, arithmetic/logic unit executes the instruction (performs the operation on the data and stores the processed results in the main memory or register. If it is final result, it is stored in output storage area but if more jobs were to be done on it, it is sent to Working Storage Area, which, acts as a sheet of paper and a intermediate storage place. 4. Store: The information is stored in a secondary storage for further use in future.
Online storage such as in program storage area or in Offline storage such as floppy,CD,flash memory
I-Time /Cycle: Instruction Phase. Fetching and Decoding. In the I-cycle, the control unit (1) fetches an instruction from programming storage area and (2) decodes that instruction (change to machine language in form of 0s and 1s) E-Time /Cycle: Executive Phase. During the E-cycle the arithmetic logical unit (3) executes the instruction (performs the operation on the data) and (4) stores the processed results in main memory or a register.
Chapter # 1
What is data? Data is raw facts and figures which are unorganized, unprocessed. What is information? Information is processed, organized, refined form of data. Input (data)
Process
output (information)
The difference is that information is useful for the organization.
Types of Data: Textual Data Physical Data Audio/ Visual Data Numeric Data Textual Data:
Or text can contain any combination of letters, and special characters. Sometimes textual data is known as alphanumeric data. Two types of textual data Character: Consists of a single character Strings: Consists of more than one character.
Physical Data:
It is captured from the environment. For example, light, sound, voice, temperature, and pressure are types of physical data. Such as the warmth of the air is used as physical data input into a thermostat to regulate room temperature.
Audiovisual:
By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 3
Various forms of data that we can hear or see make up audiovisual data. The computer can produce spoken output as well as accepts the human voice for input. Data can also take the form of graphs and drawing s generated by both users and software. Such as MP3, JDEG, BMP, AVI, MPEG, QCIKTIME, REAL MEDIA, WMV, ASF, JPEG,
Numeric Data:
Consists of numbers and decimal points, as well as the plus (+) and minus (-) signs. Numeric data is used for calculations as well as sorted, or compared to each other. Followings are types of numeric data:
Numeric Date Types:

Bit Byte Integer Long Short Single Floating Expirations
Bit: A bit is the smallest unit of data on a binary computer. A single bit is capable of
responding only one value, either 0 or 1.
Byte: A byte consists of eight bits and is the smallest addressable data item in the
microprocessor. The main memory and I/O addresses.
Integer: Integer data types stores numbers that have no fractional parts, like 1,0, 319,
438343, and so on. Integer variables exist in several sizes, but the most commonly used is type int. This type requires 2 bytes of storage (in Ms DOS computers) and holds numbers in the ranges 32, 768 to 32, 767.
Long: Type long can hold integers in the ranges 2, 147, 483, 648 to 2, 147, 483, and
647. It is used when type int is too small for the values being stored. Variables of type long occupy 4 bytes of memory.
Short: Integer thats larger that or equal to char, (which contains characters like (a), (b),
(c). and requires 1bytes and shorter or equal to type Int (which requires 2 bytes.
Single: The integer that requires 4 bytes and contains ranges as 3.4E38 to 3.4E38. Floating: Floating-point numbers have fractional (that is decimal) parts, like 3.14159. (It
is also possible that the fractional part is zero, as with 6.0000) You can store numbers in the format 3.14159E+08, where E stands for Exponent
Expirations:
Capability of Computers:
Fast Computation Complex Computation Handling Accuracy Vast Storage Entertainment Correlate Data/ Events Algorithmic (follow straight
instruction)
Simulating events Graphical chart

Why People Avoid Computers?
More reliance on computer Wastes time, money, energy Hazards to health Financial Constraints Moral Values Job in security Privacy/ Fraud Unable to give up old habits Social outcasts
Things that computer can not do

Disobey instruction Ability of thinking Emotional judgment
Chapter # 2 & 6 Information System MIS (Management Information System) MIS is a backbone for every
organization. Whatever data is generated MIS has to capture it and pool it up. It also manipulates and organizes it as database and can redirect it to receivers.
Proces s
Data
Information
Departments
Redirect
Types of MIS Manull system and computerized. Manull system Goes back to when there was not computers. People had to work with paper, file etc the disadvantages of manull system was it took more time, more space, possibility of more mistakes and easy modify. Computerized system Computers and store in form of database utilize entire work. Which has more advantages than manull system? It takes less time, less space, accuracy and less mistakes easy to modify with the help of copy and paste. SYSTEM A system is a collection of elements that work together to solve a specific problem. Regardless of size, every computer needs the other components of system to produce results SYSTEM COMPONENTS People Data Hardware Software Procedures Communication
People:
There are two main categories of people: Professionals & End Users.
Computer users They are the people who use computer in some way such for work entertainment etc The driving force behind the development of computer is computer users. Computer users identify problems and then direct the computer system to produce information that supports solutions. People's demand for answers and assistance push forward the development of new computer technology. Computer professionals. Computer professionals are people who work directly with the development and operations of computer technology. Some computer professionals helps to design computer assist solutions others operate and repair. Programmers: a person who designs and writes and tests computer programs . Web developers:. is responsible for programming the functionality of a web site. Computer operators: They operate the computers, such as monitoring and controlling. Data Base Developers: They Design or develop databases for a particular organization or use. System Analysis: They develop MIS system, which needs a systematic investigation of a real planned system to determine.( the act, process, or profession of studying an
activity (as a procedure, a business, or a physiological function) typically by mathematical means in order to define its goals or purposes and to discover operations and procedures for accomplishing them most efficiently)
Database Admin is responsible for the physical design and management of the database and for
the evaluation
Software engineer is person who designs and programs system-level software, such as
operating systems, ...
Hardware engineer responsible for the specification and design of computer and
communications hardware components
Web Admin Graphic designer The practice or profession of designing print or electronic forms of visual information, as for an advertisement, publication, or website.
DATA: Data is raw facts and figures which are unorganized, unprocessed. Data can be textual, physical, Numeric, or Audiovisual. Organizing data Data is organized in bits. The most fundamental unit of text or numeric data is character. A related group of characters is referred to as a field. A related group of field is known as a record. Records that reflect a common meaning or use are grouped together to form a file. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 8
Data is not always organized into database or even fields and records. Audio visual and physical data are often stored as files.
Hardware: Consists of four types Input Hardware Output Hardware Storage Hardware Processing Hardware Action Hardware
Input Hardware Keyboard: A keyboard includes the standard typewriter keys plus a number of
specialized keys. The standard keys are used mostly to enter words and numbers.
Mouse/Trackball: A mouse is a device that can be rolled about on a desktop

to direct a pointer on the computers display screen.
Scanner: A scanner translates images of text, drawing, and photos into digital
form. The computer can then process the image. Joystick Input pen Touch screen Light pen Video card Audio card Touchpad Pointing sticks Graphic tablet Microphone Electronics whiteboard
Output hardware
Monitors: Is a high-resolution screen. The monitor is often called a CRT, for cathode Ray Tube, The familiar TV style picture. Printers: A printer is a device that converts computer output into printed images. Plotters: Speakers LCD Projection Panels Facsimiles (FAX) Computer output Microfilm/Microfiche (COM) 9
Storage Hardware
Hard Disk: A hard Disk is a made out of metal and covered with a magnetic recoding surface. It also holds data represented by the presence (1) and absence (0) of magnetized spots. Floppy Disk: A floppy Disk is a removable round, flexible disk that stores data as magnetized spots. Optical Disks: An optical Disk is a disk that is written and read by lasers. It can hold hundreds of times more data that diskettes. Tape Drive: Zip Drive: Disk Cartridge CD-ROM Optical Disk Magnetic Tape Cartridge Tape Optical Memory Card (About the same size as a credit card that can store up to 4.1 Mbytes of digitized text or images using a laser beam.) Memory Button (Small storage devices about the size of a dime that look like watch batteries. They hold about 8 Kbytes of information.) Smart Card (About the same size as a credit card and contain a small microprocessor capable of storing data. They hold about 1 to 8 Kbytes of information.)
Action Hardware or Processing Hardware Processing hardware: the computer itself is composed primary of a memory unit and a processing unit. The memory provides temporary storage for input data programs and the results of processing. The processing unit or processor interrupts the program instruction in memory controls the flow of data into and out of memory and performs arithmetic and logical operations. The processor fetches the program instructions one at a time from memory along with any needed data. After instructions are followed, results are sent to memory and the next instruction is fetched. This cycle is repeated until the program is completed. Super Computers 1. Fastest, largest, most expensive 2. Used for scientific applications that is mathematically intensive. E.g. aerospace, automotive, chemical, electronics, weather forecasting, seismic analysis. 3. Massively parallel, multiprocessing 4. speed measured in mega flops(1 million floating point arithmetic operations per second) (MFLOPS), (GFLOPS), (TFLOPS) 5. market leaders include Cray By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 10
6. 7. 8. 9.
Thinking machines Fujitsu Hitachi Thinking machines developed a super computer Connection machine having 64,000 processors worth $5 million. Cray handed over a 256-processor super computer to China and Swiss federal institute to issue warnings for dangerous weather. Cray T3D, Cray XMP Super computers have amazingly high RAM capacities.
MAIN FRAMES 1. IBM is a giant of mainframe industry since 1950s and hold 2/3 of mainframe industry. 2. Large and like super computers require an environment with closely monitored humidity and temperature. 3. Ideally suited for i/o operations 4. Cost is between $100,000 and $2,000,000. 5. Multi processing but processors limited to 8 or less and also slow 6. Mainframe consists of front end processor, backend processor, host processor 7. Multiprogramming 8. IBM ES/9000
MINIFRAMES:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Age of mini started in late 1960s Cost is around $50,000 Multi-user systems Slower than main frames MicroVAX 3100 by Dec, AS4000
Minicomputers code-named Silver Lake.
7.
Some minicomputer architectures lived on as microprocessors 8. Minicomputers pretty much died out when the microprocessor took over.
Microcomputers: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Occupy physically small amounts of space. From the early-to-mid-1970s onwards, microcomputers in turn grew faster and cheaper. Many microcomputers are also personal computers (in the generic sense). Modern desktop computers, video game consoles, laptop computers, tablet PCs, and many types of handheld devices, including mobile phones and pocket calculators, as well as industrial embedded systems, may all be considered examples of microcomputers. The earliest models often sold as kits to be assembled by the user, and came with as little as 256 bytes of RAM, and no input/output devices other than indicator lights and switches. 11
Processors
Types of processor
1. RISC: ( Reduce Instruction set of Computing) The instructions are shrink and not complex. They do not get heated so therefore work properly.
The RISC Approach
RISC processors only use simple instructions that can be executed within one clock cycle. However, the RISC strategy also brings some very important advantages. Because each instruction requires only one clock cycle to execute. 2. CISC: (Complex Instruction set of Computing) They have got complex architecture and multiple software instructions are co0mplex and the circuitry gets heated therefore fans are provided for these kind of processors. The CISC Approach The primary goal of CISC architecture is to complete a task in as few lines of assembly as possible. It closely resembles a command in a higher level language. One of the primary advantages of this system is that the compiler has to do very little work to translate a high-level language statement into assembly. Because the length of the code is relatively short, very little RAM is required to store instructions
CISC Emphasis on hardware Includes multi-clock complex instructions RISC Emphasis on software Single-clock, reduced instruction only
Memory-to-memory: Register to register: "LOAD" and "STORE" "LOAD" and "STORE" incorporated in instructions are independent instructions Small code sizes, high cycles per second Low cycles per second, large code sizes
Transistors used for storing Spends more transistors complex instructions on memory registers
Processing computer as a whole

Has the capability to support multiprocessors. A part from high breed of computer concept of adding multiply processors. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 12
Windows professional has 2 processors Windows 2007 has 4 processors Windows advance has 8 processors
Procedures: (instructions)
Procedures are systematic course of action that help people use software hardware and data. Procedures identify what needs to be done and how to do it properly.
Operating procedure: Enables us to operate the computer. Such as turning on/off, copying, erasing. Communication procedure: (allows to link one computer to others and facilities sending data.)
1. Error Recovery procedure: data should be verified after it is entered and before it's processed which is done in error recovery. 2. Data Entry procedure: tells us how to enter data and where such as to ensure it is accurate and complete.
3. Back up procedure: make duplicate copy of data and information in some other disk and minimize the possibility of losing data. 4. Emergency procedure: when computer goes wrong such as recover important data start the system working again. Such as there are emergency telephones numbers to call and professionals answer your question in case of any crash. 5. Preventive procedure: it helps to keep computer in a good working condition such as cleaning the disk driver's read/write heads. 6. Trouble shooting procedure: finds a problem then shoots it.
BUS: All the channels presented in mother, which are used for communication between devices,
are called The BUS. TYPES OF BUS Data BUS Address BUS By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 13
Control BUS
Power BUS
Data BUS: The BUS which is used to flow the data between all the components present on motherboard, is called Data Bus Address BUS: The BUS, which is used to communicate with the memory, addresses, and any other device presented in the motherboard is called Address BUS. Control BUS: The Bus, which carries out the control signals from Microprocessor to all the components of Motherboard, is called Control BUS. Power BUS: power Bus is used to provide power to all the components of Motherboard.
Add BUS
Con Bus
Data Bus
RAM
Two kinds of ports are used: 1. Serial port: In which the flow of data is serial and it is faster than parallel.. 0011001100110001 2. Parallel: In which the flow of data is parallel. 0 By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas
14
Software
Application software (Pre written)
Customer made/system software (Customer made) Demand
Single function (Flash, word)
Integer function (MS OFFICE)
Operation system
Translating system
Special purpose Librarian criminal Volcano
General purpose For every one advantage
Software:
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions, often broken into two major categories: system software (customer made) that provides the basic nontask-specific functions of the computer, and application software (pre written) which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks.
Application software, on the other hand, is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the computer system. Application software may consist of a single function, such as flash, word, or a small collection of programs (often called a software package) that work closely together to accomplish a task. That single task can be for a special purpose such as librarian, criminal. That single task can be for general purpose Application software may consist of a integer function such as Ms office (often called a software suite) which is of related but independent programs and packages that have a common user interface or shared data format, MS office consists of closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a software system, such as a database management system, which is a collection of fundamental programs that may provide some service to a variety of other independent applications. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 15
System software/ operating system is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual hardware components of a computer system such as transferring data from memory to disk, Generally, system software consists of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers. System software is divided into two parts operating system and translating system. Chapter # 3
Responsibilities of Operating System

File Management
Task Management
Memory Management Operating System: The operating system consists of the master system of programs that manage the basic operations of the computer. It can also be called the soul of computer. It is consist of many departments each department has its own role but Like every system has central control unit and it is the KERNEL File if is somehow .the system will stop working. Operating system As a whole is a big unit activity. The operating system consists of multiples and multiples of departments such as operating system that has management department and many other departments. The operating system that has multiples of activity and departments has a core which is called
File Management
Creating file File defining File saving File deleting One department of operating system, which is responsible for file system, is file management.
FAT32, FAT16, VFAT, NTFS, XTTZ is responsible for file

Management
File creating
To create a file we give it a name then save it in such as document
File defining
File deleting
File saving
File allocation table
A file is saved in hard disk in specific area.
When ever we save a file it is saved in a particular track in a particular section.
You can copy or duplicate files and program from one disk to another. You can back up or make a duplicate copy of, the contents of a disk. You can erase, or remove, from a disk any files or programs that are no longer useful. You can rename or give new filenames, to the files on a disk.
(incontigues space are spaces which are not in order)

(Desfectrimentationlitiy makes all files in order. When computer is full of file we run desfectrimentation ) Task Management: Multi Tasking Multi Programming Multi Processing
Multi Tasking: Multi tasking is the execution of two or more programs or tasks initiated by a single user, processed by a single processor and the tasks are executed concurrently(one after the other). By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 17
Two kinds of tasks: 1. Cooperative is a feature new system (Background Task). 2. Non-cooperative (Front or before task). Multi Programming: is very powerful feature Multi Programming always takes place in large or powerful or server systems. Like super computers by multiple users in a multi user environment processed by either a single processor or multi ones. If there is a single processor the task will be executed concurrently else simultaneously. It is used in network environment. FIFO = First Task LIFO = Last task Whichever task is important that task will be looked after.
Multi Processing: Multiprocessing is processing done by two or more computers or processors linked together to perform work simultaneously. Multiprocessing can be done in several ways. One is co processing, whereby the controlling CPU works together with specialized microprocessors called coprocessors, each of which handles a particular task, such as display screen graphics or high speed mathematical calculations. parallel processing, whereby several full-fledged CPUs work together on the same tasks, sharing memory. Parallel processing is often used in large computer system designed to keep running if one of the CPUs fails. These systems are called Fault tolerant system. Symmetric works equally Asymmetric do not work equally
Resource management or Memory Management:

The part of operating system that manages memory is called memory management. Processing RAM
Page Frame
Swapping
Swapping
CPU
Page File By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 18
Page
Hard Disk In size of application is greater than ram then virtual memory management is required. Paging Virtual Memory Management: When the ram cannot hold a data that is needed to be processed it takes part of the HDD as an extension to it this part is called page file. It is divided into page frames in which pages that are going to be processed are stored the process by which the application is taken from the HDD into the page file is called paging. Then the pages are swapped into the ram in order for the CPU to process from there the CPU then takes the first page and process it at the bottom of the processed page there is written the address of the next page and it tell s the CPU to do the processing through a process called page faulting, then it goes and process until reaches the last page. When there is no page left to be processed the last page tells the CPU that the pages are finished and there is a need to inform that other pages must be swapped into the RAM. Demon paging or clustering is the process that tells the CPU the need for other pages to process and fetch from the page file. Then pages that are processed are again swapped into the HDD for storage. OLE: Object Linking Embedding Copying: Makes duplicate but you cannot bring changes to the duplicate. Embedding: Duplicate can be made but will not be able to modify until you do not use the same editor. Liking: can make duplicate and if you bring changes to the original data the duplicate will automatically be updated
USER INTERFACE The user interface is the part of the software that displays information and presents on the screen the various commands by which you communicate with it. User Interface An interface that enables information to be passed between a human user and hardware or software components of a computer system. User Interface is a collection of menus, icons, and commands you use when working with a computer program. We pass commands to computer through user interface, which is our operating system. User interfaces never interact with an operating system directly there is another interface between user and operating system and that interface is actually user interface. Command user interface falls into four categories: Command-line interface (CLI) Shell, Graphical line interface (GUI) Natural language Intelligent agent Virtual reality Holograms Graphical user interface (GUI) A computer program or environment that displays options on the screen as icons, i.e., picture symbols, by which users enter commands by selecting an icon. Note: Icons may be selected, e.g. , by pressing the <ENTER> key on the keyboard, by "clicking" a computer mouse button, or by touching the icon on a touch pad. Graphical user interface shows graphical images such as icon, windows, buttons, menus; wigiats (are small boxes with slider on them that control the size, shade, brightness, etc)
The input of graphical user interface is minimum. Example graphical user interface: Mac OS Linux Microsoft windows Next step Command-line interface (CLI) A CLI (command line interface) is a user interface to a computer's operating system or an application in which the user responds to a visual prompt by typing in a command on a specified line, receives a response back from the system, and then enters another command, and so forth. The MS-DOS Prompt application in a Windows operating system is an example of the provision of a command line interface. Today, most users prefer the graphical user interface (GUI) offered by Windows, Mac OS, BeOS, and others. Typically, most of today's Unix-based systems offer both a command line interface and a graphical user interface. Command line interface has a blue of black screen and we write commands on it. When a command is written presses enter the command will execute then write the next command. However, in this interface you have to memorize all the commands of each functionality from primary to most complex one. EXAMPLE; The MS-DOS Prompt application in a Windows operating system is an example of the provision of a command line interface. EXAMPLE; shell, c shell Shell, Shell is very similar to command line interface but shell is one step ahead of command line. shell also has back or blue screen. A software shell helps users avoid memorizing different command syntaxes Need more information For instance; c shell, corn shell
Natural language user interface Technology is developing that allows users to activate program options by writing or speaking in their native languages. These Natural language user interfaces recognize the syntax of a language such as English or Japanese. So the best thing is that we don't need to memorize commands and don't have to click on any icon. Interface that recognize spoken words are not widely available, although you can find natural language interface that accept keyboard entries. Intelligent agent A computer program that is given a specific task that can be done without user assistance. Programs that automatically search the Internet for information or know to defrayment a hard disk at a certain time are examples A software routine that waits in the background and performs an action when a specified event occurs. ... Shopping bots Search bots News bots Virtual reality Virtual reality (VR) is a technology which allows a user to interact with a computer-simulated environment, be it a real or imagined one. Virtual world do not exist in reality Most computer games are virtual reality such as IGI Holograms it is a form of photography that allows an image to be recorded in three dimensions. The technique of holography can also be used to optically store, retrieve, and process information. It is common to confuse
volumetric displays with holograms, particularly in science fiction works such as Star Trek, Star Wars, Red Dwarf, and Quantum Leap recently adds are made in holograms.
Chapter # 4
Data communication Definition

Data communication is a generalized term that we use or refer to the fact that whenever your data is send from sender to receiver
Data Communication is Electronic transfer of data between computers or sender and receiver.
To communicate through passing data or communicate with each other or P.C to P.C. Data interchange is data communication.
Sender Encoding
Receiver decoding
A. In advanced data communication feedback might be involved. B. Feedback is essential component of data communication that helps to keep sender and receiver at one level. C. When we send the data if it contain any error that computer process it and gives a message. Data communication has three components 1. two doubles 2. half doubles 3. full doubles
Telecommunication: Tele Communication communication ordinary exchange of data
Telecommunication is the act of sending information between two computers which are distant from
each other.
23
Various technologment is involved in telecommunication are 1. Ordinary phone numbers 2. Satellite could also be part of telecommunication 3. The least expensive way to telecommunicate is to use modems and a dial-up telephone line
Teleprocessing
Also known as remote control computing, teleprocessing is a term coined by IBM and is used to describe a computer with the capability of connecting to another computer or network device. Computers are essential part of Tele processing. Such as call centers, exchange money from bank to another bank account.
Telecommuting
Definition the daily commute to a central place of work is replaced by telecommunication links. Telecommuting is a latest trend in business activity where by people are not extend. where workers can work at home on a computer and transmit data and documents to a central office via telephone lines
Allows people to sit at home and still keep contact with office. Office Home
The technologies used are: RAS GPRS VPS RAS: (remote access service) With RAS you are dialed directly to your office, by network or entering particular phone number, And you are charged per minute which is expensive but call. VPS (virtual private network) using VIPs you're dialed to ISP of internet and it is cheap. if you use ISP you are just charged for the first GPRS: mobile connected to laptop and it is expensive.
24
MODEM: A modem stands for modulator/ demodulator-converts digital signals into analog form (a process known as modulation) to send over phone lines. A receiving modem at the other end of the phone line then converts the analog signal back to a digital signal (a process known as demodulation).
Digital Modulation Mo+dem=Modem Modem Analog Modem Demodulation
Digital: A digital signal uses on/off or present/absent electrical or light pulses in discontinuous or discrete, bursts, rather than a continuous wave.
Analog: An analog signal is a continuous electrical signal in the form of a wave. Telephone lines use analog signal
Modulation: Convert digital to analog Demodulation: Converts analog to digital Types modem 1. External modem 2. Internal Modem 3. Asychr modem 4. ISDN/ digital By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 25
5. cable modem 6. NULL modem 7. Syncham modem External modem: 1. An external modem is a box shade that is separated from the computer, The box may be large or it may be portable, pocket size. 2. A line connects the modem to port in the back of the computer. 3. A second line connects the modem to a standard telephone jack. 4. There is also a power cord that plugs into a standard Ac wall socket. 5. The advantage of the external modem is that it can be used with different computers. Internal Modem: 1. An internal modem is a circuit board that plugs into a slot inside the system cabinet. 2. Advantage of the internal modem is that it doesnt take up extra space on your desk 3. It is less expensive than an external modem 4. It doesnt have a separate power cord. Asychr modem 1. Are ordinary modem that work with dial up lines (telephone lines) ISDN/ digital 1) Are reserved lines for a particular org or company? 2) If the lines are not analog they are digital still need of modem because the format of digital formats is different. 3) Digital/ISDN modem is used to convert different digital signal to same. ADVANTAGES 1) Free from noise and fast 2) The problem very expensive Cable modem Are net cables 1) Cable modem is a type of modem that provides access to a data signal sent over the cable television infrastructure. 2) Cable modems are primarily used to deliver broadband Internet access in the form of cable internet, 3) Taking advantage of unused bandwidth on a cable television network. 4) They are commonly found in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Europe, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 5) In USA alone, there were 22.5 million cable modem users during the first quarter of 2005, up from 17.4 million in the first quarter of 2004.
26
Communication Software
Any software used for communication is called communication software. Like the one used in modem like Communication software that facilitates communication such as chatting sending mail is examples. Data com is used along modem Data com features are Error control Flow control Remote control Terminal ammunition Examples: Win come, hyper access
GEOGRAPHIC NETWORK
LAN (local network) distances)
WAN (has geographical
GLOBAL
ENTERPRISE ENTERPRISE: In a single enterprise environment with one head office and many branches but no communication between them. Global: Main office with branches and they connect all branches. Such as internet
LAN
A local area network (LAN) is the basic building block of any computer network. A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to complex (hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout a major corporation).The distinguishing feature of a LAN is that it is confined to a limited geographic area. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 27
ADVANTAGES: Fast communication task Speedy Easy trouble shooting Less distance Cheap DIS ADVANTAGES Complex
WAN
A wide area network (WAN), on the other hand, has no geographical limit. It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet.
ADVANTAGES Simple Wide distance DISADVANTAGES Expensive Slow speed Difficult trouble shooting
Value added network Wide area networks provide innovative businesspeople the opportunity to offer additional services to network users for a fee; these services include access to database electronic mail, games, and even timesharing with mainframe computers. Business people that add services to current WAN capabilities create a value added network VAN. SUCH AS VAN for telephone lines may be assigned a 900 area code. Telephone numbers serviced by this area code could provide tax or financial advice
Client server computer:

We need two Ends.
Front End By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas
Back End Server O.S might create SQL, Access, 28 oracle Server
Front End Back End Front End: From the front End the query passes to the back end or server to fulfill the request. Back End: In back end the entire information is saved. If in back end there is SQL, BV, Access, develop 2000, it should also be in front end or client in order to open or access easily, When the back end receives the query after processing it will send it back to front end. In front end it will ask you in which format you want it to be opened or shown. (Table or form) you have this facility in Developed 2000. Examples: Email Administrator (you are asking to open application) Sdfsd Dsfs It takes place between two or multiple entities, which are far apart EDI (electronic digital interchange) Such as chatting, sms, fax machine EFT (electronic fund transfer) Such as credit card to transfer money, online shopping
Bullet and boards
NETWORK
Topologies Demand priority LAN BUS RING STAR
HYBRID By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 29
MESH
TAPOLOGY: The way in which connections are made is called the topology of the network. Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout of the network, especially the locations of the computers and how the cable is run between them.
BUS TAPOLOGY: The Bus topology is often used when a network installation is small, simple, or temporary.
Segment
Terminat
or
Termi
nator
How does a star bus work?

The star bus topology combines the bus and the star, linking several star hubs together with bus trunks if one computer fails, the hub can detect the fault and isolate the computer if a hub fails, By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 30
computers connected to it will not be able to communicate, and the bus network will be broken in to two segments that can not reach each other.
Advantages:
If one computer fails the network will continue working. It is easy to add more computers to a star bus. If one hub fails only the computers connected to it will fail.
Disadvantages:
If one hub fails several computers connected to it will fail. Costly network (many components are needed.)
How a Bus Network Works: 1) A Bus topology connects computers with single networking cable with no active electronic 2) to pass the signal along from computer to computer. This makes the Bus a passive topology 3) When one computer sends a signal up the wire, only the computer with address that matches the one encoded in the message accepts the information. 4) Only one computer at a time can send a message; therefore, the number of computers attached to a bus network can significantly affect the speed of the network. 5) A computer must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit. 6) Another important issue in bus networks is termination. 7) Since the bus is a passive topology, the electrical signal from a transmitting computer is free to travel the entire length of the cable. 8) Without termination, when the signal reaches the end of the wire, it bounces back and travels back up the wire. 9) And it is called ringing. 10) To stop the signals from ringing you attach terminators at either end of the segment. The terminators absorb the electrical energy and stop the reflections. ADVANTAGES of the Bus The Bus is reliable in very small network, easy to use, and easy to understand. It is less expensive. You can extend a bus by using BNC barrel connector. You can also use repeater to extend a bus, each repeater extend it up to 500 meters.
DISADVANTAGES OF the Bus Heavy network can slow a bus considerably. 31
Each barrel connector weakens the electrical signal, and too many may prevent the signal fro being correctly received all along the bus. It is difficult to trouble shoot a bus a break in cable or between to computers can stop the whole network.
STAR TOPOLOGY: In a star topology, all the cables run from the computers to a central location, where a device called a hub connects them all.
Hub
How A Star Network Works

1) Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resends the message either to all the computers (in a broadcast star network) or only to the destination computer (in a switched star network). 2) The hub in a broadcast star network can be active or passive. 3) An active hub regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to all the computers connected to it. 4) This kind of hub is often called a multi port repeater. 5) Active hubs and switches require electrical power to run. 6) A passive hub does not require electrical power to run. 7) You can expand a star network by placing another star hub where a computer might otherwise go, allowing several more computes or hubs to be connected to that hub. This creates a hybrid star network. ADVANTAGES OF THE STAR TOPOLOGY: Easy to add new computer to a star network without disturbing the rest of the network. Single computer failures do not necessarily bring down the whole star network. Easy to trouble shoot
32
DISADVANTAGES If a central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate. Expensive
RING NETWORKS In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer, with the last one connected to the first. And each computer acts as a receiver.
How a ring network works 1) Every computer is connected to the next computer in the ring, and each retransmits what it receives from the previous computer. 2) The messages flow around the ring in one direction. 3) Since each computer retransmits what it receives, a ring is an active network and is not subjected to a signal loss problem. 4) There is no termination because there is no end to the ring. Some ring networks do token passing. A short message called a token is passed around the ring until a computer wishes to send information to another computer. And it travels around the network. ADVANMTAGES OF RING NETWORK Since every computer is given equal access to the token, no computer can monopolize the network. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 33
The fair sharing of network allows the network to degrades gracefully as more users are added.
DISADVANTAGES Failure of one computer on the ring can affect the whole network. It is difficult to trouble shoot a ring network. Adding or removing computers disturbs the network Star Ring topology: In the star ring, also called wired ring, the network cables are laid out much like a star network, but a ring is implemented in the central hub. Outline hubs can be connected to the inner hub, effectively extending a loop of the inner ring. Token ring is considered a star ring, although this topology is physically is a star it functions logically in a ring.
MESH TOPOLOGY 1) The mesh topology is distinguished by having redundant links between devices. 2) A true mesh configuration has a link between each device in the network. 3) Most mesh topology networks are not true mesh networks. Rather, they are hybrid mesh networks, which contain some redundant links, but not all.
4) Mesh topology networks become more difficult to install as the number of devices increase because of the sheer quantity of connections that must be made 5) A true mesh of seven devices would require 21 connections (6+5+4+3+2+1), and so on. Meshes networks are easy to trouble shoot and are very tolerant. ADVANTAGES Easy to trouble shoot Fault tolerant Media failure has less impact on a mesh topology Guaranteed communication channel capacity DISADVANTAGES Difficult to install Difficult to recon figurate Costly topology
34
Hybrid Topology:
Hybrid topology is the combination of two topologies.
Star-Bus
Bus
Star-Ring
Work Group computing We can define it by a lack of central control over the network or work group have very little security control.
35
There is no central login process if you have login into one you will be able to use any resources on the network that are not controlled by a specific password. Access to individual resources can be controlled if the user who share the resources require a password to access it the information you type goes to a local directory data base that has your identification matches it and give s you access. Advantages of Workgroup Easy to set up No network administrator is required Lower cost for small network Easy to install Ability of user to control resource sharing No extra investment on extra server hardware or software
Disadvantages of workgroup No centralized organization No central point of storage Weak security User need to be knowledgeable Additional load on computer
36
Chapter # 5 First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
1. used vacuum tubes for circuitry 2. Often enormous, taking up entire rooms. 3. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity 4. Generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. 5. relied on machine language to perform operations 6. They could only solve one problem at a time. 7. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. 8. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of firstgeneration computing devices.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors
1. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes 2. Transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. 3. Transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage; it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. 4. Punched cards were used for input and printouts for output. 5. Punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits
1. integrated circuits is made of semi conducting material

2. Third Generation users interacted through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, 3. Third Generation Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. 4. The wafer sized ICs could hold the equivalent of hundreds of transistors. 5. The wavers called chips made computers smaller, faster, and lighter.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors
1. Microprocessors integrated Thousands of circuits onto a single
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
silicon chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first Microprocessor computer for the home user Developed by Gilbert Hyatt and Mercian Hoff. Microprocessors combined circuits for processing limited memory and input/output control on a single chip. these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence
1. Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications 2. Such as voice recognition, that is being used today. 3. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. 4. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years
38
5. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
DATA Data representation scheme is always in machine language. Machine Code Computer programming languages using English words or abbreviations must be translated into binary codes. (Binary digits of 0 or 1) ASCII code ASCII stands for American Standard System code for information 1. ASCII code is 7bit to 127 and extended ASCII is 8 bit to 256. 2. Work on ASCII began in 1960 3. It currently defines codes for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing and 95 are printable characters. 4. ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. 5. (ASCII) is a character encoding based on the English alphabet. 6. ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that work with text. UNICODE 1. Unicode is 16 bit codeing system 2. Unicode supports 65 to 65536 different binary combinations 3. Unicode is designed as a way for computers to process and store text in every known written language. 4. Japanese and Chinese languages are decoding in Unicode. 5. The standard of Unicode has been implemented in many recent technologies, including XML, the Java programming language and modern operating systems. 6. Unicode consists of a repertoire of about 100,000 characters
EBCDIC 1. EBCIDC is an 8 bit code called Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code 2. EBCIDC has 256 different binary combinations 3. EBCIDC Codeing system adequately covers all the written characters tradionaly used in
English and other European languages. 4. It has no technical advantage over ASCII-based code pages 5. Most EBCDIC codepages only allow up to 2 languages (English and one other language) to be used in a database or text file. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 39
6. EBCDIC made it relatively easy to enter data into a computer with punch cards. Since punch cards are never used on mainframes nowadays
BAUDOT Code 1. The Baudot code, named after its inventor mile Baudot
2. Baudot code is a character set predating EBCDIC and ASCII, and the root predecessor to International Telegraph Alphabet No 2 (ITA2), the teleprinter code in use until the advent of ASCII. 3. Baudot's original code, developed around 1874, is known as International Telegraph Alphabet No 1, and is no longer used. 4. It was sent using a five-key keyboard where each key represented one bit of the five state signal 5. Each character in the alphabet is represented by a series of bits 6. Around 1901 Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray
bus?
Bus is the path that connects the CPU with internal and external components. Peripheral hardware is connected to the CPU through an expansion bus, to send machine code along a bus line.
Expansion bus
is made up of electronic pathways which move information from your CPU and RAM to all of your other peripheral devices such as a microphone, monitor, telephone line, and printer, which all connect to ports on the back of your computer. It is a collection of wires and protocols that allows for the expansion of a computer.
TYPES OF BUS Data BUS Address BUS Control BUS
Power BUS Data BUS: The BUS which is used to flow the data between all the components present on motherboard, is called Data Bus Address BUS: The BUS, which is used to communicate with the memory, addresses, and any other device presented in the motherboard is called Address BUS. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 40
Control BUS: The Bus, which carries out the control signals from Microprocessor to all the components of Motherboard, is called Control BUS. Power BUS: power Bus is used to provide power to all the components of Motherboard.
Add BUS
Con Bus
Data Bus
RAM
Two kinds of ports are used: 3. Serial port: In which the flow of data is serial and it is faster than parallel.. 0011001100110001 4. Parallel: In which the flow of data is parallel. 0 1
MEMORY
Internal storage areas in a computer are memory. Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical memory, usually referred to as main memory or RAM. You can think of main memory as an array of boxes, each of which can hold a single byte of information. A computer that has 1 megabyte of memory, therefore, can hold about 1 million bytes (or characters) of information. In general memory chips fall under one of two categories read only memory (ROM) and random access memory (RAM). To minimize waiting time for the CPU and speed up procession, users can now purchase computers or enhance their existing computers with a feature called cache memory Cache Memory is fast memory that serves as a buffer between the By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 41
processor and main memory. The cache holds data that was recently used by the processor and saves a trip all the way back to slower main memory. The memory structure of PCs is often thought of as just main memory, but it's really a five or six level structure CPU OPERATION The question now Aries. How does the processor orchestrate all of the actions involved in running a program? All the processing regardless of the operation is broken into two phases: the instruction phase and the execution phase. During the instruction phase the processor's control or communication operation identifies the next program instruction and its address in memory. The instruction is then loaded (fetched) into the processor and translated in an action the processor can perform. The execution phase starts at this point with the processor transferring related data from memory or performing the appropriate arithmetic and logic operation on the data. INPUT/ OUTPUT PORTS The data is input to the computer from hardware external to the CPU. To accommodate different types of input/output and storage hardware a computer has several places where hardware is connected to the processing unit. These places connected to the motherboard are called input/output ports. Two types of input/output ports are available serial and parallel. Serial and parallel Both the serial and parallel ports are used to communicate with devices which are external to your computer. The serial port uses fewer lines (wires) to transmit data back and forth. The data must cross this path one bit (a logical 1 or 0) at a time (serially = one after the other). The speed these bits travel are typically controlled in the Win95 device manager port properties. A parallel port on the other hand uses more data lines which can run side by side or? Parallel? To each other. This basically means that data can travel faster.
EMBEDDED MICROPROCESSRS
Are programmed to do a specific job? Example: microven.
The different RAID levels

RAID-0 is the fastest and most efficient array type but offers no fault-tolerance. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 42
RAID-1 is the array of choice for performance-critical, fault-tolerant environments. In addition, RAID-1 is the only choice for fault-tolerance if no more than two drives are desired. RAID-2 is seldom used today since ECC is embedded in almost all modern disk drives. RAID-3 can be used in data intensive or single-user environments which access long sequential records to speed up data transfer. However, RAID-3 does not allow multiple I/O operations to be overlapped and requires synchronized-spindle drives in order to avoid performance degradation with short records. RAID-4 offers no advantages over RAID-5 and does not support multiple simultaneous write operations. RAID-5 is the best choices in multi-user environments which are not write performance sensitive. However, at least three and more typically five drives are required.
Chapter # 11
File and database management

Definition database Database is a collection of( multiples tables) information data stored in a organized form of file which are integrated . A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated. Data storage hierarchy is that the file records are logically related or cross referenced to one another. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 43
Character are combined to form one field Field are combined to form record Record are combined to form file Files are combined to form database
Reg #
name
DOB
address
phone
e-mail
BBA first semester
Reg #
Month
Book
Purchase
Return
BBA first library
Reg #
Semester
BBA first academy
Database organization/ access Database is organized in the following methods By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 44
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Serial sequential Indexed Indexed- sequential Direct-random
Serial
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Make use of one particular field Chances of duplication is eliminated which is a primary key. Simply keep on adding records are arranged one after another in no particular order Commonly found with transaction data where records are added in order in which the transaction took place. 6. data is something processed in the same order 7. Updating the individual records of master file in random depending on ordered transition file.
Sequential
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Searching takes more time records are arranged in a particular order the field on which records are sequentially organized allowed the primary key records must be ordered in a particular way less expensive as it works with magnetic tape
Indexed
1) Store records in sequential order 2) The file in which records are stored contains an index 3) The index list
Primary field number
Physical location
45
File index
Direct-random
1) Stores the records in to particular sequence 2) More expensive than magnetic tape 3) Much faster method
Hashing algradom Get the maximum number of record divided Advantages of database 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Reduced data redundancy Flexibility Improved data integrity More program independence (programs and file formats are the same to so less time is spent on maintaining ) Increased upon productivity Better data management Less storage Faster response to inform suggestion Easy cross referenced
Disadvantage of database 1) It takes time to develop integrated database file 2) Users need expertise with application and database design 3) Cost issue More sophisacated hardware and software Higher operating cost Higher personal cost Conversion 46
4. Data vulnerability issues 5. data vulnerability failure 6. recovery may be difficult 7. privacy issue
Data base mode

Hieratical 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. In a hierarchical data model, data are organized into a tree-like structure. The structure allows repeating information using parent/child relationships each parent can have many children but each child only has one parent All attributes of a specific record are listed under an entity type. In a database, an entity type is the equivalent of a table; Each individual record is represented as a row and an attribute as a column. Entity types are related to each other using 1: N mapping, also known as one-to-many relationships.
Root
Network 1. The network model is a database model conceived as a flexible way of representing objects and their relationships. 2. Its original inventor was Charles Bachman, and it was developed into a standard specification published in 1969 by the CODASYL Consortium 3. Where the hierarchical model structures data as a tree of records, with each record having one parent record and many children, 4. The network model allows each record to have multiple parent and child records, forming a lattice structure. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 47
5. parent is referred to as mother 6. each child record can have more than one parent record Relational 1. Relation" is a mathematical term for "table", and thus "relational" roughly means "based on tables". It does not refer to the links or "keys" between tables, contrary to popular belief. 2. more flexible than network and hierarchy 3. entries can be added modified and deleted with little training 4. it relates or concepts the different files through the use of key filed 5. much in use today Examples Customer(Customer ID, Tax ID, Name, Address, City, State, Zip, Phone) Order(Order No, Customer ID, Invoice No, Date Placed, Date Promised, Terms, Status) Order Line(Order No, Order Line No, Product Code, Qty) Invoice(Invoice No, Customer ID, Order No, Date, Status) Invoice Line(Invoice No, Line No, Product Code, Qty Shipped) Product(Product Code, Product Description)
Object-relational Object 1. In an object oriented database, information is represented in the form of objects 2. When database capabilities are combined with object programming language capabilities, the result is an object database management system (ODBMS). 3. an object consist of data in form of a) b) c) d) Text Sound Video pictures Instructions 3. Very expensive to develop 4. Huge storage
5.provides a relational database management system that allows developers to integrate a database with their own custom data-types and methods. 6. The term object-relational database sometimes also refers to external software products running over traditional DBMSs to provide similar features
Examples
48
Medical information system

Engineering information system Graphic information system
Training and education

Query languages Three types of query languages 1. SQL 2. QUERY (QBE) 3. NATURAL LANGUAGE COMMANDS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. data definition command data manipulation command update command sort command index command protect command project command
Chapter #12 What is MIS? Discuss the various levels at which management occurs and also specify the details which management is made at these levels? Management Information System (MIS) is a computer base system that optimize the collection, manipulation, organization, and presentation of information through out and organization. By using integrated structure of data base and information flow. An MIS is some what flexible and can be adopted to meet the changing information needs of the organization.
Functionality of MIS? What ever data is generated MIS has to capture it pool it up, manipulate it organize it as database and can redirect it to receivers. MIS System Managers have formal authority to use organizational resources and to make decisions. In organizations, there are typically three levels of management: top-level, middle-level, and first-level. Top managers 1. Top-level managers, or top managers, are also called senior management or executives. 2. Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operational Officer (COO), Chief Information Officer (CIO), Chairperson of the Board, President, Vice president, corporate head. Constitute the top management positions. 3. Top managers set goals for the organization and direct the company to achieve them. 4. Top managers are ultimately responsible for the performance of the organization. 5. Top mangers are responsible for hiring key staff/ personal. 6. Review the performance of the key staff, various departments and ensure cooperation 7. Consult subordinate managers on subject or problem of general scope. 8. Top mangers are principally concerned with planning.
9. Top mangers are concerned with long-range planning and external market forces. 10.Top level mangers are object-oriented. 11.Top level mangers develop and review long-range plans and strategies.
12.Strategic means that of the five management tasks planning, organizing, staffing, supervising, controlling. 13.Strategic decisions are complex decisions rarely based on predetermined routine, procedures, involving the subject judgment of the decision makers. 14.Strategic decisions are how growth should be financed and what new markets should be tackled first. 15.Strategic decisions are deciding the company's five year goals, evaluating future financial resources and how to react to competitor's actions.
MIDDLE-LEVEL MANAGERS 1. General Manager, Plant manager, Regional manager, and Divisional manager constitute the middle level management. 2. Middle-level managers are responsible for carrying out the goals set by top management 3. Middle managers can motivate and assist first-line managers to achieve business objectives. 4. Middle managers may also communicate upward, by offering suggestions and feedback to top managers. 5. Makes plans of intermediate range and prepares long-range plans for review by top management. 6. analyzes managerial performance to determine capability and readiness for promotions 7. Establish department polices. 8. Review daily and weekly reports on production or sales. 9. Middle managers deal principally with organizing and staffing. 10.Consult subordinates on production, personal, or other problems. 11.selection and recruitment of personal 12.middle level mangers make tactical decisions 13.Tactical decisions are that must be made without a base of clearly defined informational procedures, perhaps requiring detailed analysis and computations. 14.Tactical means that of the five management tasks, planning, organizing, staffing, supervising, controlling.
15.at tactical level managers concentrate on achieving a series of goals required to meet the objectives set at the strategic level. FIRST-LEVEL MANAGERS 1. First-level managers are also called first-line managers or supervisors 2. Office manager, Shift supervisor, Department manager, Foreperson, Crew leader, Store manager constitutes first-level management. 3. These are the managers that most employees interact with on a daily basis, and if the managers perform poorly, employees may also perform poorly, may lack motivation, or may leave the company. 4. makes detailed, short-range operating plans 5. review performance of subordinates 6. supervise day to day operations 7. makes specific tasks assignments 8. maintain close contact with operative employee 9. first-level managers make operational decisions 10. An operational decision is a predictable decision that can be made by following a well-defined set of routine procedures. 11. operational means these managers focus principally on supervising leading and controlling
Discus the types of data that is incorporated into the organization MIS also discus the different types of report? Data is raw facts and figures which are uncrossed unorganized and which are not in meaningful format and holds no importance for end-users. Data incorporated into MIS covers finance, personal, research and productivity 1. Financial data
2. Personal data 3. Research data 4. Production/sales data Financial data 1. Billing, accounts receivable, accounts payable, investments, capital goals, payroll, fixed assets, general ledger, inventory, taxes constitute financial data. 2. Financial data includes information on how the organization's resource translates into money. 3. Financial data give report on an organization's profit and loss, assets and liabilities, and other resources of value. 4. Financial data gives reports on charges for services 5. Financial data gives reports on costs of providing services 6. Financial data gives reports on revenues generated Personal data 1. Recurring, wages, vacation time, sick time, overtime, pensions, maternity leave, paternity leave constitute personal data. 2. Management of human resources provides personal data. 3. all information about a living, identifiable individual is personal data
Research data 1. Market penetration advertising, product development, product distribution, sales forecasting, capacity planning, investment planning. 2. Research data includes analysis of past performance and plans for future projects. Production data/sales data 1. Customer service, inventory control, purchasing, sales, orders, production scheduling, facilities scheduling. 2. Production data gives information about the actual products made, products sold, or services provided. 3. Manufacturing plants maintain data on inventory levels and raw material orders.
Reports The act of informing by verbal report There are three types of reports 1) Detailed reports 2) Summery reports 3) Exception reports Detailed reports 1) Detailed reports usually contain on printed line for each item or record in the database or file. Summery reports 1. Summery report condenses day o day operational data into totals and averages. 2. Summery report is useful in such a situation when large amount of data need to be analyzed. 3. By comparing trends in summarized data, some tactical and strategic decisions can be made. 4. Summery reports that show total store sales over several years help department store executives decide when to close or expand certain stores. Exception reports 1. Exception reports are like summery reports results from analysis of data. 2. Exception reports identify departments from normal operations or contain only data that meets specifies conditions. 3. Exception reports can show the early-warning signs or an implementing problem. 4. Both negative and positive trends can be highlighted by exception reports. 5. an exception report that lists overdue accounts would aid executives in reviewing the company's charge policy.
What is decision support system (DDS) and discuss the various activates and tools to enhance the decision making?
Definition Decision support system is a real-time computer base system that aids managers in solving problems through queries and modeling. Decision support systems are a class of computer-based information systems including knowledge based systems that support decision making activities. A user of DSS inputs queries and variables for the model through a natural language interface and a GUI. Pull-down menus, icons buttons, online help screens, and other features are also included in a DSS to increase user friendliness and assist with data entry.
Capabilities of DSS
1. Support for decision makers in semi structured and unstructured problems. 2. Support managers at all levels. 3. Support individuals and groups. 4. Support for interdependent or sequential decisions. 5. Support intelligence, design, choice, and implementation. 6. Support variety of decision processes and styles. 7. DSS should be adaptable and flexible. 8. DSS should be interactive and provide ease of use. 9. Effectiveness balanced with efficiency (benefit must exceed cost). 10. Complete control by decision-makers. 11. Ease of development by (modification to suit needs and changing environment) end users. 12. Support modeling and analysis. 13. Data access. 14. Standalone, integration and Web-based.
Advantages of DSS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Improving Personal Efficiency Expediting Problem Solving Facilitating Interpersonal Communication Promoting Learning or Training Increasing Organizational Control
Activates and tools to enhance the decision making

A. Modeling B. Data analysis using queries C. Materials requirement planning D. Self directed work team and virtual corporations E. Quality control F. Spreadsheets G. Presentation graphics Presentation graphics
Computer graphics broadly studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using computational techniques. Computer graphics as an academic discipline focuses on the mathematical and computational foundations of image generation and processing rather than purely aesthetic issues
Write short notes on? a) TQM b) Expert system Total quality management (TQM) Definition TQM is a management approach for an organization, centered on quality, based on the participation of all its members and aiming at long-term success through customer satisfaction, and benefits to all members of the organization and to society. A. Spreadsheets and graphics support total quality control
Expert system Definition An expert system, also known as a knowledge based system, is a computer program that contains the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts, related to a specific subject. This class of program was first developed by researchers in artificial intelligence during the 1960s and 1970s and applied commercially throughout the 1980s. 1. Expert system contains logic pattern for decision making and probabilities of expected outcomes based on information available from experts.
2. Creating an expert system require more than retrieval of data from large database. Advantages:

Provides consistent answers for repetitive decisions, processes and tasks Holds and maintains significant levels of information Encourages organizations to clarify the logic of their decision-making Never "forgets" to ask a question, as a human might
Disadvantages:

Lacks common sense needed in some decision making Cannot make creative responses as human expert would in unusual circumstances Domain experts not always able to explain their logic and reasoning Errors may occur in the knowledge base, and lead to wrong decisions Cannot adapt to changing environments, unless knowledge base is changed
Expert system has three components 1. knowledge base 2. inference engine 3. user interface Knowledge base a) is used by an expert system foes far beyond the capabilities of database. b) Knowledge base contains facts objects data relationship and assumptions that the computer professional working domain experts combines to form the rules used for decision making in a specific field. Inference engine a) An inference rule is a statement that has two parts, an if-clause and a then-clause.
b) This rule is what gives expert systems the ability to find solutions to diagnostic and prescriptive problems. c) Inference rules. They are entered as separate rules and it is the inference engine that uses them together to draw conclusions. Because each rule is a unit, rules may be deleted or added without affecting other rules d) One advantage of inference rules over traditional programming is that inference rules use reasoning which more closely resemble human reasoning.
Chaining
There are two main methods of reasoning when using inference rules: backward chaining and forward chaining. Forward chaining starts with the data available and uses the inference rules to conclude more data until a desired goal is reached. An inference engine using forward chaining searches the inference rules until it finds one in which the if-clause is known to be true. It then concludes the then-clause and adds this information to its data. It would continue to do this until a goal is reached. Because the data available determines which inference rules are used, this method is also called data driven. Backward chaining starts with a list of goals and works backwards to see if there is data which will allow it to conclude any of these goals. An inference engine using backward chaining would search the inference rules until it finds one which has a then-clause that matches a desired goal. If the if-clause of that inference rule is not known to be true, then it is added to the list of goals
User interface
a) The function of the user interface is to present questions and information to the user and supply the user's responses to the inference engine. b) Any values entered by the user must be received and interpreted by the user interface c) Some responses are restricted to a set of possible legal answers, others are not
d) The user interface checks all responses to insure that they are of the correct data type. e) Any responses that are restricted to a legal set of answers are compared against these legal answers. Whenever the user enters an illegal answer, the user interface informs the user that his answer was invalid and prompts him to correct it. f) The vast knowledge base and numerous decision making rules are made easily accessible to user through the user interface. (Artificial intelligence is the application of computer technology to simulate human thought and judgment.)
59
Chapter 13
Design and implement an MIS system

To create an MIS system we need to call system analysis. 1. create completely a new MIS system 2. correction of MIS existing MIS system To create a new MIS system. System analysis needs to conduct interview with high positions of an organization. For correction of an exiting MIS system. System analysis needs to conduct interview with every one using MIS. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 60
Requirement phase 1. Initial review Questionnaire Interview Browsing manuals Outcomes of initial review Rough estimate about time, cost, nature of problem 2. feasibility study Questionnaire Interview Browsing manuals Outcomes of initial review Feasibility report which covers more exact estimate than initial review in terms of time cost. Evaluation phase 1. identify alternatives After initial and feasibility study system analysis give a report to org. management which describes some alternative in detail. Each alternative is different in terms of cost, time. 2. selecting the best alternative Org. staff conducts a meeting in which they decide which alternative is suitable for their org, in terms of time cost resources. And select that alternative. Once the system analysis and org. agreed they sign a contract which has in written about need of time, cost, resources. Design phase 1. hardware
61
2. software
Implementation phase 1. coding
the main component in coding is programmer we have variety of programming language such as java programming is done in 3 ways Linear programming (it is top down programming, it is written down so it continues in smooth way the statements is written one after the other. It is usually for small programming because it has complex troubleshooting) Structure programming (is divided into small sections, each section has function a specific job like hourglass, rainbow and table. structure programming is for large programming. One plus point is if one function doesn't work you can troubleshoot only that one no need to troubleshoot the entire program)
Object oriented programming (OOPS) Object oriented programming 1. Is a programming paradigm that uses "objects" and their interactions to design applications and computer programs 2. It is based on several techniques, including encapsulation, modularity, polymorphism, and inheritance 3. It was not commonly used in mainstream software application development until the early 1990s. 4. Many modern programming languages now support OOP. 5. Object-oriented programming roots reach all the way back to the 1960s
Linear programming 1. (it is top down programming, it is written down so it continues in smooth way 2. the statements is written one after the other. 3. It is usually for small programming because it has complex troubleshooting) Structure programming 1. (is divided into small sections, 2. each section has function a specific job like hourglass, rainbow and table. structure programming 3. is for large programming. 4. One plus point is if one function doesn't work you can troubleshoot only that one no need to troubleshoot the entire program) By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 62
2. testing Testing in done in 2 ways
1. ELFA is house testing such as if I am writing a program and test it in my own machine which I wrote the program in. such as black testing, white testing, conditional testing, loop testing. 2. BETA is to test by programmers to see if it works properly. After success of testing it comes to final release. 3. installing/ conversation installation is done in three operations Pilot (in pilot operation we install the program in only a part of org. the plus point is it fails no problem install it again which is risk free) Phase (in this operation the program is installed in parts instead of in complete. It is risk free and has limited number of programmers to focus attention on it. Disadvantage is take too much time) Parallel (install the program side by side)
Direct out over (install the program in complete and in one part which is highly risky)
4. Maintains System analysis needs to give technical training and train staff of the org. providing training is include in contract
5. evaluation Is customary to perform a review of results shortly after each new system is installed and running. At this point the memories of people on the project team about activity and results are fresh and reliable; they can easily pinpoint problems and benefits from mistakes that can be identified. List opportunities that already have been uncovered for system enhancement
What is software Prototyping?

It is modeling process of software. Prototyping gives system analysts the ability to mock up an input screen, complete with menu, windows, help, and screens and highlighting. Advantage 1. reduce development time 2. reduce development cost 3. require user involvement 4. developers receives quantifiable user feedback 5. results in higher user satisfaction 6. facilitates system implementation since users know what to expect Disadvantages 1. can lead to insufficient analysis 2. users expect the performance of the ultimate system to be the same as the prototype 3. developers can become too attached to their prototypes 4. sometimes lead to incomplete documentation 5. can cause the system to be left unfinished or implemented before they are ready
What is CASE tool?

Is a computer-based product aimed at supporting one or more software engineering activities within a software development process? CASE tool for developing models of software & business systems and their underlying objects
Advantages 1. produce system with a longer effective operational life 2. produce system that more closely meet user needs and requirement 3. produce system with excellent documentation 4. produce system that needs less support 5. produce more flexible systems Disadvantages 1. produce more initial system that are more expensive to build an maintain 2. reacquire more extensive and accurate definition of user needs and requirement 3. may be difficult to customize 4. may be difficult to use with existing systems
64
Chapter 14 Discuss the program design mythologies in detail

Program is also called software is a list of instructions that the computer must follow to process data into information. Method of program design mythology 1. Problem clarification 2. Program design 3. Program coding 4. Program testing 5. Program documentation and maintenance
1. Problem clarification First step of program design is clarifying the problem programming needs. Which requires 6 steps? a) clarify objectives and users b) clarify desired output c) clarify desired input d) clarify desired processing By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 65
e) double check the feasibility of implementing the program f) document the analysis
2. Program design Unstructured program Were written using a linear or top down approach to problem solving. Structured programs Structured programming takes a top down approach that breaks program into module forms. Three mini steps of program design a) determine the program logic using a top down approach b) design details using pseudo code flowchart and control structure c) do a structured walk through
3. Program coding Coding consist of translating the logic requirement from pseudo codo or flow chart into a programming language. a) Select the appropriate programming language b) Follow the syntax
4. Program testing It involves running various tests such as desk checking and debugging and running actual data to make sure the program works.
5. Program documentation and maintenance The program documentation is the fifth and last step of programming. Which is done in 4 steps? a) Prepare user documentation b) Prepare operator documentation c) Write programmer documentation d) Maintain the program (maintain is any activity designed to keep program in working condition, error free and up to date)
66
Network
Domain
Workgroup
Domains are collections of network and clients that share security trust information. Two important charaters Clients Server 1. Clients: runs client operation system or use, but do not provide network resources. Or client always request for service, access, and storage. 2. Server: runs network operating system such as Windows NT or provide network resources. Or Server always fulfills the client request that specialize the difference for client.
Clients
PDC DBC MS
By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas Ctrl+alt+delete User
67
Domain security and login permission are controlled by special service called domain controllers. There is one master controller domain called primary controller, which may be assisted by secondary domain controllers called backup domain controllers. During busy time or when the PDC is not available for some reason no computer user can access the resource of server in domain until they have been authenticated by a domain controller. Advantages of Domain Strong central security Central file storage Centralized location Ability to share expensive equipment as laser printers Can manage large number of users.
Advantages of Domain Expensive network operating system Dedicated network administrator Expensive dedicated hardware
NETWORK
68
CENTRALIZED
DISTRIBUTED
CENTERALIZED Contains a power device. They are controlled by the center. They have down terminal, and do not have hard drives; they can only handle a fixed amount of data.
DISTRIBUTED: They have the cabinet board and the capability of thinking and are interconnected to each other and they can share data with each other. They have intelligent terminals and the server to run all the jobs.
A Network is a collection of Data communication Hardware. Communication software and communication Media connected in a useful way so as to share Data resources. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 69
Communication Media
Wired Twisted Coaxial Fiber Coaxial
Wireless Radio waves Microwave Infrared Laser
Twisted wires: Are divided to UTP and STP UTP: STP: Coaxial: Is divided to Thick net and Thin net. Thick net: Thin net: Fiber Coaxial cable:
Radio waves: Is divided to Low and Single: Low: Single: Microwaves: is divided to Terrestrial and Satellite: Terrestrial: Satellite: Infrared: LaserTeleconferencing
70
You can see and talk at the time example of it can be BBC News you set at the head quarter but can talk with correspondence at the same time.
Consumer market
Consumer is a person who buys goods and services for their own personal or household use. Market is a group of consumers or organizations that is interested in the product, has the resources to purchase the product. Consumer market is a place where the individuals and households buy product for personal consumption such as supermarket. The first challenge to know consumer market is to gain an understanding of what this market looks like and how it is changing. To develop an appreciation of this dynamic consumer market, we will examine its geographic distribution, several demographic dimensions, and some representative behaviors. Geographic distribution Geographic segmentation calls for dividing the market into different geographic units as nations, regions, states, countries, cities. Marketing executives monitor current patterns and projected trends in the regional distribution of the population in order to make decisions that range from where to locate retail stores to the appropriate mix of products to offer. The rural population The urban population To recognize the importance or urban population, it is generally organized in three classes. 1. The metropolitan staticall area (MSA) is the basic urban unit, which has at least 50000 residents. The boundaries of an MSA are drawn along country lines and may cross sate borders, but the countries must be socially and economically integrated. 2. A metropolitan statical area which must be at least one urban cluster of at least 10000 residents but less than 50000. 3. A combined satical area which consist of and adjacent metropolitan and micropolitan statical area. By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 71
Sub-urban city A sub-urban city has residents of 10000 to 50000.
Consumer demographics Demo is the study of characteristics of people. Demographic are viral statistics that describe a population. Marketers make use of a variety of demographic characters including gender, age, family, life cycle, education, income, and ethnicity.
72
73

Bit

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bit

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The IPOS Cycle:

Input Storage Area

Program Storage Area

Output Storage Area

Working Storage Area

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

The difference is that information is useful for the organization.

Numeric Date Types:

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

Simulating events Graphical chart

Why People Avoid Computers?

Things that computer can not do

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

Mouse/Trackball: A mouse is a device that can be rolled about on a desktop

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

Processing computer as a whole

Application software (Pre written)

Customer made/system software (Customer made) Demand

Single function (Flash, word)

Integer function (MS OFFICE)

Special purpose Librarian criminal Volcano

General purpose For every one advantage

Responsibilities of Operating System

FAT32, FAT16, VFAT, NTFS, XTTZ is responsible for file

To create a file we give it a name then save it in such as document

A file is saved in hard disk in specific area.

When ever we save a file it is saved in a particular track in a particular section.

(incontigues space are spaces which are not in order)

Resource management or Memory Management:

Page File By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 18

Data communication Definition

Telecommunication: Tele Communication communication ordinary exchange of data

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

Digital Modulation Mo+dem=Modem Modem Analog Modem Demodulation

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

LAN (local network) distances)

WAN (has geographical

Client server computer:

Front End By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

Bullet and boards

HYBRID By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas 29

How does a star bus work?

DISADVANTAGES OF the Bus Heavy network can slow a bus considerably. 31

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

How A Star Network Works

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

Chapter # 5 First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

1. integrated circuits is made of semi conducting material

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

1. Microprocessors integrated Thousands of circuits onto a single

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

By: Sir Zeeshan Abbas

TYPES OF BUS Data BUS Address BUS Control BUS

Are programmed to do a specific job? Example: microven.

The different RAID levels

File and database management