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Objectives
On completion of this chapter you should be able to: explain the principle of the cyanmethaemoglobin method for haemoglobin estimation understand how to perform a manual haematocrit describe the procedure for manual white cell and platelet counts calculate red cell indices to evaluate red cell size understand the usefulness of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate describe the preparation of a blood film and the performance of a white cell differential count define the significance of the reticulocyte count and the method employed to calculate absolute numbers understand the principle of the latex test used to detect infectious mononucleosis.
Introduction
In the haematology laboratory there are various techniques, both automated and manual, to determine the components of the Full Blood Count (FBC), otherwise known as the Complete Blood Count (CBC). Automated methods are used in large laboratories where rapid analysis of large numbers of tests are required. The instrumentation is expensive, but requires only a small number of trained staff to operate. Once calibrated, the instrument gives accurate, precise, reproducible results. The majority of laboratories use automated analysers exclusively. The mechanics of these instruments will be discussed in a later chapter of this Study Guide. The need for manual techniques, as part of the FBC, is still evident in todays modern haematology laboratory. Manual techniques are invaluable in the following instances: Instrument breakdownSpecialised instrumentation requires trained engineers (based in capital cities) to perform major repairs. Urgent specimens already in the laboratory need to be processed without delay, manually, if no back up analyser is available. Leukaemic patients with grossly elevated white blood cell counts require manual haemoglobins to be performed. Excessive white blood cells cause turbidity, falsely elevating haemoglobin levels. Testing of body fluids (such as Cerebrospinal fluid) require manual cell counts. Low numbers of white blood cells will be below the instrument counting threshold. Paediatric specimens have insufficient volume for some automated tests, requiring manual procedures, such as Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate, to be performed.
Haemoglobin
The haemoglobin concentration (Hb) of a sample may be estimated in the laboratory colourimetrically, by the Cyanmethaemoglobin method. This method is recommended by the World Health Organisation, due to the accuracy of the procedure and stability of the reagent. The sample of choice for the cyanmethaemoglobin method is whole blood with EDTA anticoagulant. The method uses a reagent called Drabkins Reagent. Drabkins reagent contains potassium cyanide and potassium ferricyanide. Haemoglobin is converted to methaemoglobin by the potassium ferricyanide. The methaemoglobin is then converted to cyanmethaemoglobin by the potassium cyanide (Scheme 181).
Textbook Biomedical Science Rodak 2007 Chs 14 & 15
The cyanmethaemoglobin is measured using a spectrophotometer. The concentration of haemoglobin is directly proportional to the absorbance of the cyanmethaemoglobin at 540 nm. Scheme 181: Principle of Drabkins method for haemoglobin estimation Haemoglobin (Fe 2 +) + K 3 Fe(CN)6 Methaemoglobin (Fe3 +)
Methaemoglobin + KCN Cyanmethaemoglobin A standard control sample, of known concentration, is tested at the same time as the unknown sample. Both samples are diluted 1 in 201 with the Drabkins reagent. The tubes are mixed and allowed to stand for 10 minutes at room temperature. Using the Drabkins reagent as a blank, the absorbance of the tubes are read at 540 nm on the spectrophotometer. The concentration of the unknown sample is calculated using the absorbance and concentration of the standard sample as shown in the equation below.
Hb (g/dL ) = Abs of test sample Concentration of standard Abs of standard
Haematocrit
The Haematocrit (Hct) is also known as the Packed Cell Volume (PCV). This test measures the red blood cell concentration in whole blood as a percentage. It is performed on whole blood. The test is performed by filling a glass capillary tube with whole blood. One end of the tube is plugged with plasticine-type putty. The tube is then centrifuged in a Microhaematocrit centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 5 minutes. The blood separates into three formed elements layers (Figure 181): Red blood cells, white blood cells/platelets (buffy coat layer) and plasma.
Figure 181
The haematocrit value is determined simply by using a Microhaematocrit Reader (Figure 182) to calculate the percentage. Alternately, if a reader is unavailable, the total blood volume and red blood cell volumes may be measured with a ruler and the percentage calculated.
Figure 183: Improver neubauer haemocytometer counting areas Whole blood is diluted 1 in 20 with 2% Acetic acid (coloured a pale mauve colour by gentian violet). After placing a coverslip on top of the haemocytometer chamber, the diluted blood is introduced into the counting chamber. The haemocytometer is placed in a moist chamber and the cells are allowed to settle for at least 2 minutes. The haemocytometer is mounted on a microscope and the cells are counted using the 40X objective (Figure 18 3). The cell count per litre is calculated based on the size of the area counted (mm3) as shown in the equation below.
number cells counted dilution factor 10 Area (mm 2 ) This amount is divided by 1000 to report the number of cells x 109/L. Total cell count =
1. Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) This test describes the average volume in a red blood cell. Since red blood cells are very small, the unit used is femtolitre (fL) or 10-15 L. Hct(%) 10 RCC MCV is used to determine the size of the red blood cells. MCV = 2. Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH) This test measures the average weight of haemoglobin in a red cell. Since the red blood cells are very small, the unit used is picogram (pg) or 10-12 g. Hb RCC MCH is also used as an indicator of red blood cell size. MCH = 3. Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) This test measures the concentration of haemoglobin in a red blood cell. The unit of measure is grams/ decilitre or g/100mL. Hb 10 Hct The smaller the red blood cell, the higher the concentration of haemoglobin, that is the higher the MCHC. MCHC =
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BMED19012 - Chapter 18 - Page 205
Once dried, the blood film is stained and then, allowed to dry at room temperature. The blood film is first examined macroscopically to assess the quality of the smear. The smear should be finger shaped, with a rounded end and no irregularities. The rounded end of the smear should have a rainbow appearance when held up to the light. The slide is placed on the microscope and using the 10X objective, the smear is examined for quality and distribution of cells. An area of even cell distribution, with cells in a single plane, is chosen. Increasing to the 40X objective, an area is selected where the majority of red blood cells separate from each other, and do not overlap. Using a back and forth, zigzag motion (Figure 186), a total of 100 white blood cells are counted and recorded. In health, the five categories of white blood cells found are neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils (Figure 33). In cases of disease, immature cells are released in to peripheral blood. These cells are identified and included in the white cell differential. The 100X oil immersion objective is used to examine red blood cell inclusions. Red cell morphology and platelet morphology are evaluated when performing the white blood cell differential. The red cell changes and platelet descriptions are recorded to complete the peripheral blood picture. A haematological diagnosis is made by the analysis of the full blood count parameters and microscopic examination of the blood film.
Figure 186: Blood film area counted for a white blood cell differential
Reticulocyte count
Reticulocytes are juvenile red cells, containing remnants of ribosomal RNA. The ribosome material reacts with new methylene blue to form blue granules (Figure 187).
Figure 187: Reticulocytes stained in new methylene blue (as indicated by arrows) The number of reticulocytes in the peripheral blood is an accurate reflection of bone marrow production. The reticulocyte spends 1 day in the peripheral blood before developing into a mature red blood cell. An increase in the number of reticulocytes in peripheral blood indicates increased bone marrow stimulus, leading to their premature release.
BMED19012 - Chapter 18 - Page 207
Equal volumes of 1% New Methylene Blue and EDTA anticoagulated whole blood are mixed together in a small glass test tube. Mixing gently every 5 minutes, incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes. Prepare a blood film of the preparation and allow to air dry. Once dry, the reticulocytes are counted as a percentage of the red blood cells. The absolute number of reticulocytes in then calculated as shown below. % reticulocytes red blood cell count 100 Reticulocytes are released excessively by the bone marrow to compensate for anaemia. Abs reticulocytes count =
Review questions
Review question 181 Give examples of where manual tests can be invaluable. Review question 182 Describe the principle of Drabkins method for haemoglobin estimation. Review question 183 What does the haematocrit measure and how is it performed? Review question 184 Name two types of blood cells that can be counted manually using a haemocytometer. Review question 185 MCV, MCH and MCHC are referred to as red cell indices. Describe what the abbreviations stand for and what they describe. Review question 186 What does ESR stand for and what does it measure? Review question 187 What is a white blood cell differential? Review question 188 What is the best type of blood to use when making a blood smear? Review question 189 What are reticulocytes and why are they released prematurely from the bone marrow?