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VarbbleResistor
I Variable
: ), Capacitor
-,yE- Earth
Ground
Chagsis
Ground - y t-l ' T rl
Rteo** TrimmerCapacitc
-\JJrr"
coil
-\.0..0.,1- -lF---lF
Jr- -lrlr
Cell Battery
Fig. 1-1.Symbolsfor
basiccircuit comPonents.
Othcrsxntblsaregiwn in later chapters.
* Thereisagoodreasonforretainingcapitallettersforthese
abbreviations,
sinceAJUandFMradios
ugethernthiqv/ay.
3
ic -integrated circuits
if -intermediate frequency(alsoi-f)
if-low frequencY
rf-radio frequencY
uhf -ultra high frequencY
vhf-very high frequencY
DC and AC
A basicdirect current (dc) circuit is simple enoughto understand.A sogrceof
electricalforce (suchasa battery) is connectedviawirestovarious components
with a return path to the source. Cprrent then flows through the circuit in a
particular direction. Figure 2-1 shows a very elementary circuit of tlis type
where a battery is connectedto a dcelectric motor andis comparedwitha similar
closedloop hydraulic motor in a simple recirculating system.
It is obviouswhat happensin the hydraulic circuit. The pump is a sourceof
pressurizedwater which impingeson tlte vanesof the hydraulicmotor to drive it.
There is a flow of water aroundthe system.At the sametime, tlere is someloss
of pressureenergydueto the fiction of the water flowing through the pipesand
t}1emotor. This is the resistancein the circuit. But most of the pressureenergy
deliveredby the pump is convertedinto power by the hydraulic motor.
In the electrical circuit counterpart, the battery is a source of. electrical
pres{ilre (which in simpleterms we designateooltage),This forces an electrical
currentto flow through the circuit, opposd by ttre resistanceoffered by the
wiringandtheelectricmotorcoils.Again,mostofthe originalelectricalenergyin
the battery is convertedinto power by the electric motor. Providedthe battery
voltagedoesnot change,a constantvalueof current will flow tlrough the circuit
alwaysin the samedirection, and the electric motor will continue to nrn at a
constantsped.
Conventionally,dc current flow is regardedas beingfrom the positive to the
negativeterminalsof a battery or any otler dc source(suchasa dynamo).It is a
Battery
6
I
I
Eet
E:I I
g
5-t Switch
Ort
$€l cva"
J-
f-o'e Time-;
FiS. 24. Alteraatitg currentfuu b in cycbsof positiu and regatioecurnnt.
?
11)
I
d
€)
Peak: + Peakto Peak
d
b0
ru RMS:0.707X Peak
z
I
Fig.24. Peah-ta-peah,
fuah, ond raotmcansquaneaoltages
dcfinedand conpared.
I
q)
q)
db
q)
z
OUM'S LAW
betweenvoltage(E),current(I), andresistance
Therelationship (R) is given
by Ohm'slaw:
.t : FE
In plain language:
volts
amps:
resistancein ohms
10
Battery
rl
Voltmetcr
I
L' -- ---- rl 1 v- ;---J
\-/
FA. 9.1.fusic dc circuitdnun in ttm ua1s,uith nwterslor ncaarhg cttrat end
odtryc indicated
. volts
onms--
components areconnectedbywires,buttheresistanceofwiringisqnatteoough
to benegligible.
Thusin a simpledccircuitit is theeffectivetotalof all the
resistorraluesandothercomponentswhichofrerresistance.Just whatthistotal
valueis dependsonhowthevarious resistors
whichmaybepresentarecon-
nected(seeChapter 4).
In somecasesit is easyto caletatethe reeistance of a typicarload"Fc
example, aflashlightbulbisusuallyratedbyvoltsandtheqrrentitdraws.
ohm,s
lawcanthenbeusedtofind itsnominalresistance.
Forexample, if abulbbrated
at 6 voltsand50nA" fromObm'slaw:
Resistance-#- uo obns.
1l
There is just onesnagto this methodof estimatingloadresistance.Withfilament
bulbs, for example,the specifiedcurrent drawn refers to the bulb in working
conditionswith the filament heatedup. Its actual resistanceinitially when the
filament is cold can be considerablylower, drawing more current through the
bulb. This may, or may not, be a disadvantagein a particular circuit. Also, tlere
are other types of loads,like dc electric motors, where the effective resistance
variescondiserablywith the speedat which the motor is running.Initially, sucha
motor will havea very low resistance;its effectiveresistancethen increaseswith
speed.
Two other basicrelationshipsalso apply in a simple dc circuit:
1. The currentvalue is tlte samethrough every part of the circuit, unlessa part
of the circuit involves parallel-connectedpaths.
Thus, in a circuit (A) of Fig. 3-2, all the resistorsin the circuit are connectedin
seriesso that the sirmecurrent will flow through eachresistor.
In circuit (B) of Fig. 3-2, the resistors are connectedin parallel. ln this case
eachresistor representsa separatepath for the current andtlte valueof current
flowing through eachleg dependson tlre value of tint resistor. These current
valuescan be calculatedfrom Ohm's law:
throughresistort, current:
ft
throughresistorZ,current-
S
throughresistor3, current:
$
u
E , E E 1 . , 1 I
orE
Rl R2'R3 Rl-R2-R
.^:Rl]ft.!![
E
Wethenhavethe conditions:
acros{rR2 : I X R2
V2, measured
acrossR3 : I X R3
V3, measured
Q
,--@_,
Fig. 3-3. R*istors dropooltagein a dc circuit.
13
VOLTAGE.DROPPER CIRCUIT
Theaboveisnowreworkedasapracticalemmple.To ponera&volt electricd
appliance(saya &volt transistorradio)froma l2-volt battery.In this case,tlte
applianceis considered asa resistanceload.To dropthe voltagefrom 12 to 6
acrossthisload,adropperresistor,R,is requiredin thecircuitshownin Fig.3'4.
It remainsto calculatea suitablevaluefor thisdroppingresistor, butto dot}is it
is necessaryto knowtlre effectiveresistance of the load.(If this is not knownit
canbemeasured with anohmmeter.)Suppcse it is 100ohms.
UsingOhm'slawagain,if this loadis to have6 voltsappliedacrorxlit, andits
resistanceis 100ohms,the currentrequiredto 6owthroughthe circuitis:
1
- : 6
100
:0.06 amps(60 millianls)
the
This samecurrentflowsthroughthe rest of the circuit. This, considering
circuitfrom the l2-volt end:
total resistance
required:
#
= 200 ohms
V- 0.06X 100
- 6 volts
12
Volts
I r-O-r
R€sistorto "Ilrop" 6 Volts
Fig. 34 Prutical a!flicotiut of d drofuing tesisbn
tl
POWER IN THE CIRCUIT
The power developedina circuit byvirtue of theelectricalpressure(volts)and
resulting current flow (amps)is given by the product of these two values,and
measuredin araffs.Thus:
P: I?R
SHUNT CIRCTIITS
A shunt circuit is usedto drop a current flowing through a particular oompG
nent. It normally comprisestwo resistancesin parallel,one resistancebeingthe
componentresistanceandthe other the shuntresistance.The appropriatevalue
of the shunt resistanceis againcalculateddirectly from Ohm's law.
A typical exampleof the use of a shunt resistanceis to adapt an ammeter
movementto measuredifferent cur:mt ranges(asin a multimeter). In this case
15
theloadresistance is thatof thecoiloftheammeter,whichisinitiallydesignedto
En". ruu-r.aedeflection with a particularcurrentflowingthroughit (callthis
ir). tt " instrumentcannotmeasnre anyhighercurrentthanI, sincetlis would
sihpry tendto carrythe pointerpastits full deflection,andvery likely cause
or.ag". Thus,the meteris desigrred to handlethe lowestcurrentrangere-
quird, anda shuntresistor(or a seriesof shuntresistors)addedwhicttcanbe
orirctt"o into the meter circuit to extendtlre range.Figure3-5 showsthis
arrangement withjustoneshuntresistorconnected for switchingintothecircuit.
qfient, 12,
If the shuntresistoris to extendthe ammeterrangeto a higher
deflection,thentle requiredvalueof tle shunt follows
resistor
Euingruu-sc"ru
from:
1. current whichhasto flow throughthe shuntis I2-I.. This meansthat a
(unless
currentgreaterthanI, will neverflowtlrough themetermovement
the actualcrrrent appliedto the meter exceeds I)'
2. Voltagedrops".t*. thuteter - I, X R- (whereR- is theresistance of the
meter).
3. Shuntresishncerequiredis therefore:
voltagedropacrossinstrument: Irt" S
currmt flow througbshunt Iz - Ir
totalR: Ir1
(Rx)
Met€trResistance
SimpleAmmeter
ShutResi*c
Fig. 3-5. Ertcnding thc range of a milliamnutcr.
16
The valueof the seriesresistorrequiredis this total resistancelassthe
resistance ofthemeter(thelattermaybenegligible in comparisonwiththevalue
of seriesresistorrequiredandits likelytolerance-see Chapter4).
Again,severalseriesresistorsmaybeused,switchedintothecircuitindividu-
ally to providedifferentvoltage-measuringrangeson ttremetermovement, as
shownin the right handdiagramof Fig. 3-6.
DTVIDERS
A voltagedivideris yet anotherexampleof the practicalapplicationof a
voltagedropper.Thebasiccircuitis shownin Fig.3-7,andsincethecurrentflow
throughRl andR2 is the same,tle followingvoltagevaluesapply:
Vl : sourcevoltage(e.g.,batteryvoltage)
V2-VlXRl
vs:ffixnz
l-.. vl ---\
is tlte currentflowingthroughRt andRZ/.
\Note R-t + Rt
It followsthatbysuitableselectionofvaluesfor Rl andR2,virtuallyanylower
voltagethanVl canbetappedfrompointsA andB, or B andC (or both).It also
hasthe advantage that it is not necessary to knowthe loadresistancebefore
suitabledropperresistances canbecalculated. It couldthusbea morepractical
alternativefor theorampledescribed in Fig.3-4,butconnectionto aloaddoes,of
course,resultin a further dropin voltage.
If theresistance of theloadisknovm,tlrcnthereisnopartictlarproblemwitha
fixedresistorvoltagedivider.Calculate thevalueof R2(Fig.3-Z)onthebasisof
noloadresistance, tlen subtractthe actualvalue oftheloadresistancefromthis
to arriveat therequiredvaluefor R2.(In thecomplete tap@ circuit,R2andttre
loadresistance is effectivelyin series.)
Anmeter Moqeoeot
17
R1
'Droeeea'
Voluge
Ortput
BASIC AC CIRCUITS
As e:rplained in Chapter2, the voltageandcurent flow bothalternatein ac
circuits,with the possibilityof oneleadingor laggingthe other.Also,it was
intimatedthat theeffectiveresistance offeredbyresistancecomponentsrnaybe
modified(usuallyincreased) by reactiveeffects.Theseeffectsbecomeincreas.
inglymarkedas thefrequencyof theacincleases,andat radiofrequencies are
morepronounced thanpureresistance.
It is possibleto obtainanac circuitwhichis purelyresistive,particularlyat
lowerfrequencies, in whichcaseOhm'slawisequallyvdid for suchcircuitsasit is
for dc circuits.Ohm'slaw canalsobe appliedto ac circuitsin whichreactive
effectsare present,but in slightlymodifiedform. Thesereactiveeffectsare
describedspecifrcally as reactanceandimfedance,
Reactance is the circuit loadingeffectproducedby cafocitors andin&rc'
tances(atrs). trtis measqred in ohmsanddesignated by thesymbolL Its actqal
value is dependent both on tlrc component valueandthe frequencyof tlte ac.
In the case of capacitors, capacitivereactance(usuallydesignated&) is
givenby:
\:L^
in farads,aadTt: 3.L4L2.
wheref is theacfrequencyin llz, Cis thecapacitance
In the caseof inductances, ind*ctioe reactatre(usuallydesignated )&,) is
givenby:
Xa:ZnfL
in hen4n
whereL is the inductance
18
If the ac circuit contains only reactance(i.e., does not have any separate
resistance),then x takes the placeof resistance(R) in the ohm's law forrrula:
-I : Ex
If reactance
andresistancearein series:
2:lfrpl
If reactanceand resistanceare in parallel:
"- [r
! RtR
Again, impedance(Z) takes the placeof resistancein the Ohm's law formula:
I:2
Theseare the basicformulasfor accircuitcalculations.
POWER FACTOR
Powerfactoris something specificto accircuits,althoughit is onlytheresist-
ancein suchcircuitsthat actuallyconsume power.Thispowerconsumed canbe
calculatedas tle productof the squareof the current flowingthroughthe
resistance andthevalueof theresistance; i.e.,IzRwatts.Theapparentpowerin
the circuitis the productof acvoltageandcurrent,correctlyspecifiedasvolt-
amps.
The ratio of tlre powerconsumed to the apparentpoweris calledthepower
factor,usuallye:rpressed asa percentage. If the circuitis purelyresistive,then
thepowerfactoris 100percent(sincealltheapparentpoweris consumed in the
resistance).Reactance doesnot consume power,soin a purelyreactivecircuit
tlte powerfactoris zero.TVhen a circuitcontainsbothresistance andimpedance
(i.e.,reactance), thent]tepowerfactoris alwayslessthan100percent,its ralue
depending present.
on tlte resistance
n
Resistors
Resistors,as the nameimplies,are designedto providesomedesirable,or
necessary, amountof,resistance to currentflow in a circuit.Theycanalsobe
usedto dropvoltages,as explainedin chapterB. As such,t.heyare the nain
elements usedincircuitdesignto arriveat thedesiredcurreotflowsandvoltages
tlat work the circuit.Resistorsdo not generateelectricalenergy,but merely
absorbit. This energyis dissipated in tbe form of heat.The perforrnance
of a
resistorisnotaffectedbyfrequency, soit behaves in thesamewayinbothdcand
ac circuits.(Thereareexceptions, asnotedlater.)
Resistorsare specifiedby (a) resistanceralue in ohms;(b) toleranceas a
percentage of the nominalvalue;and(c) powerratingin watts.Theyare also
categorized by the typeof construction.
COLOR CODE
Resistance ralueandtolerancearenormallyindicated by a colorcodeconsist-
ing offour coloredrings,startingat, or closeto, oneend(FiS.4-1).Theseare
readasfollows:
lst ring givesfust digit
2ndring givesseconddigit
3rd ring givesnumberof zerosto put afterfrst two digits
21
i
---
22
t, 1.2,1.5,1.E,
2,2r2,7,,3.3,
3.9,4.?,5.6,6.E,E.Z,
10,12,15,lE,etc.
Thus,for example,a typicalrangeof resistorvalueswouldbe:
L0,12,15,19,22,27,33,39, 47,56,69,92, and100ohms
120,150,180,220,270,330,390,470, 560,680and820ohms
L,1.2,1.5,1.8,2.2,2.7,3.3,
4.7,5.6,6.8,and8.2kilohms).
L0,12,etc.kilohms
1, 12,etc.megohms
As a generalrule, resistorswith a l0 percenttoleranceare suitablefor
averagecircuituse.Theactualresistance valueof,say,a 1kilohmresistorwould
thenbeanythingbetween900and1,100ohms.For morecriticalwork,suchas
radiocircuits,resistorswith a 5 percenttolerancearepreferred.Closertoler-
ancesarenot normallyrequired,exceptfor very criticatcircuits.
POWER RATING
The physicalsize(or strape)of a resistorprovidesno clueto its resistance
value,butcanbearoughguidetoitspowerrating.physicalsizes (Fig.4-2)range
fromabout4 mmlongby 1 mmdiameterupto abouts0 mmlongand6 mmor
morediameter.Theformerwouldprobablyhaveapowerratngof.Ll2}watt and
the latter possibly10 watts.More specifically, however,the powerratingis
relatedto typeaswell assize.A generalrule that doesapplyto powerrating,
however,is that while this figurenominal$representsa safemaximumthe
resistorcantoleratewithoutdamage, it is usuallybestto operatea resistorwell
belowits powerrating-say at b0 percent-particularly if components are
crowdedonacircuitorthe circuitisenclosedin acasewithlittle ornoventilation.
VOLTAGE RATING
Maximumoperatingvoltagealsocanbespecified for resistors,butsincetlis is
usuallyof theorderof 250voltsor more,thisparameteris not importantwhen
choosingresistorsfor batterycirctits. Resistorsusedon mainscircuitsmust,
however,havea suitablevoltagerating.
Tpes of Construction
Resistorfy'asclassified
by construction
follow.
^----
-
- -
l-l
-
-
23
Carbon Resistors (alsocalledcarbon-composition,molded-carbon,andcar-
bonrod). Carbonresistorsare in the form of a smallrod moldedfrom carbonand
a binder, with wire connectionsat eachend.The rod is usuallyprotected with a
paper or ceramic sleeve,or a lacquer coatin$. Carbon resistors are the most
common(andcheapest)type of resistor, andare availablein valuesfrom 10 ohms
to 22 megohms.Standardtypesare usuallyavailableinl/a,Vt,Yz, L,and?watt
ratings.
It is a generalcharacteristicof carbonresistorsthat their valueremainsstable
at normal temperatures,but above60"C their resistanceincreasesrapidly with
increasingtemperature.
Metal-glaze Resistors. In this type, tlre resistive film depositedon the rod
is a cermet (metal-ceramic);otfierwise, construction is similar to metal-film
resistors.
Film-resistors also can be classifiedas thich-film or thin-rth. As a general
rule, individualresistors of this type are thick-fiIm. Thick-film resistors are also
madein groupson a smallsubstrateandencapsulatedinintegradedcircuitchips.
Thin-film resistorsare madein a similar way, but on a considerablysmallerscale
for use in the manufactureof integrated circuits.
24
Efiect of Age
All resistorscanbeexpected to undergoa changein resistance
is mostmarkedin thlgse of carbon-colnporiu*resistors, with age.This
wtrerethe change
mightbeasmuchas2O-percent in a yearor so.In the caseof carbon-firm
met'llic-fiknresistors,trrechanges"ido. will be,ooi" and
tu- " ril pur."nt.
Efiect of High Frequencies
The generaleffectof increasingfrequencyin ac
circuitsis to decrease the
apparentvalueof ther:y:torland thehighertheresistor
,.ru" ii"-i""ter this
changeis likelyto be.This effectis mosimarked
with carbon+omposition and
wire-roundresistors.carbon-filmanametar-nr,n-resiriil,iirr"""it'ure
frequencycharacteristics. high_
WIRE.WOUNDRESISTORS
A wire-roundresistorismadebywrappingarengthof
resistancewirearounda
ceramiccoil.The wholeis thencovered- wilh a protectivecoatingor film. The
:p".i6g advantages offeredby wireresistorsarethat a wiaerange';varues
can
eroduced (tyeicallyfrom i ohmto sookitohms)*ith po;;;;;
!: from 1 to
50 watts (or up to 225 watts-in"power" types)and
tolerancesas closeas 1
percent.Theyalsohaveexgelelt stability
andlow noise.Thea disadvantages
arethat trey aremostcostryandalso*.uit"ut" for
usein,. "i.JL carrying
highfrequencies because their effectivevaruechanges.physicary,theyneedbe
no biggerthanfilm-typeresistorsfor the samepower
rating.
VARIABLE RESISTTVEDEVICES
Themostcommontlpe ofvariabreresistive deviceusedinmodernerectronics
il calleda potentiomefar. A potentiomet"iisa three.leadresistivedevicecon-
sistingof a fixedresistiveerementtrratcanbesweptby
a wiperarm.The6xed
resistiveelement,or trach,may b" circurar
r".u"uv r zi6J"g* arc) or a
straightline,circulartypesbeingthe morecommon.
Theresistiveelementmaybe-wire-wound, carbon-composition, carbon-fiIm,
or metallic-fiIm.The former tlpe is knownas a wire.wbundpotenuometer.
carbon-trackpotentiom€ters. are the cheapest(with the samelimitationsas
carbon-composition resistors),but are availableonly with ,nJ"ot" power
ratings-e.g.,Yr wattforlowresistance ralues-reducingwith higherresist-
ancevalues.wire-woundpotentiometers usualyhavehigG po","i'oting, .no
arealsoavailablein lowerresistance varuesttrancarbonrtraclpotentiometers.
Tolerances areusuallyontheorderof r0 percentof 20percent,futo'"v
closerwith precisionpotentiometers. u",*r,
connections shouldbeobviousfromFig.4-3.Thus,with connections
to endr
the.tryckandthe wiper,length1 to ck the resistivetrack
9f is in the circuit.
Actualcircuit resistancethus can be variedby moving
(increasing the wiper towards3
resistance),
or toward1 (decreasing resistance).
The changein resistancecal occurpropoiionanyto
the actuarrengtrrof
track involved,or rogarithmeticafu,*n*u trrereis a logarithmic
increasein
Potentiometetr
Wipet rr"*
(Turnedby lhob)
Fig. H. Potentiometershown in vhematic form (lefr). Correspondingtcrminal posi-
tions are sluun on thc symbols(ight).
26
Fig. tU. A Practicaladjustablepotentialdioider.
27
RT R2 R3 R4
- Rl * R2+ R3+ R4
TotalResistance
Fig.tt6. Resrsfors
in vries-
1 1 1 1
n-Rt-R2-85T"'
whereR is the total resistance.
In tle caseof two dissimilarresistors:
Rl R2
K - -
Rl+R2
as:
or remembered
productof resistorvalues
-
total resistance
sumof resistorvdues
I _ 1 .' 1 * ' l
totA nesistance Rl R2 R3
in Parallel.
Fig.+7. Resistors
%
F
o
Capacitors
A capacitoris basicallya devicewhich
storesan eJytric charge.physicary,
consistsof two metarplates-ora*troa.. it
."p"oted by aninsurati'gmateriaror
dielectric.Apprication of.. a. r"rig" .-"Jirrg napacitorprodu.ur-,
of electronson tre oositiygpr.r" ria a"fi.iun.y
"-ilt'of erectronson tre negativeprate
(Fig. 5-l). This diffLrenua...rrut"tioi}"r".t
onsrepresentsan erectricar
upacertain
tuvet
tJepenoing
"" t[";;il6 andthen
ffii,ft"Yr1*rt$:i
As far asdc is concerned, the insulatoractsasa bluhing deienfor
flow(atthoughtrrereis a certaintt-.luni.rr.rging current
asthe capacitoris frrtv charged).rn current which stopsassoon
trr"-.iJorac appliedto thecapacitor,
upduringone r,"[.y.r"u"."i". trre
lfo-ry:so that effectively
cycle'
reversed ontrrcsecond harfoftre
the capacitor "onou.6 current
didnotexist.fhus,..i;;;.;;;cerned, through it as if the
f$y. "."p."ito?i.acoupring
Therearescarcelyanyelectroniccircuits
carryingacwhichdonotincorporate
oneor more capacitors,ei_ther for coupringor shapingtrr" o'.on-i"qu"n"y
responseof the netwolk. In the tattei?i,-a
resistorto form an RC cornbination capacitoris associatedwith a
phenomenon GJtiiapter.6). The charge/discharge
associated_wittr
*pr.i-t-")" *.],"*
circuits(e'g', trrephoto-graphic be usedin otfr", typ"* or
"r*troni"il'.r, is-operatedby the
subsequent dischargeof a capacitorttiggurJat chargeand
the appropriatemoment).
a ?
maybedesigrred
Likeresistors,capacitors to havefixedvaluesor berrariable
in capacity.Fixedcapacitorsarethe mainbuildingblocksof a circuit(together
aremainlyusedfor adjustingtunedcircuits.
witl resistors).Variablecapacitors
FD(ED CAPACITORS
Fixedcapacitors fall into two maincategories: non-polarizdcapacitors, and
polarized or electrolyticcagacitors. Themainthingwhichdetermines thetypeof
capacitoris the dielectricmaterialused.
Non-polarized capacitorsconsist,basically,of metallicfoil interleaveswitlt
sheetsof soliddielectricmaterial,or equivalentconstruction.The important
thingis that the dielectricis readymadebeforeassembly. As a consequence, it
doesnotmatterwhich plate is madepositive or negative. The capacitor works in
just thesameway,whicheverwayit is connected in a circuit,hencethedescrip
tion "non-polarized." is
This obviously convenient, butthisformof construction
doeslimit ttre amountof capacitance which can be accommodated in a single
packageof reasonable physicalsize.Up to about0.1 microfarads, the package
canbemadequitesmall,butfor capacitance valuesmuchaboveI microfarad, tle
physicalsizeof a non-polarized capacitortendsto become excessively large in
comparison with othercomponents likelyto be used in the same circuit.
This limitationdoesnot applyin the caseof anelectrolyticcapacitor.Here,
initialconstruction consistsof two electrodes separated by a thin film of elecfuo
bte. Fs a finalstageof manufacture, a voltageis appliedacrossthe electrodes
whichhastheeffectof producing averythinfilmof nonconducting metallicoxide
onthe surfaceof one plate to formthe dielectric.Thefactthat capacitance of a
capacitorincreasesthe thinnerthe dielectricis mademeansthat very much
highercapacitances canbe producedin smallerphysicalsizes.The onlydisad-
vantageis that an electrolyticcapacitormadein this waywill havea polarity
corresponding to theoriginalpolaritywith whichthedielectricwasformed,tlis
correctpolaritybeingmarkedon tlre bodyof the capacitor.If connected tbe
wrongwayin a circuit,the reversedpolaritycandestroythedielectricflm and
permanently ruin the capacitor.
Thereis alsooneothercharacteristic whichappliesto anelectrolyticcapaci-
tor. A certainamountof unused electrolyteremainsafterits initialforming.This
30
acts as a conductorand canmakethe capacitorquite leakyas far as dc is
concerned. This mayor maynot beacceptable
in particularcircuits.
^mmf/
"frN s H
n -r'x
' \l-M
f
t
c
A-Ceramic Dsc
B-Gramic Ptate
C-SilveredMca
H
F-Tantalum Bead
G-Electrolytic(Polarizcd)
F
I
H-Non-PolarizedElectrolytic
D-Polystyrene J-Plug-InType(Sienens)
E-Polycarbonate
Fig, &2. Erample^sof modern capacitors
31
regardedas superior for critical applications.They can be madewith very high
working voltages.
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
The original material used for electrolytic capacitorswas aluminium foil,
together with a pasteelectrolyte, wound into a tubular form with an aluminum
outer cover, characterizedby dimpledrings at one or both ends.The modern
form of aluminum electrolytic capacitor is basedon etched-foil construction,
enablinghigher capacitancevaluesto be achievedin smaller can sizes.Values
availablefrom I pF up to 4,700 lE (or even larger, if required). Working volt-
agesare generallylow, but may range from 10 volts up to 250 or 500 volts dc,
- lstDigit
ffi_2dDisit
W Multiplier
rc Tobrance - Black*OR-20%
vort"g"n"tiog whiter oR- lolo
l:'l- \ -
E:fr?'rKB
l l
FA. 5-?.C;olorcodefor poly.stercafuibr*
z
Working
Capacitancein pF 3rd Ring dc Voltage
2ndDgit
Multiptier \ rst Digit
'
: }}J1
q"/
iTffi:
Murtiprie.53{'"**
MultiplierTolerance w
Toterancell tr*'r*u .^,.-..-l I
i l |
Fig. 5-5. Aher codingsysbmsuvd on capacitars.
3:)
Tolerance of Fixed Capacitore
As a generalrule, only silver-micacapacitorsare madeto closetolerances
(plusor minus1 percentis usrul).Thetoleranceonothertypesof capacitors is
usuallybetween 10 and 20 percent and may be even higher (as muchas 50
Because
percent)in thecaseof alurrinumfoilelectrolytics. of thewidetolerances
choice
norrralwith electrolytics, of value
actual is seldom criticat
VARIABLE CAPACITORS
Variablecapacitors arebasedoninterleaved setsof metalplates,onesetbeing
fixedandtheothermovable. Theplatesareseparated by a dielectricwhichmay
beairorasoliddielectric. Movementof onesetofplatesdterstheeffective area
of the plates, and thus the ralue of capacitance present.
Thereis alsoa generaldistinctionbetweentuning capaa;i/airsv*d for fre'
quentadjtstment(e.g., to tute a radio receiverto a partiorlar station)and
trimmer caprciforsused for initialadiustment of a hmedcircuit.Tuningcapaci-
tors are larger, more robust in constnrction and generallyof airdielectrictype.
Trimmercapacitors are usrully based ona mica orfi}n dielectricwitha smaller
numberof plates,capacitance being adjusted by trrning a ceotralscrewto rary
thepressurebetweenplatesandmica. Becausetheyaresmallerinsize,however,
a trimmercapacitormaysometimes beusedasahmingcapacitor onasubminia-
ture radiocircuit, althougbspecial miniature hning capacitors are made,de-
signedto mountdirectlyon a printed*ircuit board"
In thecaseof tuningcapacitors, theshapeof tbernanes determines themanner
in whichcapacitance charryes with spindle movemeot" Tbese cbaracteristics
usully fall underoneof the followingdescriptions:
e Linear-where eachdegreeof spindlerotationproduces anequalchangein
capacitance. Tbis is the mostusualtne chosenfor radioreceivers.
o Logaithmic-where eachdegreeof spindlemovement poducesa constant
fercentage
-Ewn change n frequncy of a hmed circuil
o freqtuncyI whseeachdegreeof spindlemovement p&rcs m equal
change in frequency in a tuned circ'uit.
o Squirelaw- wherethechangeintapacitance ispropodionalto thequare of'
the angle of spindle movemeot.
-l HHI--
I -i-'1,-A
TotalCapacitance Cl
' '
C2 Ci!
Fig.ffi. &Pcitors itsriss
a
- C1+ C2+ Ci|
TotalCapacitance
lc: : +
c ll + l +' c 3
'c2
A clcz
ar:f,ffi
In words
: product-ofcapacitances
total capacitance
'
sumofcapacitances
Fc capacitorsconnected
in parallet(FiS.$Z):
C - C l + C 2 + C 3 +. . .
Thiscapacitanceefrect,of course,isonlyapparentin anaccircuiLIn adccircuita
capacitorsimplybuildsup a chargewithoutpassingcurrent.In a practicalac
circuit,a capacitoralsoorhibits reactance(seeChapter2), andbecarceof its
ao$itruction,mayalsoexhibita certainamountof.indrctance(seeCbapterZ).
ffi
6
capacitorand RC Circuits
Oneofthe principalusesofa capacitoris asa couplingdevice capable ofpassing
ac but acting as a block to dc. In any practical circuit, tlere will be some
resistance connected in serieswith the capacitor(e.g.,tle resistiveloadof the
circuit beingcoupled),This resistancelimits the currentflow andleadsto a
certaindelaybetweentle applicationof a voltageto the capacitorandthe
build-upof chargeon tle capacitorequivalentto tlnt voltage.It is this charge
voltagewhichblocksthe passage of dc. At the sametime,tbe combination of
resistance with capacitance,generallyabbreviated to RC,actsasafilterapprbb
of passingacfrequencies, depending onthechargedischarge timeof thecapaci-
tor, or the time consfuntoftheRCcombination
TIME CONSTANT
the time constant(t) is quitesimple:
The formulafor calculatirrg
t -R C
where:
fi
0t canbenotedthatthesamenumerical raluefor T is givenif R is in ohmsandC
in farads,but megohmsandmicrofaradsare usully muchmore convoient
units.)
The time constantis actuallythetime for thevoltageacrossthecapacitorin
an RCcombination to reach63 percentof the appliedvolt4ge(this63 percent
foure is chosen asa mathernatical convenience). ThevoltageacK)ssthe capaci-
tor goeson buildingup to almost(butneverquite)100percentof the applied
roltage,as shonmin Fig. Gl.
T\e time+onstantfadorrcfersto the durationof timein termsof the time
ftctor; e.g., at I (whichrs the time factorof the RCcombinations) 63 percent
full voltagehasbeenbuilt up, in a time equalto 2 timesthe time consbnt,80
percentfull rcltage;andso on. After a time constantof 5 the full (almost100
percenDvoltagehasbeenbuilt up acrossthe capacitor.
The dischargecharacteristics of a capacitortakeplacein essentially the b
yercemantrer;e.g.,aftera periodof timeequalto tle timeconstanttbevoltage
acrossthecapacitorbasdropped100- 63 - 37 percentof thefull volt4geand
so orl"
In theory,at least,a capacitorneverchargesup to full appliedvoltage;nor
doesit fully discharge. In p'ractice,full charge,or completedischarge, canbe
considered as beingachievedin a periodof time equalto five time constants.
Thus,in the circuit identifiedwith Fig. G2, closingswitctr1 producesa fdl
chargeon ttre capacitorin 5 timestime constantseconds. If $ritch 1 is now
opened, thecapacitorthenremainsina conditionof storingavoltageequiralent
to the originalappliedvoltage,holdingthis chargeindefnitelyif there is no
internalleakage.In practice,it very slowlylosesits charge,as no practical
capacitoris perfect,but for someconsiderable time it remainseffectivelyasa
potentialsourceof full*tnrge voltage.If the capacitoris part of a high-voltage
circuit,foroanple, itisreadilycapable of givinganelectricshoc.kif touc.hedfor
sometime afterthe circuithasbeenswitchedoff.
To completethecycleof chargedischarge asshownin theseconddiagramof
Fig.&1, switch2 is closed, whenthecapacitor discharges throughtheassociated
resistance, tahng a finiteamountof time to completeits discharge.
0 1 2 3 { 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Tim Coostatrt
Fact6 Tiuc CosteatFactc
FA. eL. Penentageodtageaclor*calacitor nlated to tittu ubn bing cluryed(W
anddialurge (ighil.
tr
TimeConstantFactor TLncCortrnt Frctr
Fig.62 Closingwihh 1allouscaluitor b clwrgcigltt upin a tisu c.qulb 6 ritu
a similarpriod todinluryefil$ throrgha ld rcifur tfrcs
cmstantsIt thcntahos
witch2isclovd.
t - 5 (megohms)
x 0.1(niaoftrads)
- 0.5seconds
Fig. ffi. Sinpleneonfoshcr circuit (notctheqnbl lor a ,wrr lanfu). Ttu oalucEof
the rcsisbr (R) and ca!rcitor (C) detemiw thcfoshing rate.
I
Thisisnot necessarily theactualflashingrateof thecircuit.It maytakeaperiod
of morethanonetime constant(or less)for the capacitorvoltageto buildupto
the neonturn-onvoltage-more if the turn'on voltageis greaterthan 63
percentof thesupplyvoltage;lessif theturn'onvoltageislessthan63percentof
the supplyvoltage.
It atsoiollowsthattheflashingratecanbealteredby alteringthevdueof R or
C, either by substitutingdifferentvaluescalculatedto give a differenttime
constant,oi wittra paraUit-connected resistoror capacitor.Connecting asimilar
valueresistorin parallelwith R, for example,woulddoublethe flashingrate
(sinceparalleting iimitar resistorvalueshalvesthetotalresistance). Connecting
a similar valuecapacitor in parallel
with c halves the flashing rate.
This type of ctcuit is knownas a relaration osillator. Usinga variable
resistorfor R it canbeadiusted for aspecificflashingrate.It candsobeextended
in theformof anoveltylightingsystembyconnecting aseriesofRCcircuits,each
with a neonlampin cascade, eachRCcombination with a differenttimeconstant
-Fig. &4. Thi; produces randomflashingof t11e neonsin tle completecircuit.
CAPACITORSIN AC CIRCUITS
Asfar asacis concerned, thefactthattheappliedvoltageis alternatingmeans
that duringone half cyclethe capacitoris effectivelybeingchargedanddis-
chargedwith onedirectionof voltage;andduringthesecondhalfof t]1eaccycle,
ctrarieaanddischarged with oppositedirectionof voltage.Thus,in effect,ac
uottaie.pass*noughttrecapacitor, restrictedonlybysuchlimitationsas maybe
appffr UvtfreRCtimeconstantwhich determineswhat proportion of the applied
niit"g" is Uuittup anddischargedt}rough the capacitor.At the same time,the
to the passage
of acthrough reactance (see
."p.Jitot offersa certainopposition
Ciiipt* 3), althoughthisdoesnot actuallyconsume power.Its maininfluenceis
on frequencyresponse of RCcircuits.
SIMPLE COUPLING
Couplingonestageof a radioreceiverto the next stagevia a capacitoris
commondesignpractice. Althoughthecapacitance onitsown,
isapparentlyused
by
represented
with aneffectiveseriesresistance
it is associated the loadofthe
-9W
1X ld
:0.05 x 10-5
:0.05 pF
FILTER CIRCUITS
A basicRCcombination usedasafllarcirczitis shownin Fig. &6. Fromthe
reutance,witha
a resistorin serieswith a capacitive
inputside,thisrepresents
acSigld EficcrivcRceicrncc
Gcocntcd
Copling
SuScf C.Fcit6
is b W o signalsad tlu* dc
Fig.ffi. fusicf*tution of a couflingcapacitor
dgnals.It ab lases uwlulating dc signals
4)
FiS.6$. fusiefilter circuit.It Huhsrcfnquncieshighcrtlvn theilbtfnq.cnct of
thccoabination ofR andC,
gd
\ -t*
!
I \ -uorE
g \ -r* .E
I I
g \ -o*F
g 0.rE
0.125
a
\
\
I
-$dB!
-"*$
0.09 -21 dB>
h0 t/to -rfirqu4t [ 1&f,
FA.e7. Sinllifieddiagramoflnw thcratioof ooltsinl ooltsnt dnhsralidb u the
cntoffteWenqofafiltq b e,rualcd.
All Ebrrole
Uorr tb cubt Inryenq an lM
sitho*t attenuatio*
previously,
ButRC,asnoted isegual
tothetimecmskntdtheRCombinatio.
Ilence:
\. : mt
whereT irsthe time constant,in seconds.
Theperforrnance of suchafilter is definedby its cutofrfrequencyandtherate
at whichthe volts5/volts"nratio fallsabovethe cutofffrequency.Thelatter ic
normallyquotedas(somany)dBperoctave(or eachdoublingdfrequency)(see
Fig. e8) whichshowstherelationship betweendBandvoltqbfrcttsdratio,and
alsothe tnre form of thefrequencyresponse ctree.
IOW.PASS FILTDRS
Circuitsd this type are ealledlowlass filtersfuu* they passsg siguts
belowthe @crrt-off frequencywith little or no loss or atbntutios e Jgnal
streryth" with signls abovethe cutoftfrequency,thereis increasingatteotn-
tim. suitablecomponent rnaluesare readilycalcnlated"For examplga typical
sratch filbrassociatd with a recordplayeror amplifierwonHbedesigned to
attmuatefrequencies above,say,l0 kHz-Fig. Gg. Thisraluerepresenrts the
oilofr frequencyrequired;i.e.,Anycombination d R (in obns)ad C (inhrads)
giyingthis prodrctrnaluecouldbe r$ed.
EIGtr.PASS FILTERS
High-passfilters work the other way around.They attenuatefrequencies
belowthe ortoff frequency,but passfrequenciesat andabovethe cutofrfre
0dB
-3 dB >.
Ro[offpointor
I
\
-6 dB cutofftrequency
.9
E -edB \
&
\
$ -udB
-15 dB \
\
-18 dB
-2r dB \
Vl00 V10 t r0 x i
Frequency
Fig.ffi Theoctr.olrollof fodntot ttu fnqrercy nsfurt* crtw of a fiItet is mt
*r-tV defr,ten"Theilbt fnqunq b nallXa nninaifigun andgeturalgtthtn as
tlelrcwcaq at uhichtlun iso J biM lossora cr/lts
inl ,dltsmt itu ofi.mz rhiEie
qtiulest b a 50pncnt las offuwt
c
(R)
Resistor
low-PassFilter
Fig.&9. simplcvrahhfiltcrcitcuit.Anycombination
ofcomfionent giainga
aarues
lraductofRC- 7ffi0will worh.
,r-#'.,Ji
RC: 125
Capocitor(C)
High-Pass
Filtctr
FA. 6n. Rteh[ High-tdssor ntmblefilters cut of lowlreqrenciesfut passhigh
A typicalaalrcfor thelroduct RC in thiscav wouldb 125.
frequencies.
ln practical circuits, such filters are normally inserted in the preamplifier
stage,or in tlre amplifierimmediatelyin front of the tone control circuit. For hi-fi
systems,the type of filter circuits usedare considerablymore complicatedthan
the onesdescribed.
For more advancedfilter designs,seethe appendix.
tU
Coils and Inductances
magneticfield.Thiscreationof magneticenergyrepresents a powerlossduring
thetimethatfieldis beingcreated,whichismeasurable in termsofavoltagedrop
9r bachemf,Thisis quitedifferent(andadditional) to thevoltagedropproduced
by the resistanceof the conductor,anddisappears oncestabli conditionshave
beenreached.Thus,in a dc circuit,the backemftendsto preventthe curent
risingrapidlywhenthecircuitis switchedon.oncea constantmagneticfieldhas
beenestablished, tre backemf disappears sinceno further "n*gy is being
extractedfrom the circuitandtransferredto the magneticfield.
In thecaseof anaccircuit,thecurrentis continuallychanging, creatinga back
emf whichis alsochangrngat a similarrate. The valueof the backemf is
dependentboth on tlre rate of changeof current(frequency)andto a factor
dependent on the form of tle conductorwhichgovernsits inductance.Induc-
tanceis tlus anotherformof resistance to ac,generated in additionto the pure
resistance.
Every conductorhasinductance whencarryingac, althoughin the caseof
straightwiresthis is usuallynegligible(exceptat very highfrequencies). If the
wireiswoundin theformofacoil,however, itsinductanceisgreatlyincreased.If
thecoilisfittedwith anironcore,thenits inductance is evenhigheifor tlresame
numberof turnsandcoil size.
TViththe acflowingthrought}recoil,tlre "resistive"conditionestablished is
notasdrasticasmayappearat first sight.Thepolarityof thebackemfis always
suchasto opposeanychangein current.Thuswhilethe currentis increasing,
workis beingdoneagainstthebackemfby storingenergyinthernagnetic field.
On the next part of the currentcyclewhenthe curent is falling,tle stored
energyin tlte magneticfield returnsto the circuit, tlrus tendingto keepthe
current flowing(seeFig. 7-1). An inductance,in fact, may be a very good
conductorof ac,especiallywhencombined with a capacitorrn a tunedcircuit
(seelater).Onthe otler hand,it maybedesigned to workasa resistivecompo-
nentot chohe.
Theinductance ofasingle-layercoil,woundwith spacebetweenadjacent turns
canbecalculated from the formula:
R2 N2
L-
9R + 10L
where:
' - : 1 @lo[,)xL
-l-
Thisformulaappliesregardless of the actualdiameterof the wire used(also,it
doesnot matterwhetler barewire or insulatedwire is used),providedttrecoil
diameteris muchlargerthanthewire diameter. Forpracticalsizesofwiresused
for coilwinding,this meansa minimumcoildiameterof at least1 inch(25 mm).
+
I
E
a
(J
switchoo SwitchOn
Time -* Time*
Fig. 7'1. fuch emfinducedin a dccircuit onxtitching on eristson\t momcntarig.In
an accircuit, thcfuchemfis continuallychanging.
/to
For smallerdiametercoils,thewiresizehasanincreasing modifyingeffecton
the actualinductance, andeventhe lengthof leadsat the endsof the coil can
upsetthe calculation. Thussuchcoilsarenormallydesigned on empiricallines
(i.e.,basedona specifiednumberofturnsofagivensize ofwireknowntoproduce
a giveninductance whenwoundona specificforrr diameter).
In practice,smallcoilsarenormallywoundona formintendedto takeaniron
core. The positionof this core is adjustable,relativeto the woundcoil, by
screwingin or out.Thust}e actnalvalueof inductance canberariedfor tuning
purposes (Fig. 7-2, left).
Alternativelya pot coremaybe usedwherethe coil is woundon a form or
bobbin,subsequently in aniron housing.Providedthesiecific iniluc-
enclosed
tanceof.the pot coreis known(it is usuallyspecified
by the manufacturer), the
numberof turns (p) to be usedfor the windingcanbe calculatedwith good
accuracy fromthe formula
t=
N: -/3
YA"
RESONANTCIRCUITS
A coil(inductance) anda capacitorconnected in seriesacrossanacsupplyhas
theveryimportantcharacteristic that it is possiblefor thereactiveeffectof one
to cancelouttle reactiveeffectsof theother.Thusin thedemonstration circuit
shownin Fig. 7-3,L is the inductance, andC the capacitorconnected acrossa
sourceof ac,the frequencyof whichcanbe varied.A resistor(R) is shownin
serieswith L andC, asaninevitablepart of a practicalcircuit.
If theacsupplyis adiusted
to a lowfrequency, thecapacitivereactance will be
verymuchlargerthanR, andttreinductivereactance will bemuchlowerthanR
E ffi
g g
E ffi
Fig. 7-2 Coilform (lcfi) and tot con^c(rieht)-
47
Th€oreticalCirqrit PracticalEqrdnkrt
whichmahea resnantcircait.
Fig. 74. Components
. l
':ffiLC
where:
f: resonantfrequencyin IIz
L - inductance
in henrys
C - capacitance
in farads.
A moreconvenient
formulato useis:
106
'.
? : -
2nJfr,
wbere:
f - resonantfrequencyin kilohertz(kIIz)
tt8
L - inductance
in microhenrys(pH)
C: capacitancein picofarads(pF).
o:*
whereX is thereactance in ohmsof eitherthe inductanceor capacitanceat the
resonantfrequency(theyareboththe same,soit doesnot matterwhichoneis
taken)andR is the valueof the seriesresistance in ohms.
The practicalresonantcircuit (or tuned circuit) is basedon just two
components - aninductance andacapacitor.Someresistance isalwayspresent,
however.At lowto moderately highfrequencies,mostof tltis resistance
comes
fromthewirefromwhichthecoiliswound.At verymuchhigherfrequencies, the
najority of the resistancemay comefrom the frequencyenergylossin the
capacitor.
TUNED CIRCUITS
The combination of an inductanceandcapacitance in seriesis the standard
Iormof.tunedcircuitu#nalmost everyradioreceiver.Figurez-4illustratesa
tunedcircuit with the inductorandcapacitorin a parallelconfiguration. The
impedance (Z) of thiscircuitis oppositein effectto thecircuitshownin Fig.Z-3.
As previouslydiscussed, whentlte resonantfrequencyis appliedto ttre circuit
shownin Fig.7-3,thecircuitcurrentis at its highest(meaning its impedanceisat
minimum).Thecircuitillustratedin Fig.7-4presentsits highestimpedance at its
pointof resonance.
TheoreticalCircuit PracticalEquivdent
Fig. 74 TheoreticaQ, on$ a capacitor and indrctance are inoobed in a resnant
circuit. In practice, snc resistanceis alway frexnt as uell.
To make the circuit tunable over a range of resonant frequencies,either
componentcan be a variable type. The usualchoicefor antennacircuits is to
maketlre capacitorvariable.In practice,tlte coil may alsohavevariablecharac-
teristics. It is usudly wound on a sleevefitted on a ferrite rod, and capableof
being moved up and down the rod, providing a meansof varying tlre effective
inductance.Oncean optimumpositionhasbeenfoundfor the coil, it is cemented
to the rod. ln other words,the variablecharacteristicsof the coil areusedonlyfor
initial adjustment.After that, all adjustmentof resonantfrequency,or tuning, is
doneby the variablecapacitor.
To assist in selecting suitable componentvalues, the resonant frequency
formula can be rewritten:
1012
LC:
4n2 f2
L(microhenry
n: #
Asanexample, supposethetunedcircuitistobedesignedtocoverthemedium
waveband, from500to 1,600kHz;anda 500pFtuningcapacitor
or frequencies
is to be used.It followsfrom the resonantfrequencyformulathat ma:rimum
capacitance will correspondto the lowestresonantfrequency(with a fixed
inductance),whichin thiscaseis 500kHz.lnsertingtlese valuesin tle working
formula:
L(microhenrysr:Z;#,
*
:200
FM
: 1,600kIIz
4nzX200X50
50
Fig. 7-5.A series-rennantcircuit. Tlv impedance acrosstlrctcrminab
of tlu circuit b wry lou at thefrequencyof rennance;at thcconnection
btween tlv capacitorand inducta4 the imfodanceis wry higrL Thc
cafrcitor is usual$ theoariablcelcmentin thisanangement
SERIES.RESONANTCIRCIIITS
Anottrerarrangement of the coil-capacitorcombination is to connectthemin
series(Fig.7-5).Thisproducesaseries-resonantcraitwherein thereactances
of the coil andcapacitorare againequalbut opposite.The differenceis that it
presentsa lowimpedance at the terminalsof the circuit(topandbottom).This
lowimpedance hastheeffectof shuntingtheacfrequency of resonance outofthe
circuit.Frequencies otherthanthe resonantonearenot affectedby the tuned
circuit,asthe off-resonance impedance is undisturbed.
A common usefor thistypeofcircuitis to remove,or reducein amplitude, any
unwantedsignals,whileallowingall othersto pass.A popularapplication of the
series-resonant circuitisin theantenna or rf-amplifierstagesofreceivers,where
it is oftencalleda waoe-trap.Itcanalsobeusedquiteeffectivelyin transmitter
power-amplifier stagesto trapunwantedmultiples (harmonics) oftlefundamen-
tal frequencyof operation.
RADIO.FREQUENCYCHOKES
A radiofrequencychoke(rfc) is a coilor inductance
sodesigned that it hasa
relativelylowohmicresistance
buta veryhighreactance at radiofrequencies. It
Fig. 74. ?ypicalapfuaranceof clnhx woundon a ferrite core.
can thus passdc but blockshigh frequencyac when tlte two are present in the
samecircuit (Fig. 7-6). ln other words,it really works the oppositeto a capacitor
as a circuit element in this respect.
The characteristicsof any rfc vary with frequency.At high frequenciesit has
characteristicssimilar to that of a parallel-resonantcircuit; and at low frequen-
cies characteristicssimilar to that of a series-resonantcircuit. At intermediate
frequencies,it has intermediate characteristics.The actual characteristicsare
relatively unimportantwhen an rfc is usedfor seriesfeedbecausethe rf voltage
acrqss the choke is negligible. If used for parallel feed (where the choke is
shuntedacros{ra tank circuit), it must have sufficienfly high impedanceat the
lowest frequenciesand no series-resonancecharacteristicsat the higher fre-
quenciesin order to reduce power absorption to a suitable level. Otherwise,
there is a danger of the chokebeing overloadedand burned out.
Chokesdesigred to maintain at least a critical value of inductanceover tlre
likely range of qrrent likely to flow through them are calledswinging chohes.
They are usedas input filters on power suppliesto reduce riiple, or residualac
content. Chokesdesignedspecificallyfor smoothingripple, and having a sub
stantially constantinductance,independentofcbangesin current, are known as
snmthing ch&es.
52
Transformers
A transformerconsistsof two coilssopositionedthat theyhavemutualinduc-
tance.Thismagrretic couplingeffectcanbefurtherenhanced bywindingthetwo
coilson a commoniron core(seeFig. &1). The coilwhichis connected to tlrc
sourceof supplyis calledthey'rimary,mdtheothercoilis calledthewcondary.
In orderto transferelectricalenergrfromprimaryto secondary, the magretic
fieldmustbe continuallychangrng; i.e.,the supplymustbe ac.
Oneof the mostusefulcharacteristics of a transformeris its abilityto step
down(orstepup)acvoltages.Thestepdown(orstepup)ratioisproportional to
the numberof turnsin eachcoil:
V,=NNrx%
where:
V. : secondaryvoltage
N, : numberofturns on secondary
\ : numberof turnsonprimary
V, -prinaryvoltage.
Thecurrentsffowingin theprinaryandsecondaryfollow
a similarrelationship,
but in oppositeratio:
L:Nn/N,x t
53
Iron Core
".,.71IF:.'**
Secondary
where:
l: secondarycurrent
- nrimaw current
|
51
Power loss 10 Percent
or More
ac ln
55
Fig. 8.4. Full-waaenctifuation of u.
*-,8
where:
Altmat'w! Symbda
f6 BridS! Rccdfa
56
ac
Output
FiS,e4. Theaubtransformer
is a singlcfuil-lcrgthcoilwitha tallittg loint
AUTOTRANSFORMERS
An autotransforzarisa one.winding coilwith anintermediatetappingpoinl
The full lengthof the coil (usually)formsthe primary,andthe lengthof coil
betweenthe tappingpointandoneendof tlre coilsenesastlre secondary (Fig.
&6). It worksonoractlythesameprincipleasa conventional transformer,with
the voltagedeveloped acrossthe outputproportionalto the turnsratio of this
lengtl ofcoil to thefull lengthofcoil.Thebiggestdisadvantage ofanautotrans"
formeris that it doesnot provideisolationbetweenthe primaryandsecondary
windings.This canbe critical(or evendangerous) in somehigh-powerapplica-
tions.
57
9
Semiconductors
Resistors,capacitorsandinductances are knownas passiu components. De-
viceswhichproducechanges by reactingto appliedsignals
in circ'uitconditions
are knownas actioecomponents. The majorityof activecomponents usedin
modernelectroniccircuitsue smiconductors,or morecorrectlyput, devices
basedon semiconductor materials.
Very simply,a semiconductor materialis onewhichcanbegivena predomi-
nanceof mobilenegativechargesor electrons,or positivechargesor holes.
Currentcanflowthroughthematerialfromthemovement of bothelectronsand
holes.This is quitedifferentfrom the behaviorof a normalconductor,where
clrrrentflow is the resultof electronsthroughthe material(seeChapter1).
Semiconductor propertiescanbe givento a strictly limitednumberof mate-
rials by dopingwith minutetracesof impurities.The two mainsemiconductor
materialsaregermaniumand silicon(bothnon-metals or "semimetals").Doping
canproducea materialwith eithera predominance of .fusitivecharges(holes)
resultingn a P-tyfe material;or with a predominance of l\>ive charges
(electrons),knownasm N-$pematerial.
This doesnot becomeparticularlysignificantuntil a singlecrystal(of gerrna-
niumor silicon)is treatedwith botha P-typedopeandanN-typedope.In this
case,twoseparate regionsareformed-a P-regionandanN-region.Sincetlese
regionshaveoppositechargesthereis a tendencyfor electronsto miratefrom
theN-zoneto theP-zone,andholesto migratefromtheP-zoneintotheN-zone.
Theeffectis a cancellation of chargesin the regionof thejunctionof the P- and
N-zones,formingwhatis calleda dePtetionlayr(Fig.9-1). This layer,which
58
P-Dope
59
TRANSISTORS
Basically,atransistoris twodiodesplacedback-to-back with acommon middle
layer,tlre middlelayerin thiscasebeingmuchthinnerthanthe otjrertwo.Two
confgurationsare obviouslypossible,PNPor NPN (Fig. g-3).Thesedescrip
tionsareusedto describethetwobasictypesof transistors. Because atransistor
containstwo seperatesemiconductor junctions,it is referredto as a bipolar
device,or bifolar transistor,
A transistorhasthree elements,andto operatein a workingcircuit it is
connectedwith two externalvoltagesor polarities.one externalvoltageis
workingeffectivelyasa diode.A transistorwill, in fact,workasa diodeby using
justthisconnection andforgettingaboutthetophalf.Anexample is ttresubstitu-
tion of a transistorfor a diodeasthe detectorin a simpleradio.It worksiust as
well asa diodebecause it is workingasa diodein this case.
The diodecircuitcanbegivenforwardor reversebias.connectedwith for-
ward bias,as in the first diagramof Fig. 9-4, drawnfor the PNP transistor,
currentflowsfromP to thebottomN. If asecond voltageis appliedto thetopand
bottomsectionsof the transistor,with the samepolaityappliedto thebottom,
the electronsalreadyflowingthroughthe bottomN sectionpromotea flow of
currentthroughthe transistorbottom-to-top.
By controllingthe degreeof dopingin the differentlayersof the transistor
duringmanufacture, this abilityto conductcurrentthroughthe secondcircuit
throughtle resistorcanbe very marked.Effectively,whenthe bottomhalfis
forwardbiased,the bottomsectionactsasa generoussourceof freeelectrons
(andbecauseit emitselectronsit is calledthe emitter).Theseare collected
readilyby the tophalf,whichis consequently calledthe collector,butthe actual
amountofcurrentwhichflows throughthisparticularcircuitiscontrolledbytle
biasappliedat tle centerlayer,whichis calledthebase.
Effectively,therefore,trere aretwoseparate workingcircuitswhenatransis-
tor is workingwith correctlyconnected polarities(Fig. 9-S).Oneis the loop
formedby the biasvoltagesupplyencompassing the emitterandbase.This is
calledthe 04s,circuitor inlut arcwt Thesecondis the circuitformedby the
PNPTransistor NPNTransistor
FA.A?.ConstnrctionofPNPand NPNtransistors,shownin simplediagrammatic
form,
ffi
shoundiagrammaticalll
taa PNPtransistor
Fis,94. Biasandsvpfll connections
(lcfi)andin symbol
form (neht).
O{put Cirsuit
FtS.g44,.Trtctw cparatc citeuitsinoolutt in olerating a transisbr. Ditz.ctianol curnnt fuw is for a PNP
tlarrsis/lor..
61
emitter) is the samefrom both voltagesources).This alsomeansthat the polarity
of the voltagesmust be correct for the type of transistor. In the caseof a PNP
transistor, asdescribed,the emitter voltagemustbe positive.It followsthat both
tlte baseandcollectorare negativelyconnectedwithrespecttothe emitter. The
symbolfor PNP transistor hasan uurowon the emitter indicatingthe direction
of.current flow;i.e.,alwaystowardsthe base.(P for pcsitive,witl a PNP tran-
sistor.)
In the caseof anNPN transistor,exactlythe sameworking principlesapplybut
the polaritiesof both suppliesarereversed,Fig. 9-6. The emitter is alwap made
negative relative to baseand collector. (N for negative in the caseof an |rIPN
transistor). This is also inferred by the reverse direction of the arrow on the
emitter in tlre symbolfor an NPN transistor; i.e., cgrrent flow away from the
base.
PRACTICAL DIODES
The typical appearanceof a semiconductordiode is shown in Fig. 9-7. The
cathodeend is usuallymarked by a red dot or color band,or a * sign, and also
usuallywith a type numberconsistingof oneormore lettersfollowedbyfigures.
This identifiesthe diodeby manufacturerandspecificmodel.Specifict1ryenum-
bers are usuallyquotedfor specificcircuit designs,but many circuits are fairly
noncritical as regardsthe type of diodeused.
Diodesmay also be describedin more generalterrrs by the crystal material
(germaniumor silicon), and by construction.Here, choicecan be more impor-
tant. C"tt oiurn diodesstart conductingat lower voltagest}an silicon diodes
(about 0.2 to 0.3 volts, as comparedwith 0.6 volts), but tend to have higber
leakagecurrents when reverse biased,this leakagecurrent increasingfairly
substantialwith increasingtemperature. Thus, the germaniumdiode is inher-
ently less efficient as a rectifier than a silicon diode, especiallyif reverse bias
ctrrent is high enoughto produceappreciableheatingeffect. On the other hand,
a gerrnaniumdiode is preferred to a silicon diode where very low operating
voltagesare involvedbecauseit starts to conductat a lower forward voltage.
The constnrction of a diode governs both its curent{arrying capabilities
e
Dodes
AiF
.r'.;.-i
@
m
Volts
F ReverseBias
Volts -.....---
-
Forward Bias
fl
FA. 9-9. Voltage
biascircuitsfor transistor
oferation.
R2
basevoltage: X supplyvoltage
(R1+ RA
TRANSISTORCONSTRUCTION
Theoriginaltransistorsweremadefromgermanium crystalswith point<on-
improvedperformance,
tact construction.Latettypes,with considerably areof
alloy-junctionor alloy4tfusion construction.Silicontransistorsare usually
madebythep/azarprocess(siliconplanarprocess). Theircharacteristicscanbe
further improvedby adoptinga modifiedphnarprocessdescribed asePitarial,
basicallyinvolvinga preliminaryprocessof forminganorientedlayer(epitaxial
hyer) of lightlydopedsiliconoverthesiliconsubstrate.Thetransistorelements
aresubsequently formedwithinthelayerratherthanwitlin thesiliconsubshate
itself(asin the normalplanarprocess).
Epitaxialsiliconplanartransistorshave
superiorcharacteristicsfor highfrequencyapplications, notablein rf andi-f
circuitsfor superhetradios.
Collector
$ l r
2 ,
3 .
J
---|
.330Max
.440IUax
#T,- Collecto
to Case
.292itu
h 2 l - l a
-"/L
B
\ )c
.'ooJ '+1*hf
h
%## 3
Caseto A
ffi
bottomof thetransistorfromwheretheleadsemerge.Thisdoesnotapplywhm
the caseis partly circularwith oneflat side.Herethe threeleadsare equally
spacedandwith tle flat sideto the left (andlookingat the bottom),the lead
arrangement maybe bce,cbe,or ebc.
Powertransistorsaremorereadilyidentifiedby their elongated bottomwith
two mountingholes.In t}riscasetlere are only two leads-the emitter and
base-and thesearenormallymarked.Thecollectoris connected internallyto
thecan,andsoconnection to thecollectoris viaoneof themountingboltsor the
bottomof the can.
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
T\e Field-EfectTransistor(orFET)is reallya differenttypeof semiconduc-
tor devicetlan abipolartransistor,with characteristics morelikeavacuumtube
thana bipolartransistor.Its correctdefinitionis a unipolarkansistor.Theway
in whichit workscanbeunderstood bypresenting it in electronicpictureformas
in Fig.9-11,whereit canbeseenthatit consists of a channelof.erfherP-typeor
N-typesemiconductor materialwith a collaror gateof.opryite tlpe materialat
tlre center.This forrrs a semiconductor junctionat this point.Oneendof the
channelis calledthe source,andthe otherendthe drain.
An FET is connected in a similarmannerto a bipolartransistor,with a bias
voltageappliedbetweengateandsource,anda supplyvoltageappliedacrossthe
centerof the channel(i.e.,betweensourceanddrain).The sourceis thusthe
commonconnection bet'n'een the two circuits.Compared with a bipolartransis-
tor, however,the biasvoltageis reversed.That is, the N-gatematerialof a
PthannelFET is biasedwith positivevoltage,andthe P-gatematerialof an
N-channelFET is biasedwiti negativevoltage(Fig. 9-12).This putsthe two
systemvoltagesin opposition at thesource,whichis responsible for thecharac-
teristicallyhigh input resistanceof.FETs.
The effectof this reversebiasis to form an enlargeddepletionlayerin the
middleof the cbannel,producinga pinchingeffecton the flow of electrons
tbrougbthechannelandconsequently onthecurrentflowin thesource-todrain
"."Gfl
Cbannel Synbol
Symbolfor
InsulatedGate
FE"T
N+hannel FET P-channelFET
Fig.911. Consttution offield<fecttransistorsslnwn in simlle diagrammaticform,
tqether with afProPriateVnblsfor FETs.
P4hannel FET N{hannel FET
Fig.912. fusic biasrequirenents
for fieldcfecttransistars
I
Fig. 913. fusicFETamplifiercircuit.Perfonrance
isgenerally
sufieriorb tlat ofa
bipolartransisbramplifur.
69
10
NeonLamps,LEDs,
and Liquid Crystals
NEON LAJI{PS
Many circuits useneonlamps,LEDs, or liquid crystal displays.The neonlampis
a glow lamp consistingof a glassenvelopefitted with two separatedelectrodes
and filled with an inert gas (neonor argon). If connectedto a low voltage, the
resistanceis so high that the neonprovidesvirtually an opencircuit, but, if the
voltage is increased,there comesa point where ttre gas ionizesand becomes
highly conductive,as well as giving off a glowing light locatedon tlre negative
electrode.If the gasis neon,the glow is orangein color.Argon is sometimesused
as the gas,in which casetlre glow is blue.
The characteristicperformanceof a neon lamp is shown in Fig. 10-1. The
voltage at which the neon starts to glow is calledthe initial breakdownvoltage.
Once this has been reachedand the bulb triggered into firing (glowing), the
voltage drop acrossthe lamp will remain virtually constant regardlessof any
increasein current in the circuit. At the sametime, tlte area of glow increases
with increasingcurrent, up to the point where the entire surfaceof the negative
electrodeis coveredby glow. Any furttrer increasein current then pushesthe
neoninto an arc condition,where the glow changesto a blue-whitepoint of light
on the negativeelectrodeand results in the rapid destructionof the lamp.
To operatea neonlampsuccessfully,tlerefore, it is necessaryto haveenough
voltage for the neon to fire, and, after tlat, enoughresistancein the circuit to
limitthe currenttothat whichwillensurethat thelampremainsoperatinginthe
normal glow region. Becausethe resistanceof the neonitself is very low after
70
GlassBulb I
€
I Constant
Voltage
ffir$
Fig.10-1.Trpicalneonlampconstruction
-_--_-.>
Current
performance
andclwrocbristic
firing, this requirestlre useof a resistorin serieswith the lamp,knownas a
ballastresistor.Typicallythe firing, or breakdown, voltagemaybe anything
fromabout60to 100volts(in somecasesevenhigher).Thecontinuous current
ratingis quitelow, usuallybetween0.1 and10 millianrps.The seriesresistor
valueischosen accordingly,relatedto thevoltageof thesupplytowhichtheneon
will beconnected. In thecaseof neonlampsto beoperatedoffa 250volt (mains)
supply,a 2201<{2resistoris normallyadeqrute(seeFig. 10-2).With some
commercial lamps,theresistormayactuallybebuiltintotle bodyof theassem-
blv.
Lackinganyspecificinformationonthissubject,it canbeassumed t}at aneon
lamphasnoresistance whenglowing,but drops80 volts.A suitablevaluefor a
ballastresistorcanbecalculated onthisbasisrelatedto theactualvoltageofthe
supplyto be used,andassuming a safecurrentof 0.2 milliamps,for example.
For a 250-voltsupply,tlre resistorhasto drop 250- 80 - 170volts.The
currentthroughresistorandneon(in series)is to be 0.2 mA. Therefore:
volts
KesFumce:-
amp.s
L70
0.2x u1000
:850 kQ, or aboutI MQ
/4t2Wttel
Attjustabteratc
FiS.nA. Adiustable ctrcutt'
flashercircuit.
be de'
alongthe normalglow region.However,the resistanceshouldnever
of the negative electrode is covered by glow; this
o*irA * .uch ttrit ttrewtrole
is becoming overloaded and approaching the arc condi-
indicatesthat the lamp
tion.
:
Gotner pointaboutthe strengthof the glowlight is that it normallyappears
glowmaybe
O4iniri'yghtthan in dark.In fact, in completedarknessthe
erritic and/oirequirea higher breakdown voltage to start it. Some lampshavea
minutetraceof iadioactiie gas added to the inert gas to stimulate ionization
nrakingttrisparticulareffect unnoticeable.
Because of the constant-voltage characteristics of a neonlampundernormal
grc* *nation , it canbeused as a voltage stabilizing device.Thus,in thecircuit
iu"*" ir, Fig. ro2, the output tapd from each side of the lampis a sourceof
constantvoitage aslongasthe lampremainsworking inthe normalglowregion'
This voltageir O" ot" asthe nominal breakdown voltage of the lamp'
Theuseof a neonlarnpasafosherin a relaxation oscillator circuithasalready
(Fig.
beendescribed Gi, Chapter 6). A variation on this is shown in Fig' 10-3'
as the ballast resistor and two 45-volt or four
usinga t megohmpoteotiomJter
iZ{nvonOty U.ttitio asthe source of supply. The potentiometer is adjusted
just
*ttif tU" f.-ir lights.Thecontrolis thenturnedtle otherwayuntilthelamp
go." o"t. fri"ittg thepotmtiometerin thisposition,thelampshouldthenflashat
"An interrralsdeterminedby the valueof the capacitor'
-iegular
adaptionof this circuitis shownin Fig. 1G'1,wherethecircuitis switched
bfa MorL key.Phonescanbeconnected acrossthe pointshownto listeninto
ift"-tttot " .ig*lr, whichare also visible as a flashinglight. An ordinarybulb
wouldwork iust as well as a visible indicator (andwith a muchlowervoltage
r.quit"d),Uotinthiscasethe signalswouldonlybeheardas clicks'TViththeneon
n
Fig. 10-5.Simpletonegeneratorbasd on an NE-2miniature neonlamp.
circuit, tlte actual oscillation of the relaxation oscillator is heard. The time
constantof the circuitis governedbythe rralueof the capacitorandthe settingof
the ballastpotentiometer.
A further extensionof the use of a neonlamp as an oscillator in a relaxation
oscillatorcircuit is shownin Fig. 10-5. This is a true signalgeneratorcircuit, the
output of which shouldbe audiblein headphonesor even a small loudspeaker,
witl the tone adjustableby the potentiometer.
Neonflasherscanbe madetoworkinrandomfashion(agarnseeChapter6), or
sequentially.A circuit for a sequentialflasheris shownin Fig. 10-6. More stages
can be addedto this circuit, if desired,taking the connectionof C3 to the last
stage.
Finally, an astable multioibrator circuit is shown in Fig. 1G7, using two
lamps.Thesewill flashon andoff in sequenceat a rate determinedby Rl andR2
(which shouldbe equalin value)and Cl.
As a generalguideto flashertiming, increasingthe valueof the ballastresistor
or the capacitorin the relaxationoscillatorcircuit slowsthe rate of flashing;and
vice versa. To preservetlre life of a typical lamp, however,the value of ballast
resistor usedshouldnot be less than about 100 kQ; and best results in simple
relaxation oscillator circuits can usually be achievedby keeping the capacitor
value below 1 microfarad.
I ur*rn
I
73
1/F Crp.€l'ttr
Fig.1&7.Astablcmultiaibrator
circuil erchwonfuhing in tun.
LEDs
LED is short for Light-EmittingDiode.This is essentiallya two element
semiconductor devicewherethe energt producedby conductionin a specific
directionisradiatedaslight.Theintensityof thelightis governed
by thecurrent
flowingthroughthediode.In theserespects,LEDsaresomewhat similarto neon
lamps,but they light at very muchlower forwardvoltages(typically1.6 to
2 volts)andcangenerallydrawhigherforwardcurents without burningout
(typically20mA).Originallythecolorof lightemittedbyIJDs wasred,butnow
orange,yellowandgreenLEDsarealsoavailable.
Againlikeneonlamps,anLEDisinrariablyassociatedwith aballastresistorin
seriesto limit thevoltageappliedto theLEDandthecurrentflowingthrotUhit.
The valueof resistorrequiredis:
p- v';vr
l1
where:
Vr:dc supplyvoltage
Vr: ratedforwardvoltageof the LED
11: ratedforwardcurent of the IJD at specifiedforwardvoltage
74
-Or
Common
* Supply Forward Volts Vr EarthLine
Voltage
Fig.10-8.LEDsareconnectcd in seiestndrofthesufufllwltqe in
witha ballastresistnr
thenqaindforlusnlwltrye.Notethcqnbolfor anLED (lfuN-ntittinsdiode).
LIQTND CRYSTAL
T\e liquid crysialovercomes this particularpowerlimitationsinceit canbe
actiratedbyverymuchlowerpower(actuallyatiny xnotntof,heat,whichcanbe
produced by anequallytiny amountof electricalenergy).Also,thedisplaycanbe
mademuchlargerwhilestill workingat mictoscopic powerlevels,sotlat it can
beleft onallthe time.Theliquidcrystalhasits disadvantages, however.It is far
lessbrightthananLEDdisplay,andalsosuffersfromdarkeffectflikeaneonlamp
in thisrespect).Thusto belegiblein dimlight,theliquidcrystaldisplayneedsto
be illuminatedby a separatelight course.
Liquidcrystaldisplaysoperatewithlowvoltageandlowcrulent.Curent drain
canbe as little as 1 microamp(1419 per segpent.A later development, tln
field+ffectliquidcrystal,canworkonevenlowervoltagesdrawingmicroscopic
currents(of the orderof 300 nA), againmakingtheman attractivechoicefor
battery-powered displays.Thefield-effectliquidcrystalalsohasbettercontrast,
gving a blackimageon a light background.
OneSideof Each
LED Segment has LED
Seven-Segrnent
a Common Connection
(Maybe* Sideor
- Side).Not AI Pins
May beConnected Ihcimal PointLED
?.enetDiodes
The Zenerdiodeis a siliconjunctiondiode.Whenreversebiasvoltageis
appliedandincreased, tlere comesa pointwherethe diodesuddenlyactsasa
conductorratler thananinsulator.Thepointat whichthis occursis calledthe
breahdown ooltage(orZenerpoint).oncereached,it remainsconstant,evenif
tlte reversebiasvoltageis increased.
In otherwords,oncereversebiasedto, or
beyond,the breakdownvoltage,the voltagedrop acrossthe dioderemains
constantat its breakdown voltagevalue,regardless
of tle actualcurrentflowing
throughthe diode.
This importantcharacteristicmakeszener diodesparticularlyusefulas a
sourceofconstartdcvoltage,or for stabilizing
asupplyvoltage,usingthet1ryeof
connection shownin Fig. 11-1.A seriesresistor(R) is necessary to limit the
76
VohageTappedAcrG Zeo6 D@
EqudsAner &eeldom Vdtry
Varicap Diodes
Anotherspecialtypeof diodeis the aaricapor oaractonThesebehaveas
capacitorswithahighQ (seeChapter6)whenbiasedinthe reversedirection,the
actualcapacitance valuebeingdependent on the biasvoltageapplied.Typical
applications are the automaticcontrolof tunedcircuits,"electronictuni4g,"
adirctingcapacityin the circuit, andthusresonantfrequency,in responseto
cnanges in signalvoltage;automatic frequencycontrolof localoscillatorcircuits
in superhetsandTV circuits;andalsoasfrequencydoublersandmultipliers
Symbolsforararicapareshownin Fig. U-2.
7l
F;9. 11-2.Alternatiu symblsfor a oarbap.
Tunnel Diodes
The tunnel diodeis another type with specialcharacteristics,unlike that of
any other semiconductordevice.It is constructedlike an ordinary diodebut the
crystd is more heavily doped,resulting in an extremely thin barrier (potential
hyer). As a consequence,electrons can tunnel through this barrier.
This makesthe tunnel diodea goodconductorwith bothfonn'ardandreverse
voltage.Behavior,however,is quite extraordinarywhen the forward voltage is
increased,seeFig. l1-3. Forward current at first rises with increasingfonnrd
voltage until it reachesa peak value. With increasingforward voltage, current
then drops, to reach a minimum, or oalley value. After that it rises againwith
further increasein forward voltage.T9orkedin the region from peakvoltage to
valley voltage, the tunnel diode exhibits negatioe resistancecharacteristics.
fuiother interesting feature is that anyforward cu:ent valuebetweenpeakand
valley ralue is obtainablethree times (at three different forward voltages).
Tunneldiodeshavea particularapplicationforvery high speedswitching,witl
a particular applicationto pulseand digital circuitry, e.g., digital computers.
Schottlry Diode
T\e &hotthy diode is a metal semiconductordiode, formed by integrated
circuit techniquesandgenerallyincorporatedin ICs asa clampbetweenbaseand
emitter of a transistor to prevent saturation.Voltage drop acrosssucha diodeis
QQ. E
(J
Q" Symbolr
<-
RcvcrseVdtr Valley
Fo,nradVottr-|l
Fig. 113. $'rrrbls (W) and claracEristicfurfonnarcc of d tanul di&. fuun peah b wllq it e*hibib nqatiu
nsistane.
n
Symbolfor
SchottkyTransistor
Fig. 114. Tyfical cittuit for a *hotthy diodc(lefr)and tlv equioalentsingb confu
nent,a *hottky trunsistor.
Photodiodes
It is a generalcharacteristic of semiconductor diodesthat if theyarereverse
biased andthejunction is illuminated, the reverse currentflowvariesin propor-
tion to the amount of light. This effect is utilizednthe plntodrodewhich hasa
clear window tlrough which light can fall on one sideof the crystaland acrossthe
iunctionof the P- and N-zones.
In effect,sucha diodeworksin a circuitasavariableresistance, ttreamountof
resistance offeredby thediodebeingdependent ontlreamountof lightfallingon
thediode.In thedark,thephotodiode will havenormalreverseworkingcharac-
teristics;i.e., provide almost infinitely highresistance with no currentflow.At
increasinglevelsof illumination, resistance becomes proportionately reduced,
thusallowingincreasing currentto flow The
throughthediode. actual amount of
currentis proportionate to the illuminationonly, provided there is sufrcient
reversevoltage.In otherwords,oncepastthe "knee" of the curve@ig.11-5),
thediodecurrentat anylevelofilluminationdoesnot increase substantiallywith
increasingreversavoltage.
Symbol
ReverseVolts------.-+
Fig. 11-5. $mbl (left); and claracteristic perfontance of a plntodidc.
79
$ Photodiodc
stgnalCirqdt
t--- r:j- - - -| I
20 k Potentiometer
Fig. 11-7.Practicaltight stlitchcircuit*sing a flntotrunsistor.Thenlay shottldb of a sasitiu W ail cdlittst'
a n butt in at ab*t 2 miltiamla Thelotzntiomctcris a vnsititity control
&)
jb-
Photocell
Amplifier l___ J
F!e.11! fusicrhotodtaicdiodecittuit.$ornon the dghtis theWhl lor a
furtotrtL
TEE PHOTOTMNSISTOR
Thephototransistor is muchmoresensitivethantle photodiode to changes in
levelof illumination,tbusmakinga better switchingdevicewherefairly small
changes inleveldilluminationarepresentandmustbedetected" Itworksboth
as a photoconductive deviceand an amplifur of tbe current generat€dry
incidentlight A simplecirorit employing aphototransistor isshoumin Fig. u-i.
A phototransistor anda light-emittingdiode(seeChapten10) mayte con-
binedin a singleenvelope asan oltoifitofor. In thiscase,the LEDproddestle
sottrceof illuminationto whic;hthephototransistorreacts.It canbeusedintwo
wcking modes-eitler as a photadide (Fig. u-9) with the emitter of the
bansistorpart left disconnected, or 8s a phototransistol(Fig. 11-g).Itr both
case8,workiqgis governedby the crrrent flowiqgthroWhthe LED sectim"
Solar Cells
?he photodiode is a photoooltarc cell.Light faling onits junctionproducesa
voltage.Thisvoltagemeasured anopencircuit(e.g.,withavery-high-resistance
voltmeterconnected acrossthe cell),is knownzathellntowlfuic \oterrt;atof
thecell In thisrespectit is likea dry battery.Connected to anexternalload,the
cellvoltagewillfalltosomelowervaluedependentontheresistrrceinthecircu
(seeChapter18).
8T
Photovoltaiccellsdevelopa potential when illuminatedby any sourceof light.
The photovoltaicpotential dependson the constructionof tlte cell, but for any
given cell, is proportional to the intensity of the light.
The solarcell is a photovoltaiccell (siliconphotodiode)designedto respondto
sunliglrt. Modern photovoltaiccells (commonlycalled solar cells)are commer-
cially availablein cell sizesup to 4 inchesin diameterwith anoutput of .45 volts at
1.5 ampseachin bright sunlight.
To get higher voltagesand currents from a solar battery, a number of cells
have to be used connectedin series-parallel.Series connection gives a cell
voltageequalto tlre sumof the individualcell voltages.Parallelconnectiongivesa
current equalto the sum of the individualcell currents.
Suppose,for example,the solar battery was intended to operate a circuit
requiring a nominal2 volts andgive a current of 15 milliampsthrough a 100 ohm
load. From the voltage consideration,number of cells required:2 divided by
500 mV (voltage per cell) : 4 cells.
From current considerations,number of cells required: 15 divided by 3
(current per cell): 15 cells.
The solarbattery requiredwouldthus haveto consistof five rows eachof four
cells, eachrow consistingof four cells connectedin series,and eachrow being
connectedtogether in parallel @ig. 11-f0).
A singlesolarcell canbe usedto measuresolarpower (the strength of sunlight
at any time). The cell is simply mounted on a suitable panel, sensitive side
(negative side) facing outwards, and the two cell leads connectedto a 0-500
milliammeter, Fig. 11-114. Directed towards the sun, tlre meter tlten gives a
readingrepresentativeof the strength of the sunlight.To measuremaximumor
peakradiation,point the cell directly towardsthe sun.To usethe instrument asa
deviceforplottingsolarenergy(asaradiometcr)the panelshouldbepointeddue
south and tilted upwardsat an angleapproximately10 degreesmore tlnn the
locallatitude.Readingsare thentaken at intervalsthroughouttheday, indicating
how much solar energy the panelis receiving.
If the meter readingsare very low, add a shunt resistor acrGssr tlrc meter
\
--l t-
/**,,*
f sohrceu
p
@ o
- 1
I
o
Arrangeat anAngleof
10 DegreesMoreThan
LocalIatitude
.t
\ €n
f
I
J
Mlliasuneter
Fig.11-11. tomeasure
Aligningafhotocell nlar enerpQeft).Thecircuitontheright
nla/ enelgtmeter,a 0-5Nmilliamptype.
is a comfuletc
RECTIFIERS
Theconventionaldiode is arectifier,itsmaximumforward currentcapabilities
beingdeterminedmainlyby its junction:rea. For signalrectification,point
contactdiodesareusuallypreferred(seeChapter9),whichmaylimit maximum
fonnrardcurrentto 30 to 50 mA,depending on type.Wherehigherpowersare
required,largerrectifierdiodes canbeused,withmaximumcurrentratingsupto
severalhundredamps.
In thecaseofpowersupplies (Chapter26),fourdiodesin bridgeconfiguration
arenormallyusedfor full-waverectification.Physically, thisdoesnotmeanthat
four separatediodeshaveto be connected up (Fig. 8-5).Bridgerectifiersare
availableasintegralunits.Theaveragevoltageoutputfromsucha bridgeis 0.9
timestheroot-mean-square voltagedeveloped acrossthesecondary ofthetrans-
former,lessthe voltagedropacrossthe rectifieritself.
For highvoltageapplications, semiconductor diodes(usuallysilicon)canbe
placedin aseriesarrangement to increase theoverallPIV(peakinverse voltage)
rating.Forexample, if youneeda diodewith a PWof 500volts,youcanconnect
5 diodesin series,eachhavinganindividualPIVof only100volts.Themaximum
currentratingin suchanarrangement is the lowestmaximumcurrentratingof
anyindividualdiodein the string.Selenium rectifiers,originallywidelyusedfor
voltagesupto about100rms,havenowbeenvirtuallyreplaced bysilicondiodes.
Siliconcontrolledrectifiersor SCRs(alsoknownas thyristors)are silicon
diodeswith anadditional electrodeulled,agate.Ifa biasvoltageis appliedto the
gate to keep it at or near the samepotential as the cathodeof the diode, the
thyristor behavesas if working with reverse voltage with both directions of
appliedvoltage, so only a smallleakagecurrent flows. If the gate is biasedto be
more positivethan the cathode,the thyristor behavesasa normaldiode.ln otler
words, the gatecanbe usedto turn the rectifier on (by positivebiason the gate),
thus enablingforward current to be controlled(e.g.,preventingforward current
flowing over any required portion of a half cycle).
A triac is a further variationon this principle,providingbidirectionalcontrol. It
is virtually a double-endedthyristor which canbe triggered with either positive
or negativegate pulses.
Structurally, an SCRis a four-layerdiode,with connectionsto the inner layers.
The terminal connectedto the P-regionnearestthe cathodeis the cathodegate,
and the terminal connectedto the N-region nearestthe anodetlte anodegate,
(Fig. 11-f2). Both gates are brought out in a triac. Only the cathodegate is
brought outinathyristor. Bothdevicesare essentiallyacswitches.Thetlyristor
is effective only on one half of an ac voltage, and the triac is effective on both
balves.
THERMISTORS
A thermistor is designedspecificallyto exploit the characteristic of many
semiconductormaterialsto showmarkedreductionin resistancewitl increasing
temperature. This is the opposite effect exhibited by most metal conductors
where resistanceincreaseswith increasingtemperature.
The obvious value of a thermistor is to balancethe effect of changesin
temperatureon componentcharacteristicsin a particular circuit, i.e., work as a
compensatingdeviceby automaticadjustmentof its resistance,down(or up), as
working temperaturesrise or fall and resistancesof other componentsrise or
fall. Compensationfor temperature changesof as much as 100'C are po.*sible
with thermistors-a typical applicationbeing shown in Fig. 11-13. Here, the
Anode
CathodeGate
Cathode
scR TRIAC
Fig.11-12.Symbols
for SCRandtrirc.
u
Fig. 11'13. Practical circuit incorforating a thermistor to counteractfluctuations in oalue of otlvr raistors in
thecircuit duc b hcating efects or tcmperature changes.
85
L2
Tubes
Tubes(vacuum-tubes) are distinctlyold-fashionedin thesedaysof transistors
andothersemiconductor devices,yet they are still widelyusedin commercial
wherehighpowerlevelsareinvolved.
circuits,especially
The basicform of a tube is an evacuatedglassenvelopecontainingtwo
electrodes- acathode andanode. Thecathode isheated,causing electronsto be
emittedwhichareattractedby the anode,thuscausingcurrentto flowthrough
the tubein the basiccircuitshownin Fig. 12-1(6rst diagram).
The originalform of heatingwasby a separatelow-voltagesupplyto a wire
filamentformng the cathode.Thelaterformis a cathodein theformof a tube
with aseparate heaterelementpassing throughit. Thisis knownasaninilirectly
heatedcathode, particuhradvantages beingthat thereis novoltagedropacross
the cathode(andthuselectronemissionis moreuniform),andalsothe heating
filamentcanbe connectedto a separateac supply,if necessary, ratler than
requiringa separatedc supply.otherwise,the workingof the tubeis identical.
Bothrequirea filamentsupplyanda separatehighvoltagesupply.
DIODES
Thesimplestformof tubeshownin Fig. 12-1is calleda diode,because it has
two internalelements.Its workingcharacteristics
arethat whenthecathodeis
heated,application of voltageacrosstheanodeandcathodewill causea current
to flow,the cu:ent valueincreasingwith anodevoltageup to the saturation
point (Fig. l2-2).
6
filament(Iefi)and iulirectly
Fig. 12-1.t6de oacuumtub.suith directll heated
heatcdfilament(righ|.
Ic:
g
3
o
€tr
AnodeVolts+
Fig. 12-2.Tr|ical diodeclaracteistics (lefi). To do uvful worh,tlw ande cunent
nust fow througha lud rcsistor.
t
O
GridVolts+
Anode
SuppressorGrid
ScreenGrid
Control Grid
Cathode
Fig. 124. Tetrofu (left) and penbde (/ight) tt&s slpwn in simplediagrammatic
form.
88
PENTODES
To overcome thiseffectin a tetrode,afifth elementcalleda aepressorgridis
added,insertedbetweenthescreengridandtheanode(Fig.12aB).Thisactsas
a shieldto preventsecondary emissionelectronsbeingattractedby the screen
gnd. A five-elementvalveof this type is calleda pentade.
&
. \
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n
13
Integrated Circuits
An integratedcircuit,or IC, consistsof a singlecrystalchipof silicononwhich
hasbeenformedresistors,capacitors, diodes,andtransistors(asrequired)to
makea completecircuitwith all neoessary interconnections; the wholelot in
micro-miniature form (Fig. 13-1).The cqstof an IC chipis surprisinglylow,
considering howcomplicated it canbe.This is dueto the largequantitiespre
cessedat a time. A l-inch squarewafer,for example,maybe dividedinto 50
individualIC chips.A singleLSI (arge scaleintegration)chipcancontainthou-
sandsof components in anareasmallerthanthe top of a pencileraser.
Apartfromtlte convenience of havinga completecircuitin sucha srnallsize,
ICsarevery reliablebecause all components arefabricatedsimultaneously and
tlere areno soldered joints.
Diodesandtransistorsin anIC chipareformedby exactlythe sameprocess
usedfor producingindividualdiodesandtransistors,but in very muchreduced
physicalsize.Integratedresistors aremuchsimpler. Theycanbe averytinyarea
ofsheetmaterialproducedbydiffusioninthe crystal,orthinfilm(amillionthofan
inchthick)deposited ontlre siliconlayer.Practicalresistorrangeswhichcanbe
achieved are10obmsto 50kilohms,depending ontheactualconstmction, in an
areatoo tiny to seewith the nakedeye.
Capacitorsarea little moredifrcult.Theycaneitherbebasedona diode.tne
formulation(diffusedjunctioncapacitor)or on t}rin-filmconstruction(MOSca-
pacitor).Typicalcapacitorvaluesachieved arc0.2 pF perthousandth of aninch
area.Usualma:dmumvaluesare 400 pF for diffusedjunctioncapacitors, and
800pF for MOScapacitors.
ffi u,*f
*o'u Mar
ffi
I
20,32t62E I
16 l€adsof 0,4$ a 0,076
-r-
c2
MSI AND LSI
MSI standsfor medium-scale integration;andLSI for large-scaleintegration,
referringto tle componentfunsity achieved.For example,a densityof 50
components per chipis typicalfor manycommercidlyarailableintegratedcir-
cuits.Thesefall into the categoryof MSI chips,definedashavinga component
densityof morethan12 butnot moretlnn 100components perchip.LSI chips
haveamuchhighercomponent density- asmanyas1,000,000components per
chip.
Thisislargelydueto theconsiderable savingin component sizespossibleusing
thin-filmtechniques insteadof diffnsiontechniques, particularlyin the cased
transistors.For example,an MOStransistorcanbe one tenth the sizeof a
diftsed bipolartransistorfor thesameduty.Hencemanymorecomponents can
bepackedinto the samesizeof IC chip.
oP Alt{Ps
Theoperationalamplifieror opamf is a typeof IC usedasthe basicbuilding
blockfornumerous analogcircuitsandsystems-amplifiers,computers, filters,
voltage-tecurentor current-to-voltage converters,modulators,comparators,
waveformgenerators, etc. It is a tlpical, almostcompletecircuit,usedin con-
junctionwithafewexternalcomponents tocompletetheactualcircuitrequired.
Threetpical circuitsusinga simpleop ampchipare shownin Fig. 13-2.
DIGITAL SYSTEMSICS
Digtal systemswork in discretesteps,or virtudly by countingin termsof
binarynumbers.Basically,this callsfor the useof logic elementsor gates,
togetherwitl amemoryunitcapable of storingbinarynumbers, generallycalled
a flil-flot. Thus,a digitalsfntemis constructed from gatesandflipflops.Inte-
gratd circuitscapable of performingthefunctionsof binaryaddition,counting,
decoding, multiplexing(dateselection),memoryandregister,digitaltoanalog
conversion, and analog-todigital conversion,are tlte basicbuildingblocksfor
digital sptems.
Thesegiveriseto a considerable numberof differentlogicfamilies,whichare
difficultto understand without a knowledge of logrcitself. Most of tlem are
NANDgatesbecause all logicfunctions (except memory)canbeperformedby
this typeof gate,thefunctionof NANDbeinge:rplained verysimplywith refer-
enceto Fig.13-3.A andB aretwoseparate inputsto thegafe, andY istheoutput.
Therewill beanoutputif thereis inputat eitherA or B, but zof whenthereis
inputsimultaneously at A andB-NOT A AND B (NOT-ANDis simplifiedto
NAND).
The sameprincipleapplieswith moretlmn t'woinputs.Further,the NAND
gateis easilymodifiedto form anyof the otherlogicfunctionsby negationor
inoersion,modffigtle response. Thesefunctionsare(stillrestrictingdescrip
tion to two inputs):
AND-output whenA andB inputsignalsarebothpresent
OR-output wheninputA orB is present
'ffi
100K
100K
amfulifers
Fig.13-2.Three IC,allgioingagainofabout100.All erternal caQacitors
fosedontttcCA3035 are70
mbroforad.
NOR-NOT-OR
91
I
Fig. 13-3. The NAND gate slnwn in simple diagrammatic font.
ln
iscontainedin
If thecentralprocessingunit asingleintegratedcbcuit,theICis
referredto asa microprocessor.
A computerbasedona microprocessor chipis
calleda microcomputer.
97
T4
IC Arrays
IC chipscanbedividedbroadlyinto two maincategories-completecircuitsor
subcircuits with internalconnections, andalays.Thehtter consistof anumber
ofindividualcomponents connected to theexternalpinsoftheICchips,or, in
only
somecases,t*o (or possiblymore)internallyconnected components together
with individualcomponents. For example, Darlington pairs of transistorsin-
cludedin anarraywouldbe connected within the chip'
Rn exampteof a simpleIC arrayis shownin Fig. 14-1.It consistsof three
transistors(two interconnected), two typesof diodes,anda Zenerdiode.
circuits are commonlydesigredaroundIC arrays,in this case'a voltage
regulatorusingtwo of thetransistors,the SCRdiode,andtheZenerdiode'This
ciriuit designis shownin Fig. l4-2. The components to be utilizedwhichare
contained in theIC are enclosed in the dashed outline, Q/,Q},SCR, andZl. The
othercomponents in the chip (Ql and Q4) are not required. Resistors Rl, R2,
R3,andR4anda capacitor C, are all discretecomponents connected externally.
Figure 14-3showsthis circuit redrawnas a physicaldiagram,relatingthe
connection of externalcomponents to thechip.Ptnsin thisdiagramareshownin
the actual physical order they appear on the integratedcircuit. For easeof
pins
reading, areshown numbered and enclosed in circlesrathertlrannumbered
tags.Oncircuitdrawings, pinnumbers may be shown circledor not.For clarity,
ttreintegratedcircuitisdrawnmuchlarger inproportionto tle externalcompo-
nents.
98
$bd.
FA.&1. CA?$7E (5K3616)IC anal shematic.
I I
I
I
I I
I
-1 I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
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Fig. 1*2 Voltageregulator citcuit rl,;sittgCA % (5Kffi13) anay.
99
Fig. 1/H. Completeaoltageregulator with wiing cornections.
100
You'llnoticefromthis circuit,anda studyof others,that the numberof compo-
nentsin anarraymaynotbeusedin a particularcircuit,butthecostof thesingle
IC canoftenbe lessthanthat of the equiralenttransistorsor diodesordered
separatelyandusedindividuallyto completethesamecircuit.Acircuitusingtle
IC is alsomorecompactandgenerallyeasierto constmct.
A little studysometimes showswherefurther savingsare possible.Figure
14-5for example, showsa voltagedoublercircuitfor a 1-kHzsquare-wave input
signal,basedonaCA3096EICarrayFig.14-5whichcontains5 transistors.Only
threeof thesetransistorsareusedin this particularcircuit,leavingtwo spare.
Thecircuitcallsfor two diodes,Dl andD2 (aswellasthreeresistorsandtwo
capacitors), to beaddedasdiscretecomponents. Transistorscanalsobeusedas
diodes(byneglecting thecollectorlead),andsot]tefunctionsof Dl andD2could
be performedby the two "spare"traosistorsin the array(ttrusnsingup all its
components).
Alternatively,sincetlte currentneedsa squarewaveinput signal,the two
sparetransistorscouldbeusedin a multivibratorcircuitto providethisinput,in
tltis caseusingdiscretecomponents for Dl andD2. Sincediodesare cheaper
tlan transistors,tlis is a moreeconomic wayof usingall the componentsin tlte
originalarray.
The fact that popularICsare quitecheapmeansthat is seldomworthwhile
goingto elaboratemethodsof trying to useall the components availablein an
array,unlesssuchutilizationis tairly obvious,asabove.Usingonlypart of an
arraycanstill showsavingsoverthepurchase of individualcomponentsformany
circuits.
-1
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o @o g
+
Fis.lU. *hematic diagramof CAililTFXSnill
101
*12 Volte
valuesfor Fig.14.4are:
C.omponent
Rl:10 ohms
R2:1k
Ct-2.5 tts
C2:2.5 ttF
Dl andD2
Diodes
102
15
Transistor Characteristics
A transistoris a three-electrode
device,the connectionsbeingto Da.s(desig-
natedB orb), emitter(designated E or e), andcollector(designated
C or c).
Invariably(exceptwhena transistoris beingusedasa diode),oneelectrodeis
commonto bothinputandoutputcircuits-usually the emitter(common emit-
ter), or sometimes the base(commonbase).The common*ollector configura-
tion is seldomused.
DC PARAMETERS
Thefour mainparameters
governingtle dcperformance
of a transistorare:
o inputvoltage
o inputcurrent
o outputvoltage
o outputcurrent
averagevoltagesandcurrents,andlower-
Capitallettersareusedto designate
caselettersto designateinstantaneous
volumesof voltageor current:
o Vforaveragevoltages
r v for instantaneous
voltages
o I for averagecurrents
o i for instantaneous
currents
103
For example:Vs, %, V" meansaveragevaluesof base,collector, and emitter
currents respectively,andv6, vc, vc meansinstantaneousvaluesof base,collec-
tor, and emitter current, respectively.Is, I", I. meansaveragevaluesof base,
collector, and emitter currents, respectively,and io, i", i" meansinstantaneous
valuesof base,collector, and emitter currents respectively.
TVhereinstantaneoustotal values of voltage or current are referred to, a
capitalsubscriptis used,with a lowercaseletter designatingvoltageor current.
Thus vs, v6, vB rn€aninstantaneoustotal valuesof base,collector and emitter
voltagerespectively,or i3, is, iBmeaninstantaneoustotal valuesof base,collec-
tor and emitter current respectively.
It is alsonecessaryto definethe electrodesbetweenwhich thesevoltagesor
currents apply. This is done by using the appropriateletters in the subscript:
V3p: averagebase-emittervoltage
v6": instantaneousbase-emittervoltage
vsp: instantaneoustotal baseemitter voltage
V6s : av€rdgecollector-emitter voltage
V"" : instantaneouscollector-emitter voltage
vg3: instantaneoustotal collector-emitter voltage
Vss : ?v€ragebase-collectorvoltage
vs" : instantaneousbase-collectorvoltage
vss : instantaneoustotal basecollector voltage
Iogrcally, these shouldconform to the voltage direction (positive to negative),
dependingon whether the transistor is a PNP or NPN tlTe, as in the following
order:
PNP transistor: EB, BC, BE (or eb, bc, be)
NPN transistor: BE, CB, EB (or be, cb, eb)
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
The input characteristicsof a transistor show the rariation of input current
with input voltage.ln tlte common-emitterconfguration,input is to tle base,and
basecurrent (Io) is plotted againsttlte basevoltagemeasuredbetweenthe base
and emitter (VbJ. In the common-baseconfiguration,input is to ttre emitter, so
the input characteristicsshowthe variation of emitter current (IJ againstemit-
ter voltage measuredbetweenemitter and base(V"J,
Theserelationshipsare given graphicallyin Fig. 15-1. The input resistancein
eachcaseistltereciprocal of the slopeof the curve andisthereforelow. Because
the input characteristicsare non-linear(shownby a curve rather tlan a straight
line), input resistanceis not constantbut dependson the current at which it is
measured.Becauseof tlte non-linearcharacteristicsof tlre input, a transistor is
normally current biasedanddriven from a current ratler than a voltagesource.
This is providedby usinganeffectivesourceresistancewhichislarge in compari-
son with the input resistance.If this resistance(or, correctly speaking,imped-
ance)is not high enoughto swampthe varying resistance(impedance)of the
transistor under drive, there will be considerabledistortion of ttre input signal.
IM
3so
!
I
Note-Each Value of
lrnll*a- \'^li-n-
A
8i
20
./
1 (
Jj'J
TRANSFER CHARACTEruSTICS
ofa transistorarenormallygivenasaplotofcollector
Transfercharacteristics
currentagainstbasecurrent,Fig.15-2.Ideally,thisshouldbeastraightline.Any
departurefromalinear(straightline)relationship
impliesnon-linear
di"stortion
of
the outputsignal.
OUTPUT CEARACTERISTICS
Outputcharacteristiccurvesof a transistorshowwhatis effectivelya switch-
onvoltage(or hneeaoltageas it is called),abovewhichalargechangein collector
voltageproducesonly a smallchangein collectorcurrent.Sinceresistanceis
againtlte reciprocalof tlre slopeof this I"/V" surye,it followsthat output
12
**.l*.tl*ot*' I Note: EachCollector
**f
Voltage Value Will Voltage Value Will l{ave
a Different Curve
g
6
ct
8 T"i'""fl
=
J
tr
g 6
5
a
s 4
,jt
-
r\ 2 /
.J
t/
o0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
BaseVoltage BaseVoltage
SrnallGermaniumTransirtor Small SiliconTransirtc
Tranr
Fig. 1&2. Typiedltrans*tor trarcfer characteristics
105
high.The valueof the collector
resistanceof a transistoris characteristically
crrrent, andto someextentthe slopeof tlte cun'e,alsodependson the base
current.Separate curvesarethusplottedfor (constant)basecurrents,seeFig.
15-3.Again,notetlat aconstantbasecurent isonlyobtained with ahighsouroe
resistance in thetransfercharacteris-
in thebasecircuit.Also,anynon-lineariry
ticsof the transistorshowsuponthe inputcharacteristics asunevenspacingof
the cuves for equalincrementsin inputcurrent.
CTIRRENTAITTPLIFICATION
A transistoris generallyusedasa cufrentamplifier.Here,the basecurrent
controlsthe currentin the emitter-collector circuit,althoughit mayonlybe a
smallpercentage of theemittercurrent.Currentcanbeaddedin theusualway.
Thus,emitter currentequalscollectorcurrentplusbasecurrent;or, alterna-
tively,basecurrentequalsemittercurrentminuscollectorcurrent.
he:cpressing thecharacteristicsof thetransistor,collectorcurrentdividedby
emittercurrentis designated a, andcollectorcurrentdividedby basecurrentis
designated o1. Knowingeitler a or cr, it is possibleto findthe currentsat tle
otler electrodes since
a:ar/(l*ar)
qr:sl(L_a)
7o'
/
/ 50'
€ o
E
cl
40'
c)
/ 30.
6 a
E
R / qA-
6 2 / T
-
/ BaseCurrr
rnt- Curent-
Mcroamp Microampo
0_ I
2 4
0 6 8 1 0 0 4 8 L 2 1 6 2 0
Volts
CoUector ColectorVolts
Transistc
SmallGermanium SmallSiliconTransistor
Fig.15-3. Typicaltransistoroutputcharactcristics.
106
makethis clear,tlte symbolsan anddor aresometimes used,ttresubsctript "o"
indicatingzerofrequency.
T\e currentamplificationfactorin cornmon-emitter configuration(inputto
thebase)is given (or
byar a"). It islargelyindependent ofcollectorvoltage,but
is usuallymeasured at someconstantcollectorvoltage. thevalued
Specifically,
al is directlyrelatedto tle slopeof the I.[6 curve,or tlte trandercharacteris-
tics. It is alsocalledthesmall-signalgain of the transistor.Actualraluesmay
rangefrom aslow as 10 up to severalhundreds.
In the common-base configuration, with inputto emitter,tle currentamplifi-
cationfactoris designated a (or co) andis equivalentto tlre slopeof the I"/I.
curve.In thiscase,I" is alwaysa little lessthanI., sothevalueof a is alwaysless
thanunity;typicallyof the orderof 0.98.
DC CURRENT GAIN
Specifically,this is the ratio of I"[u in common-emitter configuration andis
generallyreferred to asf (strictlyspeakingf')or hre, thelatternormallybeing
the parameterquotedby manufacturers. f nd hrs are not identical,andboth
wry with collectorcurrent.The quotedhj3 valueis thereforenormallyasso
ciatedwith a specificcollectorcurrent.Commonly transistorsmayhave
available
valuesof h6 varyingfrom about10 to 560 at collectorcurrmts rangingfrom
I mA to 30 A Herearesomeexamples:
o Lowandmediumpowergermanium transistors:typicalhp mnge30-200 at
collectorcurrentsfrom I mA to 300 mA
o Smallsignalhighfrequencygermanium transistors:tlpical hrBrange30- 100
at collectorcurrentsfrom 1 mA to 10 mA
o Germanium typicalhp range40- 150at collectorcurrents
powertransistors:
from 500mA to 1A
o Smallsignalsilicontransistors:tlpical fp range50- 500at collector@rrents
from0.1rnAto 50 mA
o Mediumpowerlowfrequencysilicontransistors:tlpical hst range90- 200at
collectorcurrentsfrom 10 mA to 150EA
o HiBhpowerlow frequencysilicontransistors:tjrpicalhp range25-100 at
collectorcurrentsfrom 150rnAto 5 A
. Smallsignalhighfrequencysilicontransistors:lrpical h6 range40- 100and
collectorcurrentsfrom 1 mA to 25 nA
MANUFACTURER'SSPECIFICATIONS
Manufacturers'normally providecun/esshowingthe static(dc)characteris"
ticsof industrialtransistorsfor bothcommonemitterandcommon baseconfigu-
rations,togetherwith othercharacteristic valuesasappropriate.Sunmarized
transistordatain catalogsor datasheetsshouldgiveat leastthe following:
107
76se(max): maximumcollectorto base
voltageon opencurrent
Vsse (max): maximumemitterto base
voltageon opencurrent
I" (max): nulximumcollectorcurrent
& (max)or P- (max): maximumtotal powerdissipation
hp: dc currentgain(usuallYquoted
asa typicalfigureat a sPecific
collectorcurrent)
C'ermaniumTransistofg
o Small,medium-current,switchingandgeneralpurpcse
o Medium+urrentswitching,lowpoweroutput
o Small,medium-current amPlifiers
o AF amplifiers,lowPoweroutput
o Complementary pairs
o Highpoweroutput(powertransistor)
Silicon TransiBtorg
r AF amplifiers,smallsigtal,generalpurpose
o AF amplifiers,low level,low noise
o Small-signal
amplifiers
o RF amplifiersandoscillators
o Medium-current switching,low poweroutput
o Highfrequency,mediumPowers
o General-purpose switching
o Powertransistors
Anyreferenceto powergroupingis largelyarbitrarysincethereis nouniversal
agreement ontherangeof powerlevels(referringto thema:<imumpowerrating
oithe particulartransistor).Thus,low powermaygenerallybetakento cover
100-t50 mw, but sucha groupingmayincludetransistorswith powerratings
upto I watt.Similarly,mediumpowerimpliesapossible powerrangeof 250 mW
t; 1W, but mayextendup to 5 watts.Any transistorwith a powerrating of
asapowertransistor.Informationabout
greaterthan5 wattsis classified select-
is givenin the next chapter.
ing transistorsfor characteristics
I(E
all ttre associated componentvalues-such as resistors-then beingdeter-
minedwith respectto the characteristics of the particulartransistorspecified.
No problemthere.Simplyusethe specifiedtransistor-unless,ascanhappen,
youfind that it is unobtainable.
In tlnt case,tlere arebasically threeoptions.Thefirst isto useanequioalent
transistor,of differentmanufacture or typenumber,whichhasthesamecharac-
teristics.For this you needa historyof transistorequivalents from whichto
selectan alternative.There are booksavailablewhichgive suchequivalent
listings,or yourlocalhobbyshopor partsdistributormaybe ableto help.
Equivalents givenin suchlistingsareseldomexactequivalents. Tbeyaremore
likelyto be near-equivalent with sufrcientlyclosecharacteristics to beusedin
basic circuitswhere component values are not too critical. Simple radiocircuits
are an example.In manycaseswith elementarycircuits,almostany t1rpeof
transistorof t]tesamebasict1rye(germanium or silicon),or betterstill,tlte same
functionalSoup, will work.
Informationonfunctional groupingisharderto comeby.Manufacturers group
their products in this way, but suppliers usually only list their stocks by type
number,which is not very helpfulwithout manufacturers'catalogs to check on
thefunctional goup to which a particular
transistor conforms. TVhen you can find
transistortypeslistedunderfunctionalgroups,keepthis materialonfile. It can
beaninraluableguidein selectingtransistorsfor a particulariob.
110
16
Amplifiers
An amplifiercanbe defnedasa deviceor circuitprovidiqgnultiplicationda
dgnal;Le.,anoutputsignalgreaterthanthe inputsignal
Transistorswork asanamplifierof siglab.In the mostwidelyusedmode d
connectionof transistorsfor suchduties,with input andoutputcircuitsboth
connectedto theemitter(common-enitter mode),tbedegreed amplificatimor
cnrrentgainis calledthe bta(fi of,tbtransistoa
_L - batteryvoltage
_oo^___F
t11
Fig. 16.1.BasicamPlifiercircuit.
where I" is equalto, or preferably lessthan, the specificationfigure for I" ma:r.
For example,a small signaltransistor has the vdues of I" max :250 mA, and
hp : 30 to 90. Taking the maximumgain,and 175 mA asa safeworking figUre
for the collector current:
q
R:90 "
OfZS
- 4,630Q
A suitable(preferred-value)resistorwouldthusb 4-7 k.
Figure1&2 showsthe complete circuitfor anelementary af amplifrerof this
type, coupledto the front end of a basic crystalset. The detector (output)is
coupledto the amplifiervia capacitot C2, a suitable valuefor which wouldbe
l0 pF or higher(20,25,30, 40,or 50 pF): Capacitor C1 (0.001 pF) may notbe
neoessary. Theoutputloadin the collector circuitis formed by high-impedance
phones.
rI 1
I Coupling
I I Capacitor
I +tl
I c2
c1
I
I
I
L
CrystalSetFront Eod
Fig. 1&2. Crxstal vt with one stageof amillifuation.
1L2
NotethatthePolarityof.thebatteryusedto powertlfs circuitis importantas
far asthetransistorconnections isconcerned andalsobecause oftheconnections
to the diodeandC2(whichnormallyneedsto beanelectrolytictypeto provide
thehigh*apacitance valuerequired).WithanNPNtransistor,thebatterypolar-
ity is reversed,asarethe diodeandelectrolytic-capacitor connections.
Thesametlryeof circuitcanbeusedtoprovideadditional amplification
simply
by addinganotheramplifierstage(Fig. 17-3).Thesecondamplifierstagecanbe
identicalto the first, or basedon a higher-power transistortakingthe output
presentandprovidingevengreatergain.Theloadin theoutput(collector)ofthe
fust amplifierstageis providedby a resistor(R2) (whichshouldbe aboutthe
samevalueasthephoneresistance, 3.3to 4.7 k). Thetwo stagesarecoupled by
a capacitor (C3).Thevalueof R3depends onthesecond transistorused,andmay
be anythingfrom 130to 1 k O. Capacitors C2 andC3 canbe 10pF or larger.
A morecompacttwo-stageamplifiercircuitis shownin Fig. 174. Thismay
provecapable of operatinga smallloudspeaker direct,althoughthecurrentdrain
is quite high.
Alternatively,tlree or four stagesof amplification usinglow-powertransis-
tors,followingabasicfrontendcrystalset,shouldprovideenoughpowerto drive
a smallloudspeakerat thefinaloutput,throughasuitable stepdowntransformer
to provideanimpedance match.
Simpleamplifiercircuitsof this tlpe haveanimportantlimitation:perform-
anceof the transistor(s)tendsto vary with temperature.There is alsotle
possibilityof thermalnrnawaydeveloping, whichcandestroythe transistors,
because, asthe externaltemperature increases the collectorcurrentalsotends
to increase, whichinturncauses afurtherincrease injunctiontemperature. The
effectis cumulative and goes frombadto worse,evento tlte pointof ruiningtie
transistorcompletely. It ispo.*sibleto overcome thistroublebyarrangingforthe
circuitto be self-biasing or dc stabilizedsothat a constantcollectorcurrentis
Fig. IN. Crystalst with tw stag* of amplifcation. Comfonentulucs matehing SK3007Aor nearequiod-
bnt for Ql and Q2
113
Fig.164 Anlliftcr for lM*akor urWL Corttior*nts
Ql- SKifrM R[- 6.8h
Q2:5K3011 M- 33h
C8- T0nicmfards
Amplifier0utft Stagee
Singletransistoroutputswork in ClaseAoperation,rvhichmeansthat the
vzluesof biasandsignalvoltageappliedto the transistorensurethat collector
711
t! **
l*
TN
l.
a Orttrrl
t:l
-l t d
- J
115
I
'l O,rtgt
;' Losd
QT R8
116
1\ro typesofbasicpush-pull outputciroritsareshowninFigs.1Sg and1610,
oe with directcouplingandthe otherusingtrandormercoupling,bothinter-
stage(betweeodriverandpush-pullinpu$ andto theloudspeater. Thecoupling
traadormercanprovidevoltagesteFup.An outputtrandormer,on tle otber
hand,is invariablya stetrdownb?e to adjusttie loudspeakerimpedancetothe
reguiredoutputimpedance. Both typesd circuitshavetleir advant4ges and
disadvantages, althorghforsimplerreceivers,all-transistorcircuitsareusn[y
preferred.
Muchalsodepends on the requirements of the receiver.To operatea soall
loudspeaker an audiopoweroutputof 5 nA or betteris reguired
successfrdly,
(higherstill for largerspeakers, of course).At the otherextreme,about10;rA
represenb,for most people,the thresholdof audibilityin higb-impedance
phones;and0.1 mA is a normalminimunfor comfortable listeningandreaf
identificationd sormdsin headphones. For easylisteoingwith higb-impedance
phones,anaudiooutputpowerof upto 0.5 nA is deirable.Hig[er signallevelr
teodto gwampheadphones but can,dcourse, bereducedby a voluneffioL
T
I
I
9Vc
I
I
I
tlrt-J
n7
amflifur sith tra*{ottttt corflittg.QI itttb drirlr; Q2a;il 03' Sf,CII4 Tl}dul q*
Fig.b10. Push-pall
Ftuntuhus
R7,M- bnatchQl (defeillitrgn09cd)
R3:Ih C2- 60micmfards
R4:100 C3- 50nicmlards
R5- L7h T1- cmllitgtm*slorrul
R6- 70 T2- uttltt tmwrorfr"
earpiecee,
Tpical claracteristicsof headphones, ue li*ed
andlotdspea&crs
here.
Headphones
o High-impedancetype: dc resistance2,000-4,000 ohms,tlpical impedance
10,000ohms(at 1 kIIz)
r tnw-impedancetlTe dcresistance15ohms,typicalimpedance 80 ohns(at 1
,*lz)
o t owimpedance
type dcresistance 80ohms,typicalinpedane 120obms(at 1
kllz)
Earpieces
15 ohs
t1rye:dc resistance2,000ohms,tvpicalimpedance
o High-impedance
(at l kHz)
. Highimpedance
type dcresistance 14ohms,tjDicalim@nce 60 ohns(at 1
kHz)
o Highimpedance
type:dcresistance 250ohns(at
60 ohms,typicalimpedance
1-lz)
118
Loudspeakers
Typicaldc resistance3 ohms,tlTical im@ance8-16 ohms.
StepDown Transfomero
It is obviousfrom a study of thesefiguresthat low-impedance phones,a
low-impedance earpiece,or a loudspeaker will bea mismatchfor couplingto an
outputrequiringa high-impedance load(asin the caseof mostof the simple
all-transistoroutputcircuits).
To employlow-impedance phones,earpiece,or a loudspeakerwith anoutput
requiringa high-impedance load,a matchingstepdowntransformer(output
transformer)mustbe used.The primaryof the transformertlrenprovidesthe
requiredoutputload,indireclycoupledto the secondary to whichis connected
thelow-impedance phones or speaker,Fig. 1&11.Theturnsratiorequiredfrom
tlte transformeris easrlycalculatedas:
Y\ pho""o@ /
119
Listening Equivalent Output
Rado Device Load ImpedanceOh'nr
n0
L7
Oscillators
An oscillatorcanbedescribed in simpletermsasanalternatingcurrentgenera-
tor. Wbereonlylowfrequencies arerequired,asinmainselectricityforexample,
rotatingmachines offera straighfforward solutionandcanalsooperateat high
powerlevels.ln electroniccircuitswherevery muchhigheracfrequencies are
required,theseareprovidedby oscillatorcircuits.Theyfall broadlyinto three
types:resonant-frequency oscillators,andphase-
oscillators,crystal-controlled
shift oscillators.
RESONANT.FREQUENCY OSCLLATORS
Resonant-frequency oscillatorcircuitsarebasedontheparticularpropertyof
(L)
an inductance and an associated capacitance (C) to e:rhibitresonanc€
wherebythecurrentflowinginthecircuit qscillatesfrompositivetonegativeina
sinusoidalmannerat a frequencydeterminedonly by the valuesof L andC.
Figure18-1illustratessucha circuit.
Intheinitialstate,withtheswitchinposition, thereisasteadyorrentflowing
tlrough the coilbut with no appreciable voltage,andsotle capacitorremains
ucharged.Movement oftlreswitchto position2 putsalargenegativebiasonthe
gateof the FET so that the draincurrentis cut off. The resultantcollapseof
magneticflux in the coil opposes tlte charge,sothat currentcontinuesto flow
intothecapacitor, chargingit up.Voltageacrossthecapacitorcanonlyincrease
at the expense of decreasing current,however,soa pointis reachedwherethe
currentfallsto zeroandtle voltageis a maximum.
Fig. 17-1.Demonstrationcircuitfor LC osillator.
ZnxJfr
Theoretically at least,with an idealinductanceandan idealcapacitor,neither
havinganyelectricalresistance,the original store of energyis exchangedindefi-
nitetf i.e., oscillationcontinuesindefinitely in a sinusoidalrumner with no fur-
ther energyfed into the circuit (the original sourceofbattery energyis switched
off oncethe switch is movedfrom position 1 to position 2).Ina practicalcircuit'
however, there is someresistancepresent, which producesa gradualdecayor
damping of.the amplitudeof the oscillators(i.e., reductionin rnaximumvoltage
and current values).
'{l
Yoltage
Switch Operated
I
Fig. 17-2 Cfle of oberationof LC osillabr.
122
FA.nA. Self+xillat'ngosillatorcircuit
PRACTICAL LC OSCILLATORS
Thebasicrequirementsfora practicalresonant-frequencyorLC oscillatorare
thusanoscillatorycircuit(L andC),associatedwith somemeansof maintaining
oscillation(usuallysomeformof amplifrersuchasa transistor,FET,or opamp).
123
Fig.17-5.PracticalHartletosillatorcircuit.
CRYSTAI-CONTROLLEDOSCILLATORS
A quartzcrystalwith electrodesplantedon oppositefaces,is the electrical
equivalentof aninductance (L), resistance(R), andcapacitance (Cf) in series,
with a muchlargercapacitance acrosstlem, seeFig.l7-7.It is, in fact,a
(c2)
completeLC circuitwith a specificresonantfrequencywhich maynmgefroma
fewkHzto severalMHz,depending onthecrystaltype,size,howit iscutandhow
it ismounted. It alsohasthecharacteristicof ahighQwith goodstability'making
it amostusefuldeviceto basean qscillator
circuitaround.It is alsoa moreor less
standardchoicefor a fixedfrequencyoscillator.
A wholevarietyof suchcircuitsarepossible. A basicconfigUration is shownin
Fig. 17-8wheretheactivedeviceis anFET. It shouldbenotedt}at, althougha
tunedcircuit(LCcombination)is included,theoscillatorfrequencyisdetermined
1124
I
EI
I EquivalentElectricalCircuit
essentiallyby the resonantfrequencyof the cr!'stal and not by the rest of tle
circuit. The tuning of the LC circuit can in fact, be relatively broad aroundthis
frequency,the crystal providing stabilizedoscillator at a specificfrequency.
The frequencyof a crystal-controlledoscillator can be adiustedwithin very
narrow limits (usuallylessthan 5 parts in 10,000)by meansof a rariable capaci-
-22Y
125
r-
I I
I
I
f,--;,---,,---'l I
I
I I l I
ln I I Ott I I
I I I I
I I I
Flg.17-9.Pha**hifiosiltabrfusdonfltet cir*iL
acToss
tor connected aresimple,
sincecrystals
it. However, inexpensivedevices
asocket,
wnicncanptuginto of
achangewstalisusrullythe easiestmethodof
frequencyadjwtnenl
PEASF-SSIFTOSCILLIITORS
Itis possibletoproduce onthehmed-circuitprinciple
anoscillato,r byemploy'
dffJffiirot [Aot inductances.Basically,suchcircuitsarefilternetworks
associatedwithlqamplifier. A three'stageRC6lter
Groa.O nCconbinations) between
iit*it is needed to providea totalphasedifrerence d 180degrees
o-*t-d *lt"g., with a toss
srnall nratcUeOby the gaino!thearrp$er.Abasic
dr*itd thirqrBJii.Uo*oinFig.1?-9,usingatransistor fortle activeelemenl
I GiLqdfii*t fc such"-cit*it to *otf is tlat tbeinputto theamplifier
gainof the
r*t t" .i lu".t Uf timestheoutputin strength,wheref-is the gAin
tj3o.i.to" Thisgdera[tcals for theuseofa transistor witha cgrrent d
tbeorderof 50or better.
Fig. 1?-10.Wienhddgeoxilla|rr'
n6
FA.n-U. Basicresnantcircuitosillatorwithtransisbramfrlifur.
BRIDGE OSCILLATORS
Oneottrertype of oscillatorworth describingis the Wien-bridge oscillator
(anotherphase-shifttype) wherea balancedbridgeis usedas the feedback
network(Fig. 17-10).To work, the loopgainmustequalunity andmusthave
zerophase.Thisis generallygiveobysuitableselectionof resistorraluessotlat
R2/Gf + R2)is lessthan%.
The frequencyof operationwith this type is tle frequencyof ttre balanced
I
bridge,or Notethatboththetwo resistorvaluesandcapacitor valueson
7;rt5;
theleft-handsideof thebridgeareidentical.Thefrequencyof tle oscillatorcan
be changed by usingdifferentvaluesfor R, or, alternatively,for a variable'fre-
quencyoscillator,tlretwo capacitorsarereplacedby gangedvariablecapacitors
of identicalvalue,variedsimultaneously.
Themajorityof oscillatorcircuits,however,arebasedonresonantcircuitor
LC combinations of conventionalform with a clcsecoupled secondcoilto gqF
moteselfoscillation.A circuitof this typeis shownin Frg.L7'LL.
u7
18
Circuit Diagrams
A circuitdiagramis a planof a particularcircuitshowingallthecomponents and
The
all the circuit connections. components are represented by symbols (see
Chapter1),arrangedto showall connections simplyandclearly,avoidingcross"
ing linesasfar as po.ssible.It is a theoreticaldiagam sinceit doesnot showthe
actualsizeor shapeof components, nor their actualposition in a built-upcircuil
It hasto beredrawnasa practical diagramorworking plan fromwhichthe circuit
is actuallyconstructed.
Certainconventions applyin drawinga circuit diagram,but tlese are not
alwaysfollowedrigldly. The first is that the diagramshouldreadfrom left to
right.Thatmeanswhateveris inputto thecircuitshouldstartat theextremeleft
andbefedthroughthecircuitfromleft to right.In thesimpleradiocircuitshown
in blockformin Fig. 18-1theinputis supplied bytheantenna currentfeedingthe
tunedcircuit,tlen passingto thedetector,thento the amplifier,andfinallytle
loudspeaker output.Thepowersupplyfor thecircuit(sayabattery)is shovmon
thefar right of thecircuit.At first thismayseemacontradiction ofthenrle,if you
think of the powersupplybeing into the circuit.It is not a true input,but is
put
merelya supplyto work t}re circuit. Otherwiseit hasnothingto do with the
circuit,soit is depictedoutof thewayontheright.Thereis anothergoodreason
for this.Althoughthe supplyfeedsall the stagesbachnrards in termsof left-to-
right reading,it probablyis not requiredto power the first stage.Hence,it is
logicalto showfeedfrom the rigbt, stoppingat the approprhtestage.
12Et
Fig. 1&1. fusicstages
in a simlb radioreceiter.
Nearlyall circuitsarebasedona commonlineconnection; i.e.,components in
variousstagesareconnected to onesideofthesupply.Thiscommonline isdrawn
at thebottomof thediagram,asshownin Fig. 18-2.It is generallyreferredto as
tlte commongroundline, althoughit maynot haveany actul connectionto
ground.
Asimilarcommonlinecanalsobedrawnat tle topof thediagram,represent-
ing the othersideof the supply.Conventionally, this top line is the *, andthe
bottomor commonlinethe-. Thisis notalwaysconvenient in designing transis.
tor circuits,sothis conventional polaritymaybe reversedon somediagrans.
TVorking onthisbasis,andreplacingthe boxeswithindividualcomponents, the
circuitdiagnmlookssomething likeFig. 1&3. Eachcomponent is identifiedby a
number,or mayhaveits actualvaluegivenalongside. Reading thecircuitisfairly
straighdoward - with a little practice.Startingfromtle left, theinputfromthe
antennais fed to L andCl formingthe tunedcircuit.Fromthere,it is passed
throughthe diodedetectorto the amplifier(Q1).Ql thenfeedsthefinaloutErt
stage(transistorQ2)drivingthe loudspeaker. A supplyvoltageis requiredonly
byQl andQ2,sotheuppercommon linestopsstrortat Ql stage.Thereistors in
tlte top halfregulatethe supply;andthosein the bottomhalf(connecting to the
commonbottomline)establishthe workingpointof the transistors.Additiond
componmts(C2andC3)are requiredfor couplingbetweenstages.
129
Stage3 - --t
I 1 l
t: I
I I
I I
L
I
drawnwithall comfonents
Fig. 18.g.Thesamestages rcquired.
andall connections
1il
t
Fig.1&5. Tlv capacitor (C) is connected
shownin a circ*it diagramin eitlvr ofthese
drawingcrosinglkes uith noconnectiol.
clenrerstill.
+
btupentopandbottom lincs,krt mayb
twoway.Otttlp rightarethreewalsof
Method1 ie theuaul waX;mctM 2 is
F!s.1Y:-Inthisenmfle,asirybcon2oaent(ttcfuotent;ometerconncctions)apfoars
inhmvparate partsofthe
circtit diagrem.
WorkingPhnDrawn WithAllComponents
Actual
Size
layoutdrawingorwo*inSPlorr.Thisb thesne cinuit
Fig.1&7. Tyficalcomponent
followingthctunedcircuit(uhiehwouldbeaferriE radrcrial
as Fig.18-?,
Current In CurrentOut
CurrentIn CurrentOut
P-N-PTransistor N-P-NTransistor
Fig. l88€.Directionof currentfow throughPNPand NPNtransisbr*
12
memberingthat with a * top line,the directionof currentffowis downwards
(fromtoplineto bottomline),tlrough rariouscomponents onsuchpaths.If the
top line is -, the flow direction is obviouslyreversed. It is also easyto checkthe
direction of current flow through transistorsby the alrow on the emitterin the
transistor symbol. Direction of currentflow orf of the transistorvia thecollector
follows in the same direction. Direction of current flow into the baseof the
transistor is opposite to tlat of the emitterarrow direction. Figrre 18-8should
makethis clear.
Theserulesfor readingthecurrentflowthroughtransistorsshouldalsomake
ittairly simpleto deterrrinethecurrentflowwithhorizontallyconnectedcompo-
nentsonthe circuitdiagram,andtlus establishthecorrectpolariff for electro-
lytic capacitors appearing in theselines.
133
19
Circuit Construction
Oneof the big problemsfacingmostbeginnersis howto constructa working
circuit;i.e., turn a theoreticalcircuitdiagarninto a connected-up assembly of
components (with dl the connectionscorrect,of course!).
Thefollowingdiagrams showsixvery simpleandstraighfforwardmethods of
tacklingelementary circuitconstruction-dl capable of givinggoodresultswith
the minimumof trouble,andespecially recommended for absolutebeginnersat
practicalelectronics.
PINBOARD CONSTRUCTION
Drawout tlte component layoutfor the circuiton a pieceof thin ply (or even
hardbalsasheet),usinga ballpointpn (not a leadpencil).Drawin all connec-
tionsandmarkpointswhereconrmonconnections occurwitl a blob(ust ason
circuitdiagrams).
Cut out the panelto a suitablesize.Drive coppertacksinto eachbloband
simplysolderthecomponents in position.Completeadditionalconnections wittr
plainwire, seeFig. 1$1.
SKELETON ASSEMBLY
Startagainwith a component drawing,thistimeonpaper.Iay components in
place,bendingtlte leadsof resistorsandcapacitorsto completeconnections.
Otherconnections canbecomplete with t'ro lengtlsof l&guge copperwirefor
1A
Circuit Diagram Drawn on Ply CopperTacks
or Balsawood
Tuning Transistor
Capacitor
(c1) For Common LinesJoinTack
WithBarelVire
Fig. 191.Pinbardconstruetion
starts$rdrawinga uo*ing ptonoftlu cittuit ona
panelofrtlyor folsa.Thendioe in copper
tochsat eae;h
connectionfioint.sotder
comfoncnt leadstotachs,
andcomfleVcircuitasnece.ssary
withary additionalpir-
ing.
BONDED MOUNTING
Thisis very similarto skeletonassembly exceptthat individualresistorsand
capacitorsare stuckdownto a rigid basepanelcut from plasticsheet.use
five'minuteepoxyfor gluingthecomponents in place(Fig.19-3).Thisproduces a
very strongbondin a fewminutes.Withthe maincomponents rigidlymounted,
youcanthenbendleadsto producethe necessary connections andconnection
pointsfor othercomponents (e.g.,transistors).
BUS.BAR ASSEMBLY
Thisisaneatandmoreprofessionalwayto tacklecircuitconstruction.
Thetop
andbottomcommonlinesof the circuit are laid downfrst by mountingtwo
lengtls of l6-gaugetinnedcopperwire in a sheetof plasticas shown.This
Transistor TinnedCoppcrWirc
SpaceFor Territe RodSerid A
16 GaugeTinnedCopperWire
Gluedto hse
MainComponents
AdditionalWiring
(erce,ttransis-
Fie.1C3.hniled mountingissimilarto Fig.192btqtall components
tors)areglwd dounb a baepanel.Turnuf endsofleadstnformcoanatingloints
permitsmostof the resistorsandcapacitors to be mountedwitl oneleadsol-
deredin place. asfor skeletonassembly
Completethe rest of tlte connections
(Fie. 19a).
TAGBOARDASSEMBLY
Moredr.rableandneaterthanthe previousmethods,tlis involvesmounting
stripsof solderkgs(calledtagstrips)
ateachofthemainconnectingpointsof the
circuitlayout.Thesetagscanberivetedor boltedthroughthe panel.Individual
components are then mountedbetweentags.Any additionalconnections are
formedbyshortlengthsofwirebetweentags(Fig.f 9-5).Moretimeisneeded to
constructa propertagboardthan with tle previousmetlods,but complete
tagboardstopsarealsoavailablewith up to 36 individualtagsmountedin two
parallelrows.
PEGBOARDCONSTRUCTION
Youcanbuy specialterminalpillarsto pressinto tle holesin ordinarypeg-
boardandso set up connectingpointsfor mountingcomponents (Fig. 1S6).
Diode
16 GaugeTinnedCopPerWire-Bend EndsUp
Under Panelto Hold in Place
Fig. 194. Lay down the to| and bottomlines in tinned copferwin, pernwrcntll
mo*ntedon tlu panel. Slnrter lenglttsof bareuin can b ucd for othcrcommoa
connating points.Cotnflctefu nldeing comlonentleadsin place.
136
Transistor
IndividualTags
..2?^-.
Tag Strip
Fig. 1!N, All thc connating foints are fonted b tag strils or indiaiduat tags mounted on tlu funeL
Soldctconforcnts b approfriate tags,and completcuith additional wiing as naaessary.
Theseterminalshavescrewconnecting points,soyoucanavoidsolderingcom-
ponentsin place.Themaindisadrantage is thatafairlylargepanelsizeis needed,
evenfor asimplecircuit,with components spreadout.Butit isaneasymethodof
buildinge:rperimental circuits.
Thereare variousproprietarysystemsbasedon variationsof the pegboard
method.Veroboardsarepanels with rowsof copperstrips,eachstripdrilledwitl
a numberof holeseither l mm (0.04in) or 1.3mm (0.052in.) diameter.
Matchingpins(Veropins)canbeinsertedin appropriate holesto forrr terminal
pillars,andthe copperstrips cut as necessary to separateconnecting points.
Special toolsareusedfor insertingtheVeropinsandforcuttingthecopperstrips.
Yerosti| is a similartne of boardorceptthat the boardis narower (LVzin
wide)andthe copperstripsnrn acrossthe boardwith a breakdownthe center.
Components canbemountedacrossor alongtle strips.
Numeroussolderless breadboards havealsobeendeveloped wherecompe
nent leadsare simplypushedinto the boardswherethey are heldby spring
contacts.Contactpointsarearranged in parallelrows,with eitheraprearranged
patternofinterconnection, or with basicbusbarconnections ontop andbottom
rowsandottrersin commongroups.Interconnection betweengroupscanbe
madeby wirespushedinto sparepointsin eachseparategroup.
Theadvantage of sucha systemis that,apartfromavoidingsoldering, circuits
137
cencdy be uff H bt Fld r cqo.dd phregiqgbtoa
difierentpoden
For permanentcircuits,if you'rea beginner,youwill prohbly fnd pegboad
assembly propsition
thebest youhave
after gained
some
erpericnce
incirqrit
construction-and confdencein beingableto draw out componentlayoutr
accurately.
The ultimatefor all formsof compactcircuit constructionis, however,the
printedcircuit.Herecomponents aremounteddirectlythroughholesin a plastic
(or glassfiber)panelonwhichthecircuitwiringhasbeenreproduced byetching.
This is a separatetechniqueon its own,but easyenoughto learn(seeCbapter
20).
GENERAL RULES
Connectionsshouldalwaysb solderedfor bestresults.Thisappliesevenon
pegboards
fitted with screw-typeterminalpillars.Theoneexceptionto thenrle
Spacefor FerriteRod
Aerial-
ffi
x<,\
/-- to
- O -
-a o- l':
:-\"-. -
TerminalPillars
Spacefor
TuningCapacitor
18
is solderlessbreadboards whereconnections are madeby springclips.In any
case,neverrely onjointswhichareformedsimplyby twistingwirestogether.
Usea smallelectricsolderingiron for makingall solderedjoints,andresin-
coredsolder(electricalgade). Neveruseanacidtypefltrxonsoldered iointsin
electricalcircuits.
Transistorscanbedamaged by excessive heat.Whensolderingin placeto a
(at
circuit,leavethe leadsquitelong least1 inch).Gripeachleadwith flat ncse
pliers behindthe joint whensoldering.The jaws of the pliers tlten act as a
heatsink,preventingoverheatingof the transistor.Onceyou are proficientat
soldering,however,this precautionshouldnot be necessary, especiallyin tle
caseof silicontransistors.
The mostconrmonreasonwhy a particularcircuitdoesnot work is because
oneor moreconnections havebeenwronglymade.Thisis far morelikelyto be
the causeof thetroublethana faultycomponent. AlwaWcheckoverall connec-
tionsafteryouhave madethem,usingthetheoreticalcircuitdiagram asthebasic
reference.Also,with transistorcircuits,bestreto connxt thebatterytheright
way(asshownon the circuitdiagnm).
139
20
Printed Circuits
laminate.For generaluse,t}ese
phenolicresinlaminate(SRBP)or glass-fiber
(cladononesideonly)andnominally1.5mmthick(about
Loardsaresingle-sided
%oin.). The procedurefor makinga PCBinvolves:
1. Cuttingthe boardto the requiredsizeandcleaningthe coppersurface.
2. Makingadrawingof theconductors requiredfor tle circuitonttrecopperin a
resrsfink.
3. Etchingawayuncovered copperareasin a chemicalbath.
4. Removingthe resistink to exposethe copperconducting areasor pads.
5. Driling the copperpadsreadyto taketIe component leads'
6. Degreasing andcleaningtheboardsasnecessary to ensuretlat ttrepadstake
solderreadily.
tun
ofcomponents
Fig.2G1.Hoimntalmounting onaPCboanltahes upnoresprce,
ktt
thanoerticalmounthg(erceitfor transisbrs).
is uwal$ moreconoenbnt
W
Fig.20-2.If it is (or *ems) imfossibleta aooida cmssingconnectionot a PCbodrd,
sbf thecrossing linesshort(bft) andcomfrlete withabidge ofin*lated
theconnection
uire sldcred in place.
141
FINAL DRAWING
I{avingarived at a suitablelayout,with connectingpointsfor component
leadsindicatedbyblobs('), a tracingcanthenbemadeof thisPCBplan.Certain
generalnrlesapplyin preparingthe fuialdrawing:
1. Conductors shouldnot bele*sthan%oinchwide.
2. Conductors shouldbe spacedat least%zinchapart.
3. Thereshouldbeat least%zinchbetweenaconductorandtheedgeof apanel.
4. Bendsofjunctionsin conductorsshouldbe radiusedor filleted,not sharf
edged.
5. Allowsuffcientareaof copperarounda connecting pointsothat the copper
width at this pointis at leasttwicethat of the holesizesubsequently to be
drilled throughit, and preferablymore.(Typicalhole sizesfor miniatnre
resistors,capacitorsandtransistorsare ys2inch).
Thesepointsareillustratedin Fig. 20-3.
It is not necessary
to drawdl conductorsneatlyanduniformin thickness.
Relativelylargesolidareasc:rnbe left to accommodate a numberof common
connectingpoints,simplifyingt}re amountof drawingnecessary(Fig. 21a).
Largesolidareasshould,however,be avoidedin anypart of a circuitcarrying
highcurrentasthiscouldcauseexcessive heatingof thecopper,possiblymaking
it delaminateas it eraands.Thus,on a PCBfor a mainsoperated circuit,for
example, thenurximum areaof anyparticularcopperpadshouldnotbemorethan
about1 squareinch.
Thefinaldrawingis transferredin reverseonto tlre copper(hencetheuseof
tracing paper).This is becausethe circuit, as origindly planned,showsthe
comfonentsrdeof theboard,whichis theplainside.Thusthetruepatternfor the
rnd Off
Corners
At Least*" Width of
Copperfuound Holes
le
I
t l I 1 l
I I
r l r l
I I I
l t
powered
battery
Fis.fu4. QuiElargeanasofcoltercanbelefionlowooltage circuits.
Thereis noncedforconsistcnt
wiilths(orshaies)ofconductors.
ETCHING
Theboardis thentransferredto anetchingbath.Thiscanconsist of a solution
of ferric chloride, or proprietary printed circuit etching fluid poured into a
shallowplastic tray.The boardisplaced inthe bath copper side up and left untilall
traces of copper have disappeared from the surface. Time taken for this will vary
with the temperatureof the solutionand its strength.The processcan be
speeded up by rockingthe bathgentlyor stirringwith a softbrush.
Afteretchingiscompleted theboardis removed, washed underrunningwater
to removeany traces of chemical, and driedwith a softcloth.Theetchingsolution
canbe kept for re-use, if required.
To removetheresistink,afurtherliquidknownasetch-resist removershould
beused.This can be brushed on to the board and then rubbed with asoftcloth,or
appliedto the cloth first and then rubbed over the board. It shogld onlytakea
minuteor soto remove all the ink, leaving the copper patterns fully uncovered
andclean.I[ash anddry the board again at t]ris stage to remove any residual
tracesof etch-resist remover.
Drillingcomesnext.Thefollowingrulesarevery important:
o Alwaysdrill with the coppersideuppermost;i.e., drill through the copperinto
the board.
o Always use a sharp drill bit (preferably a new one).
o Alwaysusea backingof hard material under the boardto prevent the point of
the drill from tearing a lump out of the backof the boardwhenthe point breaks
through.
o Spot the point to be drilled with a small center punch to prevent the drill
running off its correct position when starting to drill.
Use of an electric drill in a vertical drill stand is best for drilling PCBs.
However, becauseof the small size of drill used,breakagerate of drills can be
high if the work is pushedtoo hard.
The original tracing comesin handy againfor marking the componentposi-
tions on the plain side of the board, as a guide for componentassembly(Fig.
20-5). Componentsare always assembledon the plain side, with their leads
pushedthrough their mountingholesuntil t}le componentis lying flush with the
board (Fig. 20-1). The exceptionis transistors, which shouldbe mountedwith
their leadsleft fairly long (andpreferablywith eachleadinsulatedwitha length of
sleevingto prevent accidentalstrorting if the transistor is displaced).
lt%
MOUNTING AND SOLDERING
Before mountingcomponentsin positionfor soldering,the coppersideshould
be cleanedagain.It will probablyhavepickedup greasemarksthrough handling.
An ordinarydomesticpowdercleaneris bestfor this, usedwet or dry, andrubbed
on with a soft cloth. The running water test can againbe usedas a check for
cleanliness,but if the board is wetted, dry with a cloth.
Componentsare normally solderedin place,one at a time, with their full lead
length protruding. Excesslength of wire is then cut offas closeaspossibleto the
solder.
Provided solderedjoints are completedrapidly, in not more than about 3
seconds,heatdamageto either the boardor a componentis unlikelp If the iron
has to be held in contact with the lead for longer than this, then somethingis
wrong with the solderingtechniqueandheat damagecouldresult, either to the
componentor by the lifting of the copperpadon the PCB.The most likely causes
of overheatingare usingan iron which is not hot enoughor too smallfor the job;
attempting torework a solderedjointwhich hasnot takenproperly; andtryingto
remove a lead which has been solderedinto the wrong hole.
1/t5
2L
Radio
Radiobroadcasts consistof a radiofrequency(rf) signdgenerated at a specific
frequencyallocatedto a particularstation,on whichis superimposed m audio
frequency @f) signal.
Onlyrf workstor transmissioz.Theafpart,whichistle actr:alsoundcontent
of the signalis, almostliterdly, carriedon the backof the rf signal,the two
togetherformingwhatis calleda modulatedsigrnl.
This combined signalcanbeproduced in hn'odifrerentways-amplitude,or
upanddownmodulation, knownasAM; andfrequenrymodulation (actuallya
verysmallvariationinrf signalfrequency aboutits stationfrequencT),
knownas
FM.
AM is the simplertechniqueandis widelyusedfor longwave,mediumwave
andshortwavebroadcasts. Broadcasting hasdwaysbeenreferredto in termsof
wavelengths insteadof signalfrequency,untilcomparatively recently.Therela-
tionshipbetween wavelength andfrequency is:
(meters): =300'000'000
wavelengtlrs
frequency,IIz
300,000,000
IIz:
frequency,
meters
wavelength,
(Thefigure300,000isthespeedof lightin meterspersecond,
whichisthespeed
at whic,hradiofrequencywavestravel)
16
In the caseof FM, very hightransmittingfrequencies are used-and it is
generallyreferredto asVHF(veryhighfrequency). Actualwaoelengthsare very
short,andsoit is muchmoreconvenient to speakoffrequency,the usualrange
for FM broadcasts being90- 100millionHertz(90- 100MIIz).A simplecalcu-
lationshowstlat thismeansa wavelengt!of about3.2to 2.9meters,or about3
meters.
Regardless of whetherthebroadcast is AM or FM, anyradiofrequency signal
hastle samebasicrequirementfor receivingit. Thepresence oftlissignalhasto
be"found"andthensortedoutfromsignalsfromotherbroadcast stations.The
"6nding" deviceis the antenna,and ttre "sorting out" deviceis the tuned
circuit. Togetler, theyformthe front endof a radioreceiverasshownin Fig.
21-1(theextremeleft-handpart of a circuitdiagram-see alsoChapter18).
A tunedcirarllconsists,basically, of a coilandrariablecapacitor,whichcan
be adjustedto showresonance or ma:ximum responseto a particularsignal
frequencyappliedto it. A full explanation of tlis behavioris givenin Chapter7.
All the broadcast signalsreachingthe tunedcircuitarevery, very weak.Only
thatsignalto whichit is tunedismagntfidbyresonance, sotlat it standsoutat a
very muchhigherlevelof signalstrength.
An actualwire antennaconnected to the tunedcircuit mayor maynot be
necessary. In the caseof AM reception,the coilwindingalsoactsasanefrcient
wire antenna,if woundon a ferrite rod. This dispenses with the needfor an
externalantenna. Theonlydisadvantage is tlat thetunedcircuitis directional,
mininumsignalstrengthbeingreceivedwhen theferriterodispointingtowards
the transmittersendingthe signal,andma:rimumsignalstrengtl whentle
ferrite rod is at right anglesto this direction.This effectis mostnoticeable on
smallradioreceiverswhichhave onlymoderate amplification.Toreceivecertain
Aerial
Y CouplingCapacitorto MinimiseEffect
of Aerial Capacitanceon Tuned Circuit Coil Woundon
Ferrite Rod
VariableCapacitor
147
stationsatgoodlisteninglevel, evenwitlmaximumadjustment ofvolume,itmay
be necessary to adjustthe positionof the set. Laryerreceiversnormallyhave
enoughamplificationto compensate for this, but the effectcanstill be quite
noticeable. Also,it is alwaysbestto operatea receiverbelowmaximumampli6-
cationbecause this minimizesdistortionof the signal.
The FM receiverdoesnedan externalantennabecause a woundcoil or a
ferrite rod antennajust doesnot work at this rf. For satisfactoryresults,this
externalantennaalsoneedsto bea specialt1pe,knownasadipole,whichitselfis
tunedbymakingits lengthonehalfofthesignalwaoelength.The lattermayvary
from11.5feetto 9.5feetin the90- 100MHzFM band,soa meanwavelength
figureof about10 feet is adopted,glvinga realisticdipolelengthof 5 feet.
ThethreepracticalFM antennaformsarea verticaltelescopic aerialextend-
ingto 30inches;a horizontalwire (or rodantenna) with 30 inchlegs;or a folded
dipole,asshownnFig.2L-2.
DETECTION
Thetunedcircuitis muchsimplerthantheforegoingdescriptions mayappear
to imply.It is reallya matterof gettingthecomponentvaluesright, andworking
withhighefficiency(see alsoChapter6 andQ-factor). Designofthetunedcircuit
is a little morecomplicated whena radiois intendedto receivemoretltan one
waveband. EvenanAM receiverneedsseparateantennacoils(or at leastsepa-
rated wingson a singleferrite rod) to coverlong wave,mediumwave,and
shortwave. Sothetunedcircuitdesignfor anAM receivercouldinvolvetlree or
moretunedcircuitsselectable by a switch.
In the caseof anFM receiver(or the tuningcircuitfor the FM sectionof a
multi-bandreceiver),tJrcreis really no practicalform of woundantennacoil
whichcanbe used(a theoreticalcoilof this typewouldprobablyrequireonlya
part of a singleturn). Sothe startingpointis a dipoleantenna.This itself is a
hmedcircuit (i.e., desigrred to be resonantwith the meanfrequencyto be
r l
70-75 OhmsImpedance
MatchingFeederCable
r - l
280-300OhmsImpedance
MatchingFeederCable
Fig. 21-2 FM anbnnas tued connecting to tlv et aia a correct$rmaklvd fealcr cablc.
18
coveredin the FM band),but its amplification of signalis not nearlyasgoodas
that of the coil-and-capacitor tunedcircuitof anAM receiver.
To compensate for tlis, the FM receivernormallyusesan amplifierstage
immediately followingt.heaerial,knownasapreamplifier or rf amplifier(because
it is anamplifierof sigrralsat radiofrequency). Thisamplifiedsignalis fedto the
next stageof tre receivervia a tunedoutput.A tjrpicalcircuit of this type is
shownin Fig. 21-3.
Thedetectorstage followingthetunedcircuitcanbeextremelysimple.In the
caseof AM, it onlyneedsto bea diodeconnected to a potentiometer asits load.
This potentiometer alsoactsasthe volumecontrol-Fig.2l-4.
Thesignalpassed onfromthe tunedcircuitto the detectoris a strengtlened
versionof the originalmodulated broadcastsignal.In otherwords,it contains
bothafandrf. Therf parthasnowdoneitslobin gettingthesignalintothetuned
circuit.Nowit needsto beremoved, whichcanbedonebyrectifyingttresignal.A
diodedoesthisjobbychopping offonehalfof therf signalsothattheoutputfrom
tltediodeconsistsof half-cyclesof rf. Thesehalf cycleshavetheaf contentofthe
signalstill imposed, sothenextrequirement is to filter outtherf partto turn t.he
outputinto anundulatingdc signal.Theseundulations followexactlythe same
variationsasthe af signaloriginallyimposedontlre transmitterrf signalat the
transmittingstationby a microphone, or recording.
As orplainedin Chapter6, a resistorandcapacitorcanact asa filter for any
specificfrequencyrequired.Thusthediodedetectoris associated with a matclr-
ingload(resistance) andassociated capacitorforming therequiredfilter circui$
Tunhg Output
Capacitor to Mixer
Itrputfro@DpoleAerial
RFTransistor
ltt9)
e.g., seeFig.21.4- sothatonlyraryingdcispassed at outputfromthedetector
stage.Itis usuallycoupledto thene!ilstagebyacapacitor, whichhastbefurther
effectof balancing thevaryingdcsignalaboutitszeroline(1e.,givingitpositive
andnegativeralues,ratfier than"all positivevalues).
In practice,theoutputload(R in Fig.214) is usuallyavariableresistor,which
component tlen alsoactsasa volumecontrol.Thefacttbatthisisfollowedbya
couplingcapacitoralsoavoidsanyflowof dcthroughtle movingcontact(wiper)
of thiscontrolandreducesanytendencyto reproduce noisebymovement d this
control
Theaimin selectingthedetectorcircuitcomponents isthatthe signalpassed
by the diodeis exactlythe sameasthe originalsignalgeneratedby ttre studio
microphone (withcertainlossesandpossible distortions!).Fedto a microphone
workinginreverse(i.e., headphones or aloudspeaker)theywouldbeheardasttre
originalspeechor music.But the signalsat thisstagearestill tooweakto have
enoughpowerto drive headphones or a loudspeaker, so the ne$ step is to
amplfy the af signalpa$sed by the detector.
FM DETECTOR
In tle caseof anFM receiver,thedetectoris a little morecomplicated.It has
to detecthowthefrequcncyofthesignatisvarying,notits amplitude, soit hasto
extracttle originalfrequency aswellasapplyrectification.
FM receiversinvari-
ablywork on ttre superhetprinciple,so the frequencyto be srtractedis the
intermediate frequencyof if. A basicdetectorcircuitemploysa three-winding
hansformerwithprimaryandsecondarytuned to theintermediate
frequency Oy
capacitorCl andC2in Fig. 21-5).Thethird windinginiectsa voltageinto the
secondary circuit,eachlegof whichcarriesa diode,Dl andD2,associated with a
capacitorC3 andC4.
Theworkingof thiscircuitis to detectvariationsin signalfrequencyin terms
of an af output,so that the finaloutputis exacdythe same,in termsof signal
content,asthatfromanAI\ddetector. Thusitcanbedealtwithbthesameway.
RF+AF Sisnal
Conpling CapacitcHelps
to Eliminate'noise'
fromVolumeControl
Capacitor
to Filter
OutResidudif on
Superbets VoluneControl
r-
150
t-
l*'
L .
AI}IPLIFIER STAGES
A singletransistorcanprovideamplification of signalstrengthupto 100times
(tr more(seeChapter9 for typicalanplifiercircuits).Themainrequirementof
the amplifierfollowing thedetectoristhat thetransistorbespecificallysuitable
foramplifyingaf (whenitcanactasafurtherblockto anyresidualrfremainingin
the inputsignalto tle amplifier).Ideally,tlere shouldbenorf signalpresentat
the inputto the amplifierstage(it shouldhavebeenfilteredoutin the detector
stage),sinceanyrf voltagepresentedto the amplifierstagecouldcauseover-
loading.
Theoretically,at least,anyamountof amplification canbeproducedbyadding
additionaltransistor-amplifier stages(Fig. 21-6).This does,however,greatly
increasethe chances of distortingthe signal,sottrerearepracticallimitsto the
numberofstageswhichareacceptableinsimplecircuits. Muchbetterresultscan
be producedby more sophisticated circuits, particularlythe superhet(see
below),wherefirst someintermediatesignalis amplifiedbforedefrcton;and
subsequently amplifiedegaiqafier detection
- 1
I
I
FW4
I
I Eil^l
- - I tmoedance
uitoing
Traosfcm
AFSignallnput r-uuPrurs
CouplingCapacitor
Output
I Transistorr
152
I
I
I
I
I
Coupling
Capacitc
Irputo-l Q1I pecoupling
Fig. 218. fusb classB outputcircuit Ql actsasa |reamplifier. Q2is theilriter. Q3 and Q4area complemen-
"push-prll." Tle two resistorsshownby dudrcdlines may be
tall fair of transistors,wothingalternate$in
addcdto improw t te stabiliti of thc circuit. The* onfuneedto b of oerylow wlue (e.g.,7 ohm).
I volt or more.Signalsderiveddirectlyfromanantennacircuitareseldommore
thana few millivoltsin strength,andthe weakerthe signalthe lesseffectively
theywill bedetectedin anycase.In otherwords,therangeof stationsthatcanbe
pickedupis limited,andnoamountof amplificationaftzrdetxttoncanrnakeup
for this limitation.
This limitation,or lack of vnsitioitl, canbe overcomeby amplifyingthe
incomingsignalbeforedetection,so that the detectoris alwaysworkingwit}
goodsignalstrength.Thiscanbedonebyrf amplificationof theantennasignalby
introducinganamplifierstageright at the beginningof the circuitasin the FM
receiver(Fig.21-3);or by the superhetworking.Thelatter alsoimprovesthe
vlectility of a receiver,or its abilityto tunein sharplyto wantedsignalsand
rejectnearbystationsignals.
TIIE SUPERHET
Havingarrivedat a standardizedoutputstage,it is equallytrue to saythat
nearlyall modernradioreceivers of thesuperhcttype,
are whichis considerably
153
more complicatedthan the circuit traced through above.The whole front end
works on an entirely different principle.
Starting point is the tuned circuit (ferrite rod antenna)in the caseof an AM
receiver; or a dipoleantennafeedingan rf amplifrerin the caseof anFM receiver
(the latter amplifying the modulatedradio signal in conjunctionwith a tuned
resonantcircuit). In both casesthe boostedtuned signalis fed to an osillator-
mixer.
This is a two-functioncircuit, althoughits duty is usuallyperformedby a single
transistor associatedwith a tunedoscillatorcircuit. This tunedcircuit is mechan-
ically coupledto the antennatuning in the form of a gangedcapacitor(i.e., two
separatevariable capacitorscoupled,or gangedto move together when the
tuning control is adjusted),sothat it tracks the aerialcircuit tuning while remain-
ing separatedfrom it by a constant frequencl. This differenceis known as tJ1e
intermediatefrequenq or i-f, andis usually455 kHz abovethe aerialfrequency
(it canhaveother valuesin certain sets,andcanalsobe belowrather than above
the antennafrequency).
The oscillator part of the oscillator-mixeris concernedwith generatingthis
fixed intermediatefrequency,tracking exactly above(or below) the signalfre-
quencyto which the aerial circuit is tuned. The two signalsare combinedin the
mixer part of the oscillator-mixer,which alsolns a firedttned circuit (actually
the primary side of a transformer associatedwith a capacitor)which responds
only to the intermediatefrequency-Fig. 21-9. This i-f signalalsonow hasthe
sameaf modulationas the original signal.In other words, it is a duplicateof the
wanted af signal, but at this stage superimposedon a fxed intermediate frg.'
quency.
There are a number of technical advantagesto this seeminglyunneoessary
complicationofincomingsignaltreatment.First, theprocessof superheterodyn-
ing gives much better selectiaitl or rejection of unwantedsignals.Then, t}1e
signaloutput from the mixer is at a constantfrequency,makingit easyto amplify
with the further possibility of eliminating any remainingunwantedfrequencies
since an i-f amplifier has fixed-and virtually exact-tuning.
In practice,i-f amplificationis usuallycarried out in two stages(AM receivers)
or three stagos(FM receivers).The detector tlen follows after the i-f amplifier
stages-Fig. :1-10. Each i-f amplifier stage consistsof a tuned transformer,
adjustmentof tuning being done by an iron dust core in the transforrrer coil
former. Oncecorrectly adjusted,ttre cores are sealedin this position.
SeparateAmplifier Stages
154
Fig. 21-10.Basicdesignofan AM/ FM receiaer slnwn in bloch
forn. Theon\t common
circuit is an af amplifier (usuallya classB output)followingthedetectors.
155
22
Television
Televisionmakesspecialuseof a cathoderay tube,whichin turn hascertain
characteristics in common with avacuumtube(seeChapter12)'It hasaheater,a
cathodewhichemitselectrons,ananodeto whichelectronsareattracted,anda
.oottot gfid. Unlikea tube,however,the electronsaredirectedat the enlarged
- of tue tou" or &feenwhichis coatedwrthabhos,hormaterial.
end
It is,in fact,aspecialtypeof cathode raytube.Thenarrowendof thetubeacts
asanelectrongun,shootingelectronspasttheanodesection.Electronsimping-
ingontJ1e screengeneratemoreelectronswhichareattractedbackto theanode,
dui*t"ot in eff; to eachelectronreachingthescreenbeingbouncedbackto
theanode.Thusnoelectrons, andhencenocharge,actuallycollectonthescreen'
Meantime,however,eachelectronreachingthe scteenmakestle phosphor
hasbeenbounced badr'
-tt. *ni.n p"t irts for a shortperiodaftertheelectron
gfo*,
phosphor
brightnessof the glowproducedis dependent on the type of
(whichalsi governsthecolorol *re glow),andthe strengthof bombardment of
etectrons. tle htter is controlledbythebiasvoltageappliedtothe grid.Inother
words,grid biasadjustment is the brightnesscontrolona TV tube(Fig' 22-1)'
tne adua brightnessis alsoenhanced by ane:rtremelythin layerof aluminum
depositedou"i th" phosphorto act ratherlike an outward-facing mirror, but
transparentfrom thl othersideasfar aselectronsareconcerned.
To producea picturefrom electronbombardment, two other controlsare
o*""ory. The first is a meansof deflectingthe electronbeamsotlat a single
spotcantraceout a particularpathcoveringallthevariationsin pictgredensity
lffi
Fig.22-1.Ttc TVtub andiEbasiccontrols,
slpwnin simplifwdfon.
Fig. 2ZZ Illustrating tlw formation of a raster. First tlp dd nunbred linesare
xanned from lefr to nSM (solitllines) withflybachfuhrceneachlinc (dadredlircs).
Downwardmoaement is controlledb thetimobase.After xanning half thepicture
lines,tlv timebavfies backtot tcto|. AA t teewn numberlinesaretlpn sanned, with
flfiach futweeneachline (right handdiagram} At thcendof thelastline thctimefuy
flics bachto tlp left to start thcvquenceall oter again. Thex tuo diqrams aQerim-
po*d repre*nt a complctcraster.
In practice the picture is scanned60 times per second,not 30. This is fast
enoughto eliminate any trace of flicker, but using an optical trick, the actual
picture frequezcyis still only 30 per second.Scanningtakes placein two stages
- first the oddlinesonly, tlen the evenlines.Eachscantherefore buildsup only
half the picture, the two halvesfollowing eachother to present the complete
picture.
Movement of the lines downwardsis accomplishedby the time fos circuit
starting with the first (odd)line andrestarting a line at the left firmpositionsdown
eachtime. This continuesuntil the scanninghasreached525 + 2 - 262rhlines.
Thespotthenfliesbacktothetop again,startinghalfwayalongtlrefirstevenline
andrepeatstlle processto scanthe 262r/z evenhneswhich makeup the second
half of the picture. This processis knownas interlacing. Actrnlly a few lines get
left out in this changeoverprocess,but this doesnot show up on tlte picture.
Picture transmissionand picture reception operate in reverse mode. The
television camerascansthe sceneto be transmitted in 525 lines at a picture
frequency of 30 per second,and turns the light spot responseinto electrical
signals.The numberof lines hasbeenquotedasgoverningpicture definition,but
this is not the wholestory. A scanof 525 lines givesgoodpicture definitionfrom
toptobottom, e.g.,the pictureisbuilt uptopto-bottomfrom 525 strips.Thereis
also the questionof how manyindividualpicture elementsare coveredby each
strip. The answeris about 600 as an absoluteminimumfor goodpicture defini-
tionside-to-side, orthe equivalentof600 phosphordotsmakingupeachline. The
totalnumberof individualdotsor pictureelementsineachwholepicturetraceis
thus 315,000. Sincethe picture frequencyis 30 times per second,this callsfor a
transmitted signalfrequency of.2.5 tvftlz.
18
\
159
23
Microprocessors
l l .
of analoganddigitalcomputing tech-
Theyears1939- 45 sawthedevelopment
"iq"J., ."4, towardsthe end of that era, tle first appearance of electronic
-
*iiput"tr u.sedontubesandrelays.Theyears1948 50sawdigitalcomputers
significantly-tle development of the
*t"iti.n"A usingtubes,and-more
transistor.
-
thefirst
Tenvearstater(1960),printedcircuitboardsfirst appeard,andalso
circuits and hybrid integrated circuits' Transi'
..rU-*"f" monolithicini'e'grated
Medium-scale integrated circuits
tiofi.orp"ter circuitstdk overfromtubes.
integrated circuits (LSI) in 1970'
iMSO .ppu.tua in 1965,andlarge scale digital
tt oooout this periodof rapiddeveloprnent of ICs, many aspects of
oi the 6rst
.otpufrtg or"r" irrth", extended,cuttinating in the appearance
micro-miniaturirea computer,or microprocessor, in 1971. From tlnt date,there
hasbeenintensiveaevJtopment of digitalintegrated circuits in micro'miniature
period'
iot tr,tougttDTL to TTi to MosFET andcMos' etc'Throughoutthis
havecontinued to be improved, wittr, most
tf,"..p.Uifltius of microprocessors
sigrrifrcantof all, a fall in prices.
- -Essentially,
the microirocessoris a digitalcomputerin micro-rniniaturized
form,but not necessarily with thefull capabilities of a conventional digitalcom-
programmable Logic controller
-tpi|l o"" of its mainaiplications,io r.t ,:..
il;;. or so,upwards
r*u.ti*. industrialapplications. Tyithinthelastfiveyears
appeared, designedforindustrialuse, aswellas
of o0differentPLCsystemstrave
otherswith moreopencapabilitiel.Bactris associated with its ownperipheral
devicesandassociated software (i.e.,prograrnming devices)'
180
Originally,PLCsweredesigned asone-bitprocessoln, usingdiscretecompo
nents.Today,theyareinrariablybasedonmicroprocessors, or, in somecases,
combinations of both a microprocessor anda one.bitprocessor.Someof the
morerecentlyintroducedtypesincorporatedul-languageprocessonbasedoa
bit-slicetechnology.
Oneof the mostimportantfeaturesof microprocessor is its size-not its
physicalsize,but ttrelengthof the datawordit operateson andthe numberof
wordsits memorycanstore.Mcroprocessor language is measured by tle nr.tm-
ber of bit per word,a Ditbeinga binary digit. C,ommon microprocessor word
lengtlrsare4, 8, L2,and16bits.An 8-bitdatawordis by far themostcomnon,
andis givena specidmme-a byte.
Because tlere areonlytwo pc*siblecombinations for onebit, it followstlat
thetotalnumberof combinations possiblein a binarywordin a givenlengthis 2
raisedto the Nth power,whereN is the numberof bits in a word.Thus,for an
&bit word,the total numberof combinations is 28-256.
Asonemeasure ofmicroprocessor sizeisthelengthofitsword,thisreflectson
the sizeof ttrememory.The memorymustbe ableto storea givennumberof
wordsof thislength.For example, a byteorientedmicroprocessor with a mem-
orytlat canstoreupto 10 wordshas80bitsofstoragecapacityinthememory.It
is generallyassumed that a 4-bit microprocessor is accompanied by a memorry
storing4-bitwords,anda 16-bitmicroprocessor with 16-bitwordsof memory.
It follows,therefore,that memorysizeis measured by thenumberof wordsit
maystore.Often,ttreIC whichis referredto asa mictoprocessor haslittle or ao
memory;the memoryfor tle unit is contained in otherICs.
Thernaximum memorycapacityof a PLCsystemdepends ontheaddressing
capability. But, in practice, the maximum orpandability is related to tlte maxi-
mum physicalnumber of inputsand outputs,and also of the complexity of control
algorithms. A nrle of thumb for calculating memory requirements is: 10-15
(or
instnrctions commands) per one output on tle average application for se'
quentialcontrol,with fewarithmetic,timing,or countingfunctions.Forapplica-
tionswitl amoresophisticated controlalgorithm,15- 20instructions peroutput
mayberequired.Youhaveto considermore memory space if several programs
areto bestoredsimultaneously, whichareselectable by amanual operation mode
switch,for example,for frequentlychanging production at one machine. The
surximummemorycapacityof PLCs onttre market ranges from 256 words (one
word corresponds to oneinstnrction)to 1600words(commonly expressed as
1610andmore.Memorysystemsaremodular and expandable from a minimum
"starterset" of ylKin increments of.L/+K,lK,and4K.
In simpleform,the microprocessor comprises tbreebasicparts:the central
processing unit (CPU), memory,andthe I/O devices.A microprocessor always
containsa CPU,andin someinstances, memoryas well as an I/O device. The
CPUhastbeabilityto send (address) informationto eitlerthe memoryof the I/O
device (see Fig. 24-1).
Justasthememorymusthaveanaddress beforedatamaybetransferredto or
from it, so muchthe VO devices.Normally,ttrereis morethan oneinput or
outputdeviceona system.Therefore,theCPUmustdecidewhichoneit wishes
to traasferdatawith, andtbis is doneby addressing.
Toexecuteaparticularprog&m,theprogrammer maysetasideacertainarea
of thememory for program storage. Other areas of memory arebesetasidefor
datastorage,andthese assignments may change for a different program.The
Texas510PC,shown in schematic form in Fig. 23-1, illustrates the positionof
t}1emicroprocessor within the total package which includes memory storage,
locationarea,image register (IR) and pushdown stack (PDS).
All entriesto the sequencer are madewith a plug-inprognunmer.This can
readoutandmodifyalllocationswithinthememorystoragelocationarea.TVhm
anentry is made,it is enteredinto andstoredwithinthis storagearea.Timers
andcountersaswell asseriesandparallellogicare containedtherein.
The processor controlsthe Model510PCmemoryduringprogramming and
executionof tl1euser program. Logic instructions from the programmer are
enteredintothestoragearea (usermemory). At the start of each program scan,
tlteprocessorplaces tlte statusof theinstructionintheregisterandtran$ersthe
statusof the selectedoutputto the output(Y) lines.
I/O modulesare commonlyavailableas plug-incardsor plugon boxesin
increments of 2,4, 8, 16, and32linespermodule.However,8-stagemodules and
lGstage modulesseemto be the bestbuy.A broad variety of I/O cards with
differentsignal-voltage levelsare availablefrom manymanufacturers. Some
typesof I/O modulesare: 5 Vdc Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL);24Ydc;
48 Vdc; l2}l24Ydc;24 Vac;andL20124Vac.In practicalapplication, prefer-
enceshouldbegivento onestandard signalvoltage,sofaulty I/O modulescanbe
replacedby a spareVO moduleof the sametype.
Swapping I/O cardsis afast,sure,troubleshooting technique. Wherepossible,
controlelementsandI/O modules of thesamesigfraltypeshouldbeused,which
meansanine:rpensive stockof sparecomponents. The outputcurrentloadper
line of variousoutputcardsrangesfrom 0.5A to 2A, but somePLCson the
marketmayhaveaproblem-namely,notalloutputsonacardcanbeenergized
Prograrnmablecontroller
1@
simultaneously because the carddoesnot havethe curent-carryingabilityto
energizealloutputsat once.Themaximumnurrber ofinputs/outputspersystem
rangesfrom 32 for srnall,128for medium,andup to 4096for larges]'stems.
However,at tlis point,it mustbenoticedthat a largentmrberof inputs/outputs,
aswell ascorresponding largeprograms,mayheavilyreducetlte response, or
cycle,time of an application.The distributedsystemsconceptmaybe more
appropriate for a largeandcomplexapplication.
SeverallargerPLCshavesomecapabilities or optionswhichallowcontinuous
process controlwith algorithmsbuilt-infor standard PID(Proportional-Integal-
Differential)controllerswith analoginputsandoutputs.Thecombination oflogic
controlandanalogloopcontrolmeansthat thesePLCscanbeusedforbatchor
continuous processing applications;however,they are not ableto completely
replacet5rpicalprocess-loop controllers.Usually,loopcontrollersare built as
plug-inor plug-onmodulesfor extendedPLCsystems.OptiondavailableA'/D
(Analogue-to-Digital Converters)accept, respectively,supply signals of
4-20mAor 0-5/0-f0 Vdc.Thesignalresolutionis ratler low.Precisemeasure.
mentsare not possibleat Wpicallythree{igit BCD(BinaryCodedDecimal)
value.
Counterandtimer functionsareindispensable toolsof a PLCsystem.Nomi-
nally,up to 64 internalcountersor timersarebuilt into mediumto large'scale
PLCs.The time baseis generatedthrougha qnrtz oscillatorclockthat can
commonlydelivertlree differenttime standards:0.1 s, 1.0s, and 1.0min.
Three{igit cascading upanddowncountersand timers provideconvenient
toolsfor a widerangeof applications. For fast countingapplications,suchas
po.sitioning
or angle-indicatingtransducers, separate fastcountercardsarenec-
e$sary.A criticalspecification for usinginternalcountersis the countingfre
quencyunderthe worst-case timingconditions,because the actualcount-rate
depends very muchonhowthe programis structured;therefore,specialatten-
tion mustbe paidto timing-related problems.
163
24
Batteries,
PowerSupplies,
and Chargers
Virtuallyall portableelectricaVelectronic equipment acquirespowerfrom some
tneof battery. Batteriescanbedividedintotwomaingrougs: primarybatteries,
wherethe electrochemical actionis irreversible(oncethe battery hasbeen
discharged it cannotbe reenergized); andsecondary batteries,wherethe elec-
trochemical actionisreversible(theycanbe c.harged anddischargedrepeatedly).
Primarybatteriesarepopularlycalleddry batteries;andsecondary batteries
arecalledstoragebatteries.Thesedescriptions are not strictly buttley
correct,
areconvenient andwidelyacccpted. In fact,dl pritnary batt€rieshavesome form
of "wet" electrolyte (usuallyin theformd a paste or jelly);and manysecondary
"d4y''cells(implyrnS theuseof a non-liquidelectro-
batteriesmayhavesocalled
tyte). And just to showhow generalclassifications cannotalwaysbe strictly
correct,sometypesof primary (non-rechargeable) batterysystemsare,in prac-
tice, rechargeable.
Iil
ggvens the capacityof tbe battery,or tle amormtof electricalenergyit can
store.)
SECONDARYBATTERIES
Thefamiliarlead-acid batterywaswidelyusedin the earlydaysof radioasa
low-voltagebattery.The onlytlpe of rechargeable batterywhictrhasa signifr-
cantapplicationin presentdayelectronicsis the modernnickel-cadmium bat-
tery. It is the onetypeof secondary batterysptem in which"gassingf'canbe
eliminatedoncharging, soitcanbeconstructedinfullysealed+ellform(althottgb
manytypesare,in fact, constructedwith resealingventsasa precaution).
Nickel*admiumbatteriesofiernumerous advantages-nodeterioration dur-
ing storagein either chargedof discharged state(exceptthat a chargedcell
suffersa lossof about20 percentof its capacityamonth);charge/rectnrge cycle
life of a leastseverd hundred andpossiblythousands of charges (depending on
actualuse); for
suitabliity highdischargerates (andhigh charge rateswith vented
cells);robustness; wideoperatingtemperaturerange(-40' to +60' C.);and
suitabilityfor operatingin dmostanyenvironrtent.
Disadvantages are highinitial cost(dthoughthis is generallyrecoverable in
longcyclinglife).andtle factthat the nnominal voltageper cellis only1.2volt*
However,the dischargecharacteristics are substantiallyflaL
USING BATTERIES
To increasethevoltageof abattery,increasethenumberof cellsconnectedin
seriesto rnakeup the battery.For a batteryof givenvoltage:
VOLTAGE
BATTERY
REQIJIRED
Numberof cellsrequired-
VOLTSPERCETL
Batteryvoltagerequiredis 9 volts
C,cllsto be usedarenickel-cadmium
Voltsper cellis 1.2
o
-fr-
ofcellsrequired
Number 7.5cells
,6
OTHER DC POWER SOI'RCES
The application of a stepdowntrandormerassociated with a bridgerectifier
anda smoothing capacitorto providea lowvoltagedc supplyfromaaacmains
supplybasalreadybeendessibedin Fig. &5 Chapter8. Rathermoresophisti'
catedcircuitsmaybeusedwhereitisdesirabletoensureastabledcvoltage;a9,
for operatingaaFM transistorradiofrom the acmainsinsteadd a battery.
A circuitof this typeis shownin Fig. 2&1, the component raluesspecified
gving a stabilizeddc outputof 6 volts from 120V AC. The bridgerectifier
followingthetransformerprovidesfullwaverectification,smoothedbycapacitc
Cl in the conventional manner.
The input to outputvoltageis droppedacrcs hansistorQl. The emitter
voltageof transistorQ2is setbytheZenerdiodeat 2.7volts.Theoutputvoltage
is dividedbyR , R5andwhentle voltageacrossR5is about3.2rolts, Q2begins
R7-ffiohns
R2- Sil ohttts
R3- Tohm
R1- 39 ohmsfor 6 wlts dcutt
lNohmsfor 7.5wlts tlc utt
R5- ffiohms
Ct- 1000micmfard 3il olnnfor 9 wlts dc utt
C2- 70 micmlarad
C3- 0,0l micmfarad
T - Lil| 15 oolttransfonur
BR: bridgcratifiu
Ql- 5K3190
Q2- SKSI!44
Q3-SK I
ZD- hpriliode - SI{2V7
166
to conduct.Thisdivertssomeof tlte currentflowingthroughRl intotle baseof
Ql sothat Ql skrts to turn off. Thus,sincethe basecurrent,andtle voltage
dropacrosstle collector-emitter junctionof Ql, is controlledby Q2,theortput
voltageis stoppedfrom goinganyhigherthanthe designvoltage.
Conversely,if a heavyloadis appliedto the outputit tendsto causea dropin
outputvolkgeandso alsothevoltage onthebaseofQ2tendstofall.Theeffectof
thisisthatQ2startsto turn off,allowingmorecurrentto flowintothebaseofQ1
whichturnson to maintainthe outputvoltage.
ismaintained
Voltagestabilization untiltheoutputcurrentrisesto theorderof
400-500mA. At this point,the voltageacrossR3 becomes greaterthanthe
turnon voltageof Q3,which startsto conduct.This tapscurent fromthebaseof
Ql, causingQl to start to turn off, reducingthe outputvoltage,so tlnt the
currentdoesnot rise anyfurttrer.In otherwordsthe circuit is automatically
protectedaginst overload,evendownto shortcircuitconditions. In the latter
case,tle voltagewil fall to almostzero,with the curent still maintrined at
400-500milliamps. Thecapacitors C2andC3arenotstrictlynecessary,brutare
additionalsmoothingcomponents.
Thecircuitcanbeadapted to provideanumberof differentdcoutputvoltages,
selectablebyswitching.To dothis,resistorR4is replaced byachainof resistors
DCOutrut
7d7
R4A,R4B,R4C,asin Fig. 24-2.Thevaluesgiven,togetler with the previous
circuitcomponent values,provideselectable
outputsof 6 volts,or 9 volts,with
voltagestabilizedin eachcaseup to a maximumcurrentdrain of 400-500
milliamps.
BATTERY CHARGERS
circuitjustdescribed,
Eitier a bridgerectifiercircuit,or thevoltage'stabilized
canalsobeusedfor batterycharging.ln thiscase,smootldng is notsoimportant,
asthe presence of a certainamountof ripplein the dcis heldto bebeneficialfor
charging.Normally,however,at leastonesmootlingcapacitorwouldbedesir-
ablein the chargercircuit.
Sinceit is notalwaysevident whetherachargerisworkingornot,anindicator
lampor ammeteris normallydesirablein a chargercircuit. A lampmerely
indicatesthatthechargerisonandtheoutputcircuitisworking.It canbetapped
directlyacros{rthe circuit at anypoint.The preferredform of lampis anLED
sincethis drawsminimalcurrent,althougha smallfilamentbulbwill doaswell.
An LED needsto be associated with a ballastresistorto dropthe necessary
voltageat thispoint;afilamentbulbdoesnot,butaresistoris needed to workasa
voltagedropperifa &volt bulbis usedin thiscircuit(seeFig.24-3).Notetlratan
indicatorlampon the mainssideof the trandorrrer, or on the secondary side
Fig,24-?.Alternatioearrangements for clurgitg indicabr lanpa A b& ofafupnyiab dtagc ottld b *sedis
otu of tb uttptt bads uithott a ilrofping nsitur.
1A
Yotts
ttrput
betweenthetrandormerandthebridgerectifier,wouldnotnecessarily codrm
tbat the outputwasworkingwith anoutputloadconnected.
In thecaseof a meterindicator,tlis wouldsimplybeanammeter(or milliar
metetr,asappropriate)
connected in eeriesin onec anotler dthe outputlines.
1N
DC INPUT CHARGERS
Thereis alsoa callfor chargerswhichcanchargelowvoltagebatteriesdirect
fromanotierbattery,suchasa l2-volt carbattery.In thiscase,sincettreinputis
dc,a transformercannotbe usedto set the requiredvoltage,nor is a rectifier
neoessary.
Figure24-4showsa chargercircuitdesigrred to providea stabilized 6-voltdc
output(charging voltage)froma l2-volt inputsupply.Essentially,
it is thesame
asthat of Fig. 24-1withouttlretransformerandrectifier,buta diodeis included
to protectthetransistorsin thecircuitagainstreversevoltages.T[orkingofthe
circuit is the sameas that describedpreviously,with automaticshort*ircuit
protection.Like the previousmainscircuit,too, it canbeadaptedto providea
rangeof outputvoltages,usingexactlythesamevaluesfor thechainofresistors
asin Fig.24-2.
170
25
High-VoltagePower Supplies
Thebasicwaytoobtainahigh-voltage supplyisto stepupanacmains supplyviaa
transformer.At thesametime,thetransformercanbetapped,or providedwith
separatewindings,to produceanyotherloweror intermediate voltageswhich
mayberequired.Voltagestepupor stepdown,usinga trandormer,is po*sible
ooly with an alternating-current input. The resultingoutputis alsoac, from
whichit followsthat further components are requiredin a powersupplyto
providestepped-up or down direct-currentvoltages,suchasrequiredfor the
anodeof a tube.Basically,thisinvolvesrectificationof tlretransforrredvoltage,
with theadditionof smootling,if necessary, to removeanyremainingripple,in
the dc output.
voltageregulationmayalsobenecessary, evenif it isonlyaimedat limitingthe
valueof transientvoltageswhichmaybeintroduced in thepower-supply circuit.
In thatcase,weareconcerned withthepeakinversevoltages(piv)whichmaybe
introducedin thepower-supply circuit,affectingtheloadingof t.hecomponents.
Voltageregulationitself canbe orpressedasa percentage:
regulationtml:ff
Half-Wave
Full Wave
Fig.%-1. Threefusic rectifnr circaits
172
failin ashortedcondition,ratlertlan open,sothattailureofonediodeinaseries
couldreadilycausethe remainderto fail aswell.
Seriesconnectionof silicondiodesis generallyneces{nryto realizethe piv
rating required.This is determinedby the piv likely to be developed by the
rectifiercircuit.In the caseof a singlediodecircuit,the piv acrcssthe diodeis
approximately 1.4timestheacvoltageacrosstle transformercoil.Thecenter-
tap circuityieldsa piv of about2.8 timesthe acvoltageacrosseachhalfof the
transformercoil. The bridgecircuit againyieldsabout1.4 timestlre voltage
acrossthe coil.
Therequiredratingcanbebuilt upby connecting asmanydiodesin seriesas
necessary ratingby2,3, 4 times,etc.,allowingasuitable
to factortleir individual
marginof safety.This,however,is onlyvalidif thediodesareexactlymatched in
characteristics (particularlytheirreverseresistance). Thisisunlikelyin practice,
andso equdizingresistorsare normallyconnectedacrosseachdiode-Fig.
25-2.Alternatively,equalizingcapacitorsmaybe usedin somecircuits.Both
configurations, incidentally,dso act as transientsuppressnrs to protect the
diodesagainstsurgesof highcurrent.Sincecapacitors aremoreeffectivein this
respect,resistorsandcapacitorsmaybe usedin seriesacrosseachdiodeas
equalizing/damping devices.Furtherprotectionmayalsobeincorporatedin the
rectifiercircuitbyincludingafuseto open+ircuitachainof diodesin theeventof
overload,or failureof oneof tlte diodes.
Oneotherprecaution whichmaybenecessarywith silicondiodes is to balance
their rating againsttemperature.Althoughthey do not generatemuchheat
tlemselves,their performance is temperaturedependent, andthe ma:rimum
ratingapplieswith a temperaturelimit. If they are to be workedat a higher
ambienttemperature,deratingtheir performance is necessary. Temperatnres
fora maximumcurrent ratingmayrangefromas lowas25'C to ashighas 70"C,
depending on tlpe andmanufacture. Derating,tlryically,is of the orderof 10
percentper 10"Ctemperatureriseabovethe ratedtemperature.
FILTERS
Theoutputfroma rectjfiercircuitis pulsatingdc.To renderthisin theformof
smoothdc,filteringmustbeapplied.TVhile thismaynotbestricdynecessary for
tubeoperation, it isabsolutely
necessary to eliminate(oratleastreduce)thehum
contentoftlepowersupplyappliedtovarious stagesofatransmitterorreceiver
circuit.
Effectivesmoothing of the supplyis readilyachieved bymeansof a capacitor-
inputflter, whichmaybegithsl singleFs€ctien or two-section-Fig. 25-3.The
Diode SiliconDiodes
Fig.2tt-2 Didcs with equalizittgnsistors
tn
- -{.-
4.,
Single.Section R is BleederResistor TweSection
Fig.zffi. Singlcand ttwwtion ntnthingfiltera
Fig.2e1^Clrotu-infut
filte*
174
ageratingisusuallyadvised,asintheeventd&ihre dthe bleederresiEtorthe
voltageswouldrise to thesepeakfigues.
OUTPTTTVOLTAGE
Basically,the dc ortput voltageis about0.9 timestbe acvoltageacrosstbe
tran$orner secondary in the caseda singlediodeor bridgecircuit;andabout
0.45 timestle acvoltageacrosstle trandormersecondary in the caseof the
bridgecircuit.Withcapacitor-inputfilters, thesecondaryrmsvoltagerequiredis
thts 1/0.9or 1.1timestherequireddcoutputvoltage,to allowfor voltagedrops
in the rectifierandfilter circuits,andin the transformeritsef. Io the caseof a
center-tapped circuit, this voltagemust be developed acrosseachsided the
secondary centertap.
With a chokeinputfilter circuit followingthe rectifia, the requiredtrans.
formersecondary voltagecanbecalculated directlyfrom:
E-1.1(t"*S*t*t)
wtere:
VOLTAGE STABILIZATION
A basicmethodof obtainingvoltagestabilization
is bytheuseof a voltage'reg-
ulatingtubein serieswith a limitingresistor,asshownin Fig. 2S5. The initial
(unregulated) voltageneedsto be higherthanthe startingvoltageof the tube,
whichis nsuallyabout30percenthigherthantheoperatingvoltage.Theralueof
thelimitingresistoris chosentoiust passthema:dmum tubecurrentwhenthere
is noloadcurrent.Withloadadded,thetubecanthenworkdownto its minimum
cnrrentcondition.Withinthisrangethevoltagedropofthetubeisconstant, thus
providinga pointfor tappingoffa stabilizedvoltage.Voltageregulationbetter
than10percentcanreadilybeachieved; andwiththetubesin series,stabilization
is frrther improveddownto aboutI percent.Theuseof nro tubesin seriesalso
enablestwo differentvaluesd regulatedvoltageto be tapped,onefrom each
tube.
staffilization
Fig.25-5.Voltage with VRtub.
BIAS VOLTAGES
Bias-supplyrequirements arebasicallyafixedvoltageof therequiredr"alue
to
setthe operatingpointof a tube.Theoutputshouldbewell-filtered,andcapaci-
tor-inputfilters are commonlypreferred.A bleederresisteris effectiveas a
e-r
ac
I
Inzut
I
o - 1
176
Fig.25-7.Stabilimtionb Uasooltage.
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Theconventional t1ryeof voltagedivideris basedonthecircuitshownin Fig.
25-8.Basically,it comprises a seriesof resistors(or a resistorwith a seriesof
tappingpoints),fromwhichvoltageslowertbantheinputvoltagecanbedrawn
ln
by connectingto an appropriatetap. The end resistoris only as a bleeder,
carryinga bleedercurrentwhichis normally10percentor lessof the total load
current.The raluesof resistorsrequiredtlen followfrom:
*t-fl
nz- E=2191
15t11
na:fr1ffF-E'9
YOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS
Rectifierscanalsobe usedasvoltage'multipliers, in integerfactors-a fea-
ture whichcanoftenbeusedto advantage. It is possible,for example,
to accept
anacinputdirectintoarectifiercircuit,witlrouthavingtoemployatran$ormer,
andobtainbothrectificationandvoltagedoubling.Sucha circuitis shownin Fig.
25-9.Eachcapacitoris chargedseparately to the samedcvoltagefromtlte two
diodesandthen dischargedinseriesintothesameloadcircuit(t}usdoublingthe
dc outputvoltageobtained).
Figure25-10showsanextensionof this principle,utilizingfour diodes.The
outputfromthiscircuitprovidesbothvoltagedoublingandvoltageqrudrupling.
Aswith voltagedividers,voltagemultiplierstendto offerpoorvoltageregula-
tion, althoughthis is lessmarkedwith silicondiodesas comparedwith diode
tubesandmetalrectifiers.
iv
I
178
Fig.2en Vottagc-;attillb?ciruit *sittgdio&l
VANHBI,E-VOLTAGE STTPPLIES
A simpletypeofvariablevoltage supplyfc usewith aconstant-voltagepower
supplyis shownin FA. 2F11. Thiscircuitelirninates
seriesresistorsasa sottroe
of voltagedropand,asaconsequence, maiqtrins4 substantiallyconsant sortrce
inpedance.Voltageregulationis alsoprovided,aswell asvoltagernariation vh
the variableresistor,althoughthe degreed stabilization
deteriorateswith in-
creasi4gvdtageor@uLIt is, however,anotler emmpled howsimplecircuits
canoftenbeusedto providesolutionstoparticularrequirenentsintransmitter
and/orreceivercircuit&
I
I
I
I
t
srntt
I
I
I
I
I
I
1?9
o__
{
-{
ac
Input -{
I
#
Fig.%-12. Stabilizedheatersuppll.
+
6.3V
t
I
6.3
Fig.%-13. Transistorpoucrsuypll.
lU
Fig. 25-14.Sinfuleregulationcircuit.
TRANSISTORPOWER SUPPLIES
Transistorcircuitsrequireonlylow voltagesandthusconsiderably simplify
powersupplyrequirements, particularlyasonlya singlevoltageis usuallyre-
quird. They may,however,be fd from an ac supply,in whichcase,similar
requirements applyasregardsrectificationandsmootlingfollowingtle trans.
a Zenerdiodeis norrnallyemployed
former.For voltagestabilization, (theZenet
diodeis virtuallytle counterpartof the VR tubein higbervoltagecircuits).
A typicalmoderntransistorpowersupplycircuitis shownin Fig.2S13,which
is alsonotablefor incorporatingelectronicsmoothing.There are numerous
variationson a similartleme but, in general"shuntregulationis takinggr€fer-
enceoverseriesregulation,astlris will permitt}e outputto beshort<ircuited
withoutdamage.
A very muchsimplersystemis shownin Fig. 25-14whichmerelyuseshalf-
waverectificationfollowedby smoothing, anda batteryof tlte samevoltageas
the dc outputfloatingacrossthe output.Thisbatteryprovidesextremelygood
andat the sametimecanalsoactasa ripplefilter. Capacitor
stabilization C2,in
fact,is notreallynecessary.Basically,thebatteryprovidesanadditional source
ofpowerto combatvoltagedropunderload.A similarsystemoffloatingabattery
acrosstlreoutputcanequallywellbeappliedtoafull-waverectifieroutput.Zener
diodestabilization canalsobeadded,if necessary,for anevm higherdegleeof
stabilization
I
Stabilized
Output
I
I
Fig.%-15. Sinple lowlossstabilizingcircuit.
181
is lessreadilyprovidedactossa directbatteryfeedto ahansistor
Stabilization
circuitsinceconventional methodsof stabilization usingZenerdiodesandresis.
torsalmostinevitablymeana largeincreasein currentdrain,figther loadingthe
batteries.Variousingenious solutionshavebeenproposed to combatthis,suchas
the use of current-limitingcircuits(whichalsosafeguardtransistorsagainst
overload).Figure25-15showsa simplelow-lossstabilizing circuit,basedaround
theuseof atransistorasaconstantcurrentdevice,whichcanreadilybeextended
to two stagesif necessary.
1&
Appendix:
Symbolsand Equations
fire followingequations areusedoftenin the fieldof electronics.
In additionto
equations discussed in the previoustent, this sectionalsocontainsmanyother
equations for futurereference.
SIMBOLS USED
Sfmbol Meaning
A Iength of thesideadjacent to 0 in theright triangle,in sameunitsas
the othersides
B Susceptance (measured in seimensor mhos);thereciprocalof reac-
tance
c Capacitance (measured in farads);Celsiustemperature
D Dissipation factor;reciprocalof storagefactorQ
d Thickness of thedielectricmaterialin acapacitor(measured in centi-
meters)
dB Decibel;the ratio betweentwo amountsof power
E Electromotive force(measured in volts)
F Temperature(measured in degreesFahrenheit)
t Frequency(measured in hertz)
G Conductance (measured in siemensor mhos)
H Lengthof the blpotenusein a right triangle,in sameunitsas the
othersides
183
I Current,in amperes
J Energy,work, or quantityof heat(measured in ioules)
K Couplingcoefficient,dielectricconstant,G t€mperaturein kelvins
L Inductance (measured in henries)
M Mutualinductance (measured in henries)
N Generalsymbl for numbers
O LengthofthesideoppositetoOinariglttriangle,insameunitsasthe
other sides
P Power(measuredinwatts)
pJ. Powerfactor
a Qualityofaninductor,orquantityofelectricitystored(measuredin
coulombs)
R Resistance(measuredinohns)
S Areaof oneplated a capacitor(measured in squarecentimeters)
X Reactance (meastredin ohms);measuredoppositionof a circuitor
component to an alternatingsurrenl
X Capacitivereactance(measured in ohms)
X Inductivereactance(measured in ohms)
Y Adnittance(measured in siemensormhos), thereciprocalofimped-
ance;tle lack of oppositio to the flow d dt€rnatilg crrrent in a
reactivecircuit
Z Impedance (measured in ohms),the reciprocald admittance;the
oppositionto the fow d alt€rnatiqgctrrent in a reactivecircuit
d 9G0degrees
e Phaseaqgle(measured in degrees)in a right triangle,simplyan
angle
X Wavelength (measured in meters)
n 3.1416...
etc Cutofrfrequency
ADMITTANCE
1
(t)Y:16f7
1
(2)Y:2
L
(3)Y:GqEu
AVERAGEVALUE
rralue:0.637(peakwlue)
(1) Average
value:0.900(R.M.S.
(2) Average vralue)
1A
CAPACITANCE
(1) Capacitors
in parallel:
Crmrl:Cr*C2+C8 . . . etc.
(2) Capacitors
in series
CmrL:
rsrq
+.*.+..
(3) Twocapacitcsin serieE
c*.. - CtC'
-tu'& q+Ct
(4) Capacitance
da capaciton
C:o.o885IqP
(5) Quandtyof
electricitystore&
Q-CE
CONDUCTANCE
(1)G:it
I
(2)G-;
(3) GmrAr: Gr+ Gs+ Gr . . . etc.(Resbtfisinpardlel)
(4) IprAL:EG1m11
COSECANT
( 1 ) c - s0c = E
o
(2) csc 0 = sec(904)
( 3 ) c sr =c f r1
COSINE
A
(f) coe0:E
(2)m0-sin(90-O
1
(3)cos0:&
,ffi
COTANGENT
A
(1)cot0-6
(2)ot 0-tat (90- 0)
1
(3)cote-ffi
DECIBEL
P.
(1)dB- t0 log#
Ez
- 20 log*t
(2) 8dts areequal
andloa impedance
- D , 2 O"t if source
I.
(3) dB- 20log* Onlyif source areequal
andloadimpedance
rt
(0 dB- zoblyf9Source
- arermequl
andloadimpedances
Ez{Q'
A - 2glor]&source
O(5) - andloadimpedances
areunequal
lz'lZs
FIGT'NEOF MEruT
(1)Q-tan0
Y
(2 )Q: p
FILTERS,ACTTVE
lowpass,
Therearefourbasicfiltertypes;highpass, utdband*top.
bandpass,
flter typesarereferredto as"constant-K'
andarepractical
fc
Thefollowing
mootpurpooea
Low-Ba$andf,igb-pass
_ l _ R
c-fr t-a
rvlere:
C- capacitancein farads
L- inductancein Henries
R- nominalterminatingresistance- frd
co.- OttOfffreqrency- 2 rf" - 6.28f"
t6
Amplitude
FA.A-Z Lo*|assfltercfnbn fnq*mey
Frequency--;
Banrtpars
,"t:EF
A @ z - @ t .l r r -- R
'
@z-(lt
1 - R(ar-ar)
C' , : t":T
R(c+ - cor)
rvhere:
C1- Seriescapacitance in farads
Ca: Sbuntcapacitance in farads
Lr : Seriesinductancein henries
La - Shuntinductancein henries
R: Nominalt€rninatiqgresistance- [ffi= fW
<o"- Midband -
frequency(dT - #r- 2xf"-6.28q
0)1 : Iowerortofrfrequency
X 6.28
0)2 - Uppercutofffrequency
X 6.28
Bandctop
A I . R(crlr-c,lt)
!,-mTG' 4-T
187
Amplitrdc
Wc
I
Frequency-*
filter+tut oilfn$.erw
FA.A1 Hlgh-/rss
-
- R
Cr-ffi@c QJt
Lt:-
@z - Qtr
where:
<o"- midband : (@
frequency - U!E;q- - U@t6.2S
ue the sameaEband-pas*
All otherespressions
FILTDRS ACTTVE
Activefilters incorpcateanactivedevice(transistor,operadonal anpfificr,
etc.)to replacetbedificult to fnd inductors.Actirc filtersaresmallermdeat&r
to modifyfor specificneeds.Theycanatsofovide high€rQ valuesrhantheir
passivecounterpartsThefollowingequations andtablesarreapflicable toffi
IC operationalanplifiers(indtdingFEtr tJ'pes).
Lm-PassFiltsr
FigureA-9i[ustratesa ommonformd activelow-pass filt€r. Th€valuedCl
is determined bydividingthedesiredcut<ff frequency(c) into 10.Ther€grbd
is the valued Cf in microfrrads.N€ryt,mulfiplythe YalF d Cr
this calculation
with thedesiredfcanddividethisfduct into 159.Thisresilt i8tbescaleftctor,
neededto calculatethe valuegd tbe remainingompoeotsfrm tbefdbwing
tabh
18
I
- - TI- - t
Anplitudc
Wr
I
I
Wo W.
.l--fD
Freqnency
Fb. AA fund-fus fltcr+tat ot fnryeaey.
Erample:
fc : 500Hz;@n- 2
Desired
q:#: o'oz1ts
- .003/F
Cr: (0.02)0.150
scalefacror-#-#: r8.9
f,, : (1.612)15.9
: 25.63k0
Rc- (3.223)15.9- 51.24k{}
Rr: (2.068)15.9- 32.88kO
r89
Amplitude
wt w" Wr -->
FrequencY
FA. 48. fund.tto/filtcrefat onfnqtercy.
f,igh-Pass Filters
Figrre A-10illustratesa commonformd activehigh-pass flter. fite ralueof
Q is determinedby dividingthe q$ofrfrequency
desired ({,) into 10.Theresult
of this calculationistheralueof Q inmicrofarads.Nsrt, multiplytheralueof C1
with thedesired fc anddivide thisproductinto This
159. result is the scalefactor.
The scalefactoris neededto calculatethernalues of theremainingcomponents
from tle followiqgtable:
190
Fig.A-10.High-|a$filtcr.
Exarple:
Desired fc - 50llz; Gain:2
to
Q:fr -o'02
tE
Cc: (0.02)0.500:0.01p1t
- 0.02tE
Cc: (0.02)1.000
scalefrctor-H-f;- ts.e
&: (0.566)15.9: 8.99k0
f,r: (3.536)15.9:56.22ka
BandpassFilter
FigureA-11illustratesa cornmon formof activebandpass filter. Thevalueof
Cris determined bydividingthedesiredcenterfrequency (fo)into 10.Theresult
dthiscalculationisthevalueof Cl inmicrofarads.Next,multiplytderalueof C1
with thedesiredfo anddividethisproductinto 159.Theresultis tle scalefactor,
usedto calculatethe raluesof the renainiqgcompooents from tle followiag
tabte:
p1
Fig.A-11.tundlassflt /.
Example:
Desiredfo: 500IIz; Gain: 10
10
Ct:Bii':0.02#F
: 0.0apF
Cc: (2.000)0.02
factor:g - 119: rb.9
scale
tU, lu
Rr: (0.200)15.9:3.18kO
Rr: (1.000)15.9:15.9kO
: 47.7kA
f,r: (3.000)15.9
a higherQ valueis required.Theraluesof R1,R2,
For a narrowerbandpass,
andRscanbeadjustedby multiplyingthemby thefactorsgivenin thefollowing
table:
Dxample:
Desirea Qof 8 fromthepreviousbandpass maintainingthe
calculationswhile
gainat 10.
1%
Rr - 3.18kQ X 4 : L2.72l<{2
Rz: 15.9kQ X 0.044: 0.699ko
Rs:47.7 kO X 4: 190.8k0
Deeir€dVdue
ofQ Rr R, Rr
Fig.A-12.tundstop6otch)filter.
193
Bample:
Desiredfo - 500IIa Q- 5
1n
Cr- 3tr: 0.02
tF
Cz:2(0.024F)- 0.04#F
-
factor
scale : : 15.e
# T;
Rr- (0.100)15.9
- 1.59kO
Rz(10.000)15.9:159ko
- 1.57kO
Rr - (0.099)15.9
FREQUENCY
(Df-=Lq
1
(2)f::,
IMPEDANCE
(l) Z:trl*
(2)Z-G4BP-
P
($ Z:4
cosu
(4)z-#Y
F
(5)z:i
p
(6)
z-fu
Et cos0
l:t)L:T
INDUCTANCE
(1) Inductorsin series:
Lrm11-Lr*Lr+Ls. . . etc.
(2) Inductorsin parallel:
Llorrr
1 , 1 , 1
...€tc
L-t-f,
1g
(3) Two inductorsin parallel:
_ L,L,
-Tfi;
Lrm.rr
(4) Coupledinductancesin serieswith fieldsaiding:
Lrorer,: Lr * L2+ 2M
(5) Coupledinductancesin serieswith fieldsopposing:
L1661.: Lr * h- 2M
(6) Coupledinductancesin parallelwith fieldsaiding:
Lrmrr,:
1 + 1
'
Ll+M L 2 +M
(7) Coupledinductancesin parallelwith fieldsopposing:
I
Lrmrr,:
1 + 1
'
Lr-M L"-M
(8) Mutualinductionof two rf coilswith fieldsinteracting:
M - L'-L'
4
TVhere
L1is the total inductanceof bothcoilswith fieldsaiding
of bothcoilswith fieldsoppming
L, is the total inductance
(9) Couplingcoefficientof two rf coilsinductivelycoupledso asto givetrans.
formeraction:
f , - -
M
'lLtL,
METER FORMTTI,/TS
1
(1) Ohms/volt:
f
Where
I: Full scalecurrentin amperes
(2) Meter resistance:
It
R nrn:ry
TFUIJ,SCAIS
(3) Currentslnmt:
R--^-
--5srr
- RMerEn
N _ I
Where
reading
N isthenewfull-scale divided (both
bytheoriginalfull-scalereading
in sameunits)
(z)I-
n
\l.R:
6) I:;
(4)R:?
(5)R:i
F3
(6)R-f
(7)E-IR
(8)E-?
(9)E:ffi
(10)P-IzR
(11)P-EI
(u)P-tr.2
OEIII'S IITW FOR AC CIRCTIITS
$b2
(2)r:
G)I-E#
(4)
Z:+
(5)z-#
1%
E2cos0
(o, Z:--F-
(7)B:lZ
p
(8)E:d;0
t v 7
(9)E:{.*e
(10)P:lzZcs9
(1 1 )P :IE co s0
s2)p-ry
PEAT VALUE
(1) VraAr: 1.414(rursvalue)
(2) Vtgltr: 1.570(average
value)
PEASEANGLE
x
0-arctanfr
POW-ERFACTOR
(1)pJ.-cos0
(2) D-crlt0
NEACTANCE
(1) & -2nfl
1
(2)xc-fu,
r97
NESISTANCE
(1) Resistcsin series:
Rrprp-Rt+Rs+Rs . . . etc.
(2) Resistors
in parallel:
Rrvrrr.-
1 1 1
' ' "'-' otf,^
Rr Rr Rr
(3) 1\ro resistorsin parallel:
Rm^,-ffi
RESONIINCE
1
(l) fnrsorwcr:ffi,
QrL-
4fu
@>c-Th
ruGgT TRIANGI,E
(1)fta-*
(2)cc A-*
(3)tano-l
(4)sec0-*
(5)cot0-8
H
(6) csc0-
O
ROOTIIIEAN SQUARE
(SINE WAVE SHAPEONLY)
(1) rms- 0.707Geakvalue)
(2) rns: 1.111(avsagevahre)
SECANT
(1)sec
A-x
tg
(90- d)
(2) sec0- cosecant
(3) sec0- I =
CGI U
SINE
o
(1)sinA:i
(2)sin0- cos(90- d)
( 3 ) s i-n Q - ' ' . >
1
cosecant A
SUSCEPTANCE
x.
(1)B,-pft
t
(2 )B- .:i
r \ c
(3)Bmmr:Br+Bs+Bs . . . etc,
TANGENT
o
(1)tan0_i
(2 )tm0 :o t(9 0 -d )
1
(3)tan?-;i.re
TEMPERATTIRE
(1 )C :0 .5 5 6 F -1 7 .8
(2)F: 1.8C + 32
(3 )K : C +2 7 3
TRANSISTORS,
BIPOIITR
(1)I"-Iu f
(2) I"= 1"
(3) B" - Eu- 0.7(silicontransistors)
(4) E. - Eu- 0.3(gernaniuntransistors)
F
(5)I":ff
I\G
19
(6) 4-R.F
A i+ - F
Wh€res
TRANSISTORS,
FISII) EFFECT
"- --AIo-
AVcr
Wbere:
ralue
Gbis thetransconductance
AVcsi8a changein gateto source
rroltage
AIDiEa suhequent change in &ab curreot
INANSFONUERRATIO
N ' E t - t { rT- ,
-----
N E. t lz,
WAVEI,ENGTg