A First Course in

ESSAY WRITING

Compiled by

Hala Darwish & Mohammed Abdel Aatty

Revised by

M.M. Enani
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH FACULTY OF ARTS CAIRO UNIVERSITY

CONTENTS
Preface...........................................................................................................................i PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL Clauses: The Essential Building-Blocks ............................................................... Exercise on Identifying Independent Clauses .............................................. Writing Concise Sentences .................................................................................. Exercise on Writing Concise Sentences ........................................................ Parallel Form........................................................................................................ Exercises on Parallel Form ............................................................................ Tone: A Matter of Attitude ................................................................................. Spelling.................................................................................................................. Exercises on Spelling ...................................................................................... PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL Sentence Variety................................................................................................... Exercise on Run-on Sentences ....................................................................... Consistency of Tense and Pronoun Reference................................................... Exercise on Consistency in Tense and Pronouns ......................................... Avoiding Primer Language ................................................................................. Exercises on Avoiding Primer Language...................................................... Sentence-Combining Skills.................................................................................. Exercise on Combining Sentences ................................................................. Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas .............................................................. Paragraph Development & Topic Sentences ..................................................... PART III: ESSAY LEVEL Essay Writing Tips............................................................................................. Parts of an Essay ................................................................................................ Introductory Paragraphs .................................................................................. How to Write an Essay ...................................................................................... Kinds of Essay .................................................................................................... The Five-Paragraph Essay ................................................................................

PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE The Computer as Writing Assistant................................................................. Noise Pollution.................................................................................................... Smoking and quitting are matters of free will................................................. What Happened to the News?........................................................................... PART V: WRITING TOPICS ...............................................................................

Preface

This is a most valuable introduction to the art (and science) of writing: it takes the student from the rudimentary to the advanced stages of writing techniques through a precise, step-bystep method. It is intended primarily as a teach-yourself course, which requires a great deal of attention to detail and to guidance on problematic points. It can, however, be taught in class by the experienced teacher who should occasionally refer to the corresponding linguistic structures in Arabic, as well as the evolution of Modern Standard Arabic which has been influenced in the twentieth century by modern European languages. The teacher may postpone this to a later stage, when the student has fully absorbed the technical aspects of English writing, but it is advisable, I believe, to start as early as this course in establishing correspondences and differences. The value of this will soon be apparent in practice: a student learning to write in English may discover that the malaise of muddled thinking in Arabic can be remedied by learning the methods of precise writing, as precision in expression can only come from straight thinking. What is more important, a habit of precise expression will encourage precise thinking: a student taught to avoid beating around the bush (to avoid circumlocution or periphrasis) will soon realize the advantages of getting to the point whether the language is Arabic or English. It is in this sense that a book in essay-writing is also a book on straight thinking. How this course can help the student of translation should immediately be obvious. A translator, as is commonly believed today, is a person writing a text which aspires to be, but is never a

fully, an exact reproduction of another text in a different language. The ultimate test of a successful translation will not be whether the produced text (in the target languageTL) is a facsimile of the original text (in the source languageSL) but whether it is comprehensible and idiomatic. Certain literary texts, it is true, may require additional criteria, but these should not concern the learner: what should concern him or her now is how to produce, initially, a readable text representing all the ideas in the SL text. And this cannot be done without learning first to write. An example should illustrate this point. Most users of this book are expected to be native speakers of Arabic. They will be thinking in Arabic, in a mixture of Egyptian Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) which is the modern variety of classical Arabic used in writing. Trying to write in English will always involve a certain amount of translation, as they will often be looking for equivalents for some of the common words which they would like to use in their English essays (a lexical difficulty dealt with in the translation courses) and as they will be trying to find the correct corresponding expressions in English for the ones they use in Arabic, which is more important. But most important of all, they will be trying to write a coherent essay in English that does not smack too much of their Arabic thinking. A typical student asked to write an essay on the soap operas shown on Egyptian television will first need to know the English words associated with subject. These he or she must gather from texts in English: the title itself must be fully understood. If helped by the teacher or by the right dictionary, the student will first learn that opera here is the plural of opus which means work, and that the specific formal meaning of the term is a play set to music, in part or in full, with arias, recitatives, choruses, duets, trios etc. sung to orchestral accompaniment, and usually characterized by b

elaborate costuming, scenery and choreography. Therefore the student will learn that a soap opera is a colloquial expression referring to a radio or television serial drama of a melodramatic, sentimental nature, so called since many of the original sponsors were soap companies. In other words, the student will acquire fresh knowledge of his or her subject in English even at the stage of preparing for thinking about it. By looking up words in a dictionary the student will gain new expressions which precisely fit his or her ideas on the subject, some of which may still be inchoate or even amorphous. A key word like melodramatic will help the student approach the Egyptian television soap operas from the right angle: a melodrama, he or she will learn, is a drama (as a play or film or radio or television serial drama) concerned with exaggerated conflicts and emotions, stereotyped characters etc. The concept will be found, therefore, to involve other concepts which should help the student to think with precision about his subject. Exaggeration is such a new concept revealed by the exploration of the meaning of melodramatic; and stereotyped, as an adjective, will explain why we never watch any real complex characters, any round, rich characters on Egyptian television. Types rather than full characters are introduced, and mostly in black and white. The teacher may help the student at this stage by explaining that mass culture requires such stereotypical handling of characters, that the viewers cannot appreciate, or indeed accept, any shades of grey. Such an initial exploration of the subject will teach the student more about soap operas than he or she can hope to learn if confined to his or her Arabic ideas of such serial dramas. In the process the student will acquire relevant vocabulary: he or she will learn that radio listeners and television viewers are people who listen to the radio and watch television; that they seek entertainment rather than high-brow culture; that they c

welcome particularly sensational drama because of its function as an escapist form of art; that escapist art is a means of relieving the boredom of treadmill occupations and monotonous ways of life; and that historical soap operas are particularly successful with the masses because they present them with an escape route to images of the past that perpetually change in the hands of dramatists. Such relevant vocabulary will play a twofold function: the student will have at his or her fingertips the essential concepts required for dealing with the subject in English and in Arabic. Tentative or half-formed ideas in Arabic will now be developed not through a direct translation exercise but through an exercise in writing which turns out to be an exercise in thinking as well. Approving or disapproving of the Egyptian television soap operas, the student will now be better equipped to deal with his subject: the writing exercise has proved to be an exercise in thinking and in translation at once. Mapping out ideas is, however, only one aspect of the writing/translation exercise; and the acquisition of the relevant vocabulary only a contributing factor. In writing, as Part I of this book will show, the student will learn the various types of sentences and gain a most valuable consciousness of the way a writer expresses himself or herself. By imitating the English structures, the student will learn to acquire the habit of building up idiomatic structures whether writing or translating. If writing, the student will learn how to begin sometimes with phrasal structures (a prepositional, adverbial etc. phrase) or with reduced clauses (as here) or to foreground his main subject in a main or principal clause; and, if translating, the student will try to achieve fluency in style by transforming paratactic into hypotactic structures. Without first mastering the writing techniques at sentence level, the student will find that transformation is difficult, if not impossible; and, having started the previous d

sentence with a reduced if clause, we may now give an example of a run-on sentence where the if clause is compounded with parallel clauses leading to a beautiful climax. The writer is Thomas Hooker, a seventeenth-century American clergyman, noted for his good prose. The style, it will be seen, is a little old in the sense that English at the time was still redolent of the Shakespearean extended sentence structures, and the extended metaphor, and when English-born Hooker left for America in he took with him the rhetorical style revived back in England nearly half a century later by John Milton. Here is the run-on sentence:

Now if nature should intermit her course and leave altogether, though it were but for awhile, the observation of her own laws; if those principal and mother elements of the world, whereof all things in this lower world are made, should lose the qualities which now they have; if the frame of that heavenly arch erected over our heads should loosen and dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their wonted motions, and by irregular volubility turn themselves any way as it might happen; if the prince of the lights of heaven which now as a giant doth run his unwearied course, should, as it were through a languishing faintness, begin to stand and to rest himself; if the moon should wander from her beaten way, the times and seasons of the year blend themselves by disordered and confused mixture, the winds breathe out their last gasp, the clouds yield no rain, the earth be defeated of heavenly influence, the fruits of the earth pine away as children at the withered breasts of their mother no longer able to yield them reliefwhat would become of man himself, whom these things now do all serve? from Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity

The passage is cited on pages - at the beginning of Part II, and it is instructive to see how the study of this text, an exercise in writing, will help the student to translate better and express himself or herself better. The student will count six ifs in the run-on sentence, marking the division into six parts separated by semi-colons, which are weaker stops than the colon (:) or the full stop/period (.), but the last part consists of six clauses powered by the final if. Now the translator may choose to keep the order of the conditional structure unchanged, and so produce a text reflecting the literary features of the original (SL) text by resorting to the same classical tricks of Arabic style as used by Enani in his rendering of Miltons Paradise Lost and his Arabic Shakespearean versions; thus

" "
The addition of the initial Arabic question word seems to have solved the problem of the long conditional structure, especially that it can be read more as an exclamation than as a question. The other tricks of the trade used in the translation should not concern us here, such as the change of gender in the case of the sun, or the change of subject in the last sentence; what is more interesting, for our purposes, is the ability to produce equal structures in both languages that read as idiomatic texts. Such an ability is the prerogative of the born writer alone; but it can be learnt, and every translator should first try to understand the structure before attempting to imitate it in writing. Perhaps the student will learn that it is better, generally, to start with the main clausethe subject and the verbbefore giving all these piles up clauses. Perhaps a re arrangement will be called for, so as to make it easier for the reader to grasp the main argument or even the very sense of the sentence. Consider the following horror of a sentence on the famous sprinter Carl Lewis: it occurs on page and should be worthy of a detailed analysis: g

Knowing that millions of people around the world would be watching in person and on television and expecting great things from himat least one more gold medal for America, if not another world recordduring this, his fourth and surely his last appearance in the World Olympics, and realizing that his legs could no longer carry him down the runway with the same blazing speed and confidence in making a huge, eye-popping leap that they were capable of a few years ago when he set world records in the -meter dash and in the -meter relay and won a silver medal in the long jump, the renowned sprinter and track-and-field personality Carl Lewis, who had known pressure from fans and media before but never, even as a professional runner, this kind of pressure, made only a few appearances in races during the few months before the Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, partly because he was afraid of raising expectations even higher and he did not want to be distracted by interviews and adoring fans who would follow him into stores and restaurants demanding autographs and photo-opportunities, but mostly because he wanted to conserve his energies and concentrate, like a martial arts expert, on the job at hand: winning his favourite competition, the long jump, and bringing home another Gold Medal for the United States, the most fitting conclusion to his brilliant career in track and field.

It is not a run-on sentence, but too long to be dealt with as a single sentence, though indeed it is grammatically sound. The student should never be encouraged to write like thisbut in order not to do so, he must learn why. The reason is easy to find: the principal clause occurs only on lines -, while all h

preceding clauses and phrases simply pave the way for it, and all the succeeding ones give reasons for the mans actions. Can it be !arranged differently? It can, and it must

) ( .
i

 .
Divided into smaller units, the sentence has been several times interrupted and resumed. The interruption and resumption of syntax is an old trick indeed; and one that every translator should learn but which every writer should shun! And it is here that writing techniques come to serve the translator: by learning how not to write, you learn how to write, and by learning how to avoid those structural mistakes in writing, the translator learns how to produce a better, readable text. Can this long sentence be regarded as a paragraph? Indeed it can; and it should. In fact, it can be divided into two small paragraphs, if the focus is slightly shifted from the fact that he made few appearances to the reasons behind his attitude, but, insofar as the writer concentrates on the theme of Lewiss withdrawal from public notice, it must be regarded as a single paragraph. Too much information in a paragraph, not to say in a sentence, can play havoc with the structure. However, good writers know how to arrange such information in such a way as j

to make it appear equal to the space it is expressed in. The writer of the above-quoted sentence is lazy, and the learner should never adduce the limited space allotted in a newspaper for a given article as a pretext for cramming (cf. .) If you make your reader work too hard to get your meaning you may run the risk of losing him or her; and the more efforts you make to establish your principal idea, in a principal clause, early enough in the text, the more confident you will be in getting your readers full attention. This is a lesson we learn in translation; and it is the lesson that should be taught also in writing.

M. Enani & M. Abdel Aatty Cairo,

PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL

Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:

. define the grammatical terms: " Clause " and Phrase . identify the difference between a " Clause " and phrase. . define the terms " dependent " and" independent " clauses. . exemplify both dependent and independent clauses. . classify clauses into " restrictive " and " nonrestrictive ". . identify relative clauses. . combine independent clauses into larger units of thought. . combine independent clauses using: coordination, subordination
and a semicolon.

. categorize independent clauses functionally into adverb clauses,

adjective clauses and noun clauses.

. exemplify each category of independent clauses. . recognize a noun clause as a subject, object, object of a
preposition or as predicate nominative.

. exemplify the three cases of noun clauses given.

. identify elliptical clauses. . become more conscious of the relation between the grammar
items and / or concepts and the skill of writing.

. appreciate the value of learning the above generalizations. . realize the significance of the concept of " correctness " in the
writing skill.

. provide answers to the ten-item multiple choice exercise on

pages -

. understand what " redundancy " in writing means. . go through the list of redundant phrases provided on pages to correct themselves.

. know how clauses can be reduced to phrases. . know how phrases can be reduced to single words. . appreciate the value / significance of reducing clauses and
phrases in writing.

. grasp the concept of " intensifiers " in expression. . use " intensifiers " only when necessary in writing. . avoid the use of expletive constructions. . go through the list entitled " phrases you can omit " so that they
realize their negative effect on their writing (pages - ).

. define a clich and avoid using it in writing.

. define and exemplify an euphemism. . avoid using euphemism in writing. . define " concision " in writing. . appreciate the value of writing concise sentences. . do the exercise on " writing concise sentences " on pages - . grasp the principle of parallel form in writing. . list a set of correlative expressions. . exemplify some correlative expressions followed by the same
grammatical form.

. do the three exercises based on parallel form on pages - . understand the concept of " tone " in writing. . distinguish between formal and informal writing. . realize how "contractions " make language informal. . appreciate the value of defining the readers of our essays before
writing.

. establish a relation between " Mnemonics " and improving

spelling.

. understand the five given rules intended for improving spelling

on pages

PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL Clauses: The Essential Building-Blocks DEFINITION A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this harassment." Words We Use to Talk about Clauses Learning the various terms used to define and classify clauses can be a vocabulary lesson in itself. This book categorizes clauses into independent and dependent clauses. This simply means that some clauses can stand by themselves, as separate sentences, and some can't. Another term for dependent clause is subordinate clause: this means that the clause is subordinate to another element (the independent clause) and depends on that other element for its meaning. The subordinate clause is created by a subordinating conjunction or dependent word. Notice how an independent clause, "She is older than her brother" (which could be its own sentence), is turned into a dependent or subordinate clause when the same group of words begins with a dependent word: "Because she is older than her brother, she tells him what to do."

Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are sometimes used and mean the same thing as restrictive and nonrestrictive, respectively.) A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence; it can be removed from the sentence without changing its basic meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses are often set apart from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a pair of commas (if it's in the middle of a sentence). Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President, can type words a minute. Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. In a relative clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to) something preceding the clause. Arthur said that the tooth, which had been bothering him for years, had to be removed. (In this sentence, the clause in bold is a restrictive [essential] clause [a noun clausesee below] and will not be set off by a comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "tooth"] is nonrestrictive [nonessentialit can be removed from the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is set off by commas.) Elliptical Clauses: see below.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves, separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply as sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to know when a clause is capable of acting as an independent unit is essential to correct writing. In the following sentence, for example, Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway. we have two independent clauses"Bob didn't mean to do it" and "he did it anyway"connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction ("but"). Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine independent clauses into larger units of thought. For instance, if the word "but" is missing from the above sentence (about Bob), the sentence would be called a comma splice: two independent clauses have been incorrectly connected, with only a comma between them. Furthermore, a long series of clauses of similar structure and length begins to feel monotonous, leading to what is called primer language (after the kind of prose that we find in first grade textbooks or "primers"). (See the section on Avoiding Primer Language for advice and exercises on combining sentences.). Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination, subordination, and using a semicolon. Coordination involves joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. Clauses thus connected are usually nicely balanced in length and import:

 Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but she never talked to her friends about it. Subordination involves turning one of the clauses into a subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through the use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause begins with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause; it is called a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends on something else (the independent clause) for its meaning. There are other ways of combining ideasby turning independent clauses into various kinds of modifying phrases. Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she never talked to her friends about it. Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir, because she was afraid they would make fun of her. Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the choir no matter what her friends said. Joining these with the use of a relative clause: Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister, told Ramonita to join the choir.... Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or without the help of a conjunctive adverb (transitional expression). Semicolons should be used sparingly and only when the two independent clauses involved are closely related and nicely balanced in terms of length and import. Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked her to sing at their wedding.

 Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, she clearly enjoys using it.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make good sense. They must be combined with an independent clause so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by itself. Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are, dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier. There are three basic kinds of dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence. Remember that a dependent clause always contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself. Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why. "When the movie is over, we'll go downtown." or "John wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the subject." Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. "My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me." or "The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace." Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. "What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or "Do you know what he knows [object]?" or "What can you tell me about what he has done this year [object of the preposition "about"]?"

What they did with the treasure remains a mystery. Whatever you want for dessert is fine with Noun Clause as me. Subject That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us. Juan finally revealed what he had done with the money. Noun Clause as Her husband spent whatever she had saved over the years. Object I don't know what I should do next. In fact, he wrote a book about what he had done over the years. We are interested in what he does for a Noun Clause as living. Object of Preposition

The trouble was that they had never been there before. The biggest disappointment of last season Noun Clause as was that the women's team didn't make it to Predicate the final four. Nominative

Adjective Clause

My brother, who now teaches math in a small college, never liked math in high school. The dealership that sold more cars ended up actually losing money. The Federated Bank, which was founded


Adverb Clause

nearly two centuries ago, folded during the state's economic crisis. The team had fallen behind by ten points before they were able to figure out the opponent's defence. Since he started working nights, he doesn't see much of his kids. While Josie sat inside watching television, Gladys shovelled the driveway.

COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES Review the section on Sentence Variety for help in understanding the variety of sentence patterns. It is difficult to know if you're using different patterns unless you keep in mind the way that clauses are combined in larger sentence-units of thought. Pay special attention to the variety of sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. These are defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that make them up. There is also a quiz at the end of that section that will test your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses that make up a sentence.

ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete in the sense that they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent word) that normally introduces such a clause or something from the predicate in the second part of a comparison. The missing parts of the elliptical clause can be guessed from the context and

most readers are not aware that anything is missing. In fact, elliptical clauses are regarded as both useful and correct, even in formal prose, because they are often elegant, efficient means of expression. (The omitted words are noted in brackets below). Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that] she had coached in recent years. Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her recruits proved to be hard workers. Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better than they [could play]. Exercise on Identifying Independent Clauses Choose the correct answer. . The doctor told Charlie to lose weight and exercise vigorously for forty-five minutes a day. This sentence has two independent clauses. This sentence has no independent clauses. This sentence has one independent clause. . The doctor was worried that Charlie was putting on too much weight. The section in bold is an independent clause. The independent clause is "The doctor was worried."

This sentence has no independent clause. . Charlie has a hard time sticking to a diet; he really loves rich, sweet desserts. This sentence has two independent clauses. This sentence has one independent clause. This sentence has no independent clauses. . In fact, the last time he tried to lose weight, he ended up actually gaining weight. "he ended up actually gaining weight" is the only independent clause. The section in bold is the independent clause. This sentence has two independent clauses. . Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer because he is worried about his heart. The section in bold is an independent clause. This sentence has two independent clauses. "Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer" is the independent clause. . His new personal trainer, whose name is Adriana Bongiorno, thinks Charlie may be a lost cause. The part in bold is not an independent clause.

The part in blue is an independent clause. This sentence has two independent clauses. . That she can make him do the exercises but not stick to the diet. The part in bold is the independent clause. This sentence has two independent clauses. This sentence has no independent clause. . He is very good as long as Miss Bongiorno is around, but he goes to the freezer for ice-cream when she leaves. This sentence has three independent clauses. This sentence has two independent clauses. This sentence has one independent clause. . Charlie must learn that eating all those sweets may give him a temporary pleasure but that it's not good for his heart and that he would feel better about himself if he stopped eating all those rich and sweet foods that are not good for him. The independent clause has three words. The independent clause begins with the first "that." This sentence has several independent clauses. . Miss Bongiorno is starting to make a difference, though, and Charlie is starting to make some progress. This sentence has one independent clause.

The clause following "though" is a dependent clause. This sentence has two independent clauses.

Writing Concise Sentences

Pruning the Redundant Avoid saying the same thing twice. Many uneducated citizens who have never attended school continue to vote for better schools. Redundant phrases are bad habits just waiting to take control of your writing. Beware of the following. Redundancy midnight noon am in the morning The Lean Version midnight noon am

absolutely spectacular/phenomenal spectacular/phenomenal a person who is honest an honest person a total of birds birds biography of her life circle around close proximity completely unanimous consensus of opinion cooperate together each and every enclosed herewith end result biography circle proximity unanimous consensus cooperate each enclosed result

exactly the same final completion frank and honest exchange

the same completion frank exchange or honest exchange free gift gift he/she is a person who... he/she important/basic essentials essentials in spite of the fact that although in the field of economics/law in economics/law enforcement enforcement in the event that if job functions job or functions new innovations innovations one and the same the same particular interest interest period of four days four days personally, I think/feel I think/feel personal opinion opinion puzzling in nature puzzling refer back refer repeat again repeat return again return revert back revert shorter/longer in length shorter/longer small/large in size small/large square/round/rectangular in shape square/round/rectangular summarize briefly summarize surrounded on all sides surrounded surrounding circumstances circumstances

the future to come there is no doubt but that usual/habitual custom we are in receipt of

the future no doubt custom we have received

Abbreviated Redundancies

A special breed of redundancy is proliferating in our modern world as we increasingly rely on abbreviations and acronyms in our increasingly technological world. It is redundant to say "ATM machine" because ATM means Automated Teller Machine. It is redundant to say "HIV virus" because HIV means Human Immunodeficiency Virus, "AIDS syndrome" because AIDS means Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome, "CPU unit" because CPU means Central Processing Unit. It sounds particularly senseless when we come up with a plural such as "CPU units"Central Processing Unit units. When we use an abbreviation or acronym in speech (and especially in formal writing), it's important to know what its letters mean so we don't create a new redundancy.

Reducing Clauses to Phrases, Phrases to Single Words Be alert for clauses or phrases that can be pared to simpler, shorter constructions. The "which clause" can often be shortened to a simple adjective. (Be careful, however, not to lose some

needed emphasis by over-pruning; the word "which," which is sometimes necessary [as it is in this sentence]. Smith College, which was founded in , is the premier allwomen's college in the United States. Founded in , Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the United States.

Citizens who knew what was going on voted him out of office. Knowledgeable citizens voted him out of office.

Recommending that a student copy from another student's paper is not something he would recommend. He wouldn't recommend that a student copy from another student's paper. (Or "He would never tell a student to copy....")

Phrases, too, can sometimes be trimmed, sometimes to a single word. Unencumbered by a sense of responsibility, Jasion left his wife with forty-nine kids and a can of beans.

 Jasion irresponsibly left his wife with forty-nine kids and a can of beans. (Or leave out the word altogether and let the act speak for itself): Jasion left his wife with forty-nine kids and a can of beans.

Intensifiers That Don't Intensify Avoid using words such as really, very, quite, extremely, severely when they are not necessary. It is probably enough to say that the salary increase is inadequate. Does saying that it is severely inadequate introduce anything more than a tone of hysteria? These words shouldn't be banished from your vocabulary, but they will be used to best effect when used sparingly.

Avoid Expletive Constructions This sounds like something a politician has to learn to avoid, but, no, an expletive construction is a common device that often robs a sentence of energy before it gets a chance to do its work. Expletive constructions begin with there is/are or it is. There are twenty-five students who have already expressed a desire to attend the program next summer. It is they and their parents who stand to gain the most by the government grant.

 Twenty-five students have already expressed a desire to attend the program next summer. They and their parents stand to gain the most by the government grant.

Phrases You Can Omit Be on the lookout for important sounding phrases that add nothing to the meaning of a sentence. Such phrases quickly put a reader on guard that the writer is trading in publicity; worse, they put a reader to sleep. all things considered All things considered, Africa's woodlands are in better shape now than ever before. All things considered, Africa's woodlands are in better shape now than ever before. As a matter of fact As a matter of fact, there are more woodlands in Africa now than there were in . as a matter of fact, There are more woodlands in Africa now than there were in . As far as concerned I'm As far as I'm concerned, there is no need for further protection of woodlands. As far as I'm concerned, there There is no need for further protection of woodlands.

at the present time

This is because there are fewer farmers at the present time. This is because there are fewer farmers now.

Because of the fact Woodlands have grown in area because of that the fact that farmers have abandoned their fields. Woodlands have grown in area because farmers have abandoned their fields. By means of Major forest areas are coming back by means of natural processes. Major forest areas are coming back through natural processes. (or naturally) By virtue of the fact Our woodlands are coming back by virtue that of the fact that our economy has shifted its emphasis. Our woodlands are coming back by virtue of the fact that because our economy has shifted its emphasis. Due to the fact that Due to the fact that their habitats are being restored, forest creatures are also reestablishing their population bases. Due to the fact that Because their habitats are being restored, forest creatures are also re-establishing their population bases.

Exists

The fear that exists among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for. The fear that exists among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for.

For all intents and The era in which we must aggressively purposes defend our woodlands has, for all intents and purposes, passed. The era in which we must aggressively defend our woodlands has, for all intents and purposes, passed. For the most part For the most part, people's suspicions are based on a misunderstanding of the facts. For the most part, pPeople's suspicions are based on a misunderstanding of the facts. For the purpose of Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchased for the purpose of creating public parks. Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchased for the purpose of creating as public parks. Have a tendency to This policy has a tendency to isolate some communities. This policy has a tendency tends to isolate some communities.

In a manner speaking

of The policy has, in a manner of speaking, begun to civilize the more rural parts of our state. The policy has, in a manner of speaking, begun to civilize the more rural parts of our state.

In a very real sense In a very real sense, this policy works to the detriment of those it is supposed to help. In a very real sense, this This policy works to the detriment of those it is supposed to help. In my opinion In my opinion, this wasteful policy ought to be revoked. In my opinion, thisThis wasteful policy ought to be revoked. In the case of In the case of this particular policy, citizens of Upper Egypt became very upset. Citizens of Upper Egypt became very upset about his policy. In the final analysis In the final analysis, the state would have been better off without such a policy. In the final analysis, the The state would have been better off without such a policy.

In the event that

In the event that enough people protest, it will probably be revoked. If enough people protest, it will probably be revoked.

In the nature of

Something in the nature of a repeal may soon take place. Something in the nature of like a repeal may soon take place.

In the process of

Legislators are already in the process of reviewing the statutes. Legislators are already in the process of reviewing the statutes.

it seems that

It seems that they can't wait to get rid of this one. It seems that they They can't wait to get rid of this one.

Manner

They have monitored the activities of conservationists in a cautious manner. They have cautiously monitored the activities of conservationists.

The point I trying to make

am The point I am trying to make is that sometimes public policy doesn't accomplish what it set out to achieve. The point I am trying to make is that

sometimesSometimes public policy doesn't accomplish what it set out to achieve. type of Legislators need to be more careful of the type of policy they propose. Legislators need to be more careful of the type of policy they propose. what I mean to say What I mean to say is that well intentioned is lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves. What I mean to say is that well Well intentioned lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves.

Eliminating Clichs and Euphemisms A clich is an expression that was probably, once upon a time, an original and brilliant way of saying something. Imagine being the first person to say something as clever as "She fell head over heels in love" or "She's cool as a cucumber." Sadly, though, such expressions eventually lose their luster and become too common and even annoying. Writers who indulge in tired language are not being respectful to their readers, and writers return the compliment by losing attention and going on to something else.

Here is a list of trite expressions to look for in your writing and speaking. acid test at loose ends babe in the woods better late than never brought back to reality black as pitch blind as a bat bolt from the blue busy as a bee/beaver cat's meow cool as a cucumber cool, calm, and collected crack of dawn crushing blow cry over spilt milk dead as a doornail dog-eat-dog world don't count your chickens dyed in the wool easier said than done easy as pie feathered friends face the music flash in the pan Meaningful dialogue Moving experience Needle in a haystack Open-and-shut case Pain in the neck Point with pride pretty as a picture put it in a nutshell quick as a flash/wink rat race ripe old age ruled the roost sad but true sadder but wiser set the world on fire sick as a dog sigh of relief slow as molasses smart as a whip sneaking suspicion spread like wildfire straight as an arrow straw that broke the camel's back

flat as a pancake gentle as a lamb go at it tooth and nail good time was had by all greased lightning happy as a lark head over heels heavy as lead horns of a dilemma hour of need keep a stiff upper lip ladder of success last but not least looking a gift horse in the mouth

strong as an ox take the bull by the horns thin as a rail through thick and thin tired but happy to coin a phrase to make a long story short trial and error tried and true under the weather white as a sheet wise as an owl work like a dog worth its weight in gold

A euphemism is a word or phrase that substitutes for language the speaker or writer feels is too blunt or somehow offensive. When people die, we say, instead, that they have "passed away" or "met their Maker" or "gone to sleep." And, at the silly extreme, a garbage collector is a sanitation engineer, a janitor is a custodial engineer. What the writer must guard against is the tendency of euphemisms not only to shield readers from harsh reality but also to confuse meaning and truth. The military is especially guilty of this: bombing raids become surgical air-strikes and armies become peace-keeping forces. Good writing tells the truth and tells it plain.

Exercise on Writing Concise Sentences Rewrite the following sentences to achieve a more concise statement. . At this point in time we can't ascertain the reason as to why the screen door was left open. . My sister, who is employed as a nutritionist at the University of Michigan, recommends the daily intake of megadoses of Vitamin C. . Basically, in light of the fact that Congressman Fuenches was totally exhausted by his last campaign, there was an expectation on the part of the voters that he would not reduplicate his effort to achieve office in government again. . It is to be hoped that we discover a means to create an absolutely proper and fitting tribute to Professor Espinoza. . There is a desire on the part of many of us to maintain a spring recess for the purpose of getting away from the demands of our studies. . Joe was an honest and hard working man. Basically, he never gave much consideration to sitting idly about, doing nothing constructive. (Rewrite as one sentence.) . What is your basic understanding of predestination? . At what point in time will a downturn in the stock market have a really serious effect on the social life of people as a whole?

. I would call your attention to the fact that our President, who was formerly the Governor of Arkansas, is basically a Southerner. . There are more than a million fans who desperately want the Hartford Whalers to stay in the city. . Bothered by allergies, a condition that made them sneeze, some of the pre-school children had sinus troubles that caused them to miss several days in nursery school this spring. . The nursery school teacher education training sessions involve active interfacing with pre-school children of the appropriate age as well as intensive peer interaction in the form of role playing

Parallel Form Basic Principle: Express coordinate ideas in similar form. The principle of parallel construction requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Unskilful writers often violate this principle, from a mistaken belief that they should constantly vary the form of their expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it writers may have need to vary its form. But apart from this, writers should follow carefully the principle of parallel construction.

Faulty Parallelism

Corrected Version

Formerly, science was taught Formerly, science was taught by the by the textbook method, while textbook method; now it is taught by now the laboratory method is the laboratory method. employed.

The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it. By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Faulty Parallelism

Corrected Version

The French, the Italians, The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and Portuguese Spanish, and the Portuguese

In spring, summer, or in winter

In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter)

Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence. Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

It was both a long ceremony and The ceremony was both long and very tedious. tedious. A time not for words, but action A time not for words, but for action

Either you must grant his request You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. or incur his ill will. My objections are, first, the My objections are, first, that the injustice of the measure; second, measure is unjust; second, that it that it is unconstitutional. is unconstitutional.

When making comparisons, the things you compare should be couched in parallel structures whenever that is possible and appropriate. Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

My income is smaller than my My income is smaller than my wife. wife's.

Exercises on Parallel Form First Exercise Abraham Lincoln's famous Gettysburg speech abounds with examples of parallel structures. Examine the following part of the speech and match the parallel structures: Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. Delivered at Gettysburg on November , Second Exercise Select the sentence that illustrates the use of proper parallel construction. . Donald Smith has wit, charm, and she has an extremely pleasant personality.

Donald Smith has wit, charm, and a pleasing personality.

In English class, Tashonda learned to read poems critically and to appreciate good prose. In English class, Tashonda learned to read poems critically and she appreciated good prose. . Raoul's QPA is higher than Ralph. Raoul's QPA is higher than Ralph's. . He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to make good friends, and to learn about life. He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to make good friends, and learning about life. . Coach Espinoza was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor, and a wise friend. Coach Espinoza was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor, and friend. . We found the film repulsive, offensive, and we thought it was embarrassing.

 We found the film repulsive, offensive, and embarrassing. . Mr. Nguyen kept his store clean, neat, and he made it conveniently arranged. Mr. Nguyen kept his store clean, neat, and conveniently arranged. . Professor Ali rewarded his students for working hard on the final project and going beyond the call of duty. Professor Ali rewarded his students for their hard work on the final project and going beyond the call of duty. . There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream, setting up camp, and spending a couple of days fishing. There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream, setting up camp, and to spend a couple of days fishing.

Third Exercise Improve the following sentences with the use of proper parallel constructions. . Espinoza's style was remarkable for its dexterity, grace, and she could play any position.

. Raoul's motivation to succeed in this program seems to be greater than his sister. . Three of the great Indian nations in the Central Plains are the Cherokees, the Choctaws, and Comanches. . Either you will begin to study now or risk failing the exam. . The college has space for a new computer lab but not a faculty lounge. . Her conditions for signing the contract are, first, the commissioner has to approve the terms; second, that the other players must sign as well. . Carlos wasted his first year at college by not studying enough and spending too much time at parties. . We have no doubt about her care and interest in the proposal. . We realize not only that these students have a language problem but also cultural differences. . The students prepared for their exams at home, they spent extra hours with their tutors, they did the necessary research in the library, and asked questions in their classrooms.

Tone: A Matter of Attitude Your behaviour while attending school is different from your behaviour while hanging out in the back yard with friends, or at least we hope it is. And part of that difference is the difference in language, a difference not just in the words we use but in what we call tone. We also recall being told, when we were very young, not to "use that tone of voice with me, Mister (or Missy, as the case may be)!" Just as the pitch and volume of one's voice carry a difference in tone from street to school, the choice of words and the way we put our sentences together convey a sense of tone in our writing. The tone, in turn, conveys our attitude towards our audience and our subject matter. Are we being frivolous or serious, casual or formal, sweet or stuffy? The choice of a single word can change the tone of a paragraph, even an entire essay. In the first sentence of this paragraph, for example, the phrasal verb "hanging out" is considerably more casual than others we might have chosen: gathering, congregating, assembling. Audience One difficulty in writing for a course is that it's hard to think of the reader of our essays as an audience. Our instructor might, in fact, be our sole reader, somebody who will pack a pile of papers into a briefcase or backpack and take them home to read. In fact, that person has to read those essays, whether they're good or bad. This is a very limited audience, indeed, and if we aim our essay at that one individual, we have severely limited its appeal. We would be much better off if we could conceive of our essays

as being aimed towards a community of readers, the readership, say, of a small-town or neighbourhood newspaper. These readers are interested in what we have to saycurious, in factbut they're easily distracted; they expect something that is fresh, honest, imaginative, energetic, without being too nonsensical or unconventional. We don't know exactly who is going to pick up this newspaper, so we need to be on our best behaviour; our tone must aim toward being friendly and helpful without being overly casual (and never slangy); if we can maintain this tone of slight formality without being stuffy, we've hit it just right.

informal light, humorous, comic personal, subjective casual, offhanded "loose," disorderly nonsensical, experimental plainspoken, simple

formal serious, grave, decorous objective, impersonal impassioned reasoned, reasonable controlled, reserved ornate, elaborate

Contractions One measure of the formality of our language is our use of contractions. The paragraph just before this one has five verb contractions: it's (twice), they're, don't, and we've. We use contractions all the time in casual conversation, of course, and using contractions in our text will convey an informal quality. To

elevate the style, eliminate the contractions and write out the verbs: "if we can maintain this tone of slight formality without being stuffy, we have hit it just right." It is a very easy matter to do a search for apostrophes in our text, and it is a very useful exercise, also. First, we can check for any possessives we may have formed incorrectly, but then we can also check for contractions. A pleasant informality may be void of elevated language, but it is not an excuse for imprecision or unnecessary wordiness. Read the section on writing Concise Sentences and review the various means of pruning unnecessary words and clichs. Here is a paragraph from an article which calls upon us to stop using antibiotics haphazardly. Which parts of the paragraph would you consider as formal or informal, and why? Media reports have likely made you aware of this problem, but they have neglected the implications. Your brother catches a cold that turns into a sinus infection. His doctor treats him with antibiotics, but the bacteria are resistant to all of them. The infection enters his bloodstreama condition known as septicemiaand a few days later, your brother dies. (Septicemia is what killed Muppets creator Jim Henson a few years ago.) Or instead of a cold, he has an infected cut that won't heal, or any other common bacterial disease, such as an ear or prostate infection. Michael Castleman, Cold Comfort. And here is a paragraph from an article declaring that the cultural assumptions of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment are current

at the end of this century. Although you have only four sentences to go on, can you say how this paragraph differs from the paragraph above? Does this difference say something about the audiences of the two articles, respectively? Do you prefer one style to another? Which one feels more like your style? Governments everywhere are at a loss regarding the best policy for regulating the dwindling forest reserves of the world. Few ethical guidelines have been established from which agreement might be reached, and those are based on an insufficient knowledge of ecology. Even if adequate scientific knowledge were available, we would have little basis for the long-term valuation of forests. The economics of sustainable yield is still a primitive art, and the psychological benefits of natural ecosystems are almost wholly unexplored. Edward O. Wilson, Back from Chaos. If we tried counting contractions for the entire articles from which these paragraphs are taken, we would discover that there is only one contractiona shouldn'tin Wilson's article and there are twenty contractions in Castleman's, even though Wilson's article is considerably longer. How do these contractions, or the lack of them, affect your sense of the seriousness of the essays?

Spelling Working on Your Spelling Improving your spelling skills is largely a matter of personal commitment: looking up a word you're not sure of, keeping the dictionary at hand, keeping a list of words you know you have trouble with. Using Mnemonics Mnemonics (Now there's a toughie to spell! It's pronounced as if that initial m isn't there.) are little memory devices you can use to remember how to spell words. Good geography students will remember that George Eliot's Old Grandfather Rode A Pig Home Yesterday. Some mnemonics seem more difficult to remember than the spelling they're supposed to serve. Some would remember the three e's in cemetery as three tombstones in a row. When you think of stationery, think of the e in envelope. Does it help to think of the r in separate as separating two like letters? Coming up with mnemonics to help you remember things is a device you probably use in other studies all the time. Extend the habit into your personal mission to improve spelling. Be as inventive as you wish and have fun with the idea. It will pay off in the long run.

Homonyms and Plurals Homonyms are words that sound alike or nearly alike but have different meanings and different spellings: affect-effect, they're-their-there, the list goes on and on.

Creating plurals in English is usually quite simple: just add s to the end of the word. Sometimes, however, it isn't that easy and the rules can be a bit perplexing.

Sounding It Out Writers who try to rely too completely on the sound of English words for hints on how to spell often have trouble with some of the peculiar sound-spell combinations in the language. One apocryphal (apokrifil?) story tells about a girl who, when asked to spell "fish," wrote GHOT on the chalkboard. It makes perfect sense, of course, if it's the same "gh" we see in cough, the same "o" we hear in women, and the same "t" we hear in nation. A thorough acquaintance with prefixes and endings and roots (see elsewhere in this section) will help some, and studying the way words are broken down into sound units will help also. It also helps to pronounce words correctly in the first place. It's hard to spell strictly unless we hear that "t" in the word; and the words February and library must retain their first "r." If we try to change the noun accident into an adverb, we'll end up with accidently, which is a really bad accident but is how many people say the word. Try, instead, to change the adjective accidental into an adverb: accidentally. (The same goes for incidentally and coincidentally.) The ability to sound things out correctly doesn't help us much with Wednesday, though, especially with the inexplicable American pronunciation which puts an "nz" sound before the "d." And words like often and handsome, in which the "t" and "d" sounds have disappeared (at least in the U.S.), continue to defy phonetic spellers (fonetik spelurz). American author Mark Twain

was keenly interested in the simplification of English spelling and his little essay called "A Plan for the Simplification of English Spelling" is included here.

British Spellings Writers who grow up in England, Canada, the Barbados, or any place where spelling habits conform to British preferences will be perplexed when the word colour comes back from an American instructor with a slash mark through the u. When Daniel Webster started putting his dictionary together, he thought it would be a good idea to simplify some English spelling and that -our was one ending he thought Americans could do without. Standard American spelling, ever since then, has been sometimes different from British, and it extends to other words as well. A good dictionary should account for these differences. Instructors should also be equipped to account for them, if not to allow for them. American Spelling canceled center check color criticize gray humor judgment labor British Spelling cancelled centre cheque colour criticise grey humour judgement labour

license realize theater tire valor

licence realise theatre tyre valour

Rule #: I before E except after C This rule, designed to help us remember how to spell words such as receive and chief, seems so promising in its simplicity at first. achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend, grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce, priest ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit, conceit But then things get complicated: it doesn't work with words pronounced "ay" as in neighbour, freight, beige, sleigh, weight, vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to the rule: either, neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure. Still, the rule is relatively simple and worthwhile remembering.

Rule #: Dropping Final E When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the final e if the ending begins with a vowel: advancing

surprising However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e: advancement likeness (However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e when adding any ending: argument, argued, truly.) Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is kept in words such as mileage and words where the final e is preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous, manageable, management, noticeable. (The word management, for example, without that e after the g, would be pronounced with a hard g sound.)

Rule #: Dropping Final Y When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y to i when it is preceded by a consonant. supply becomes supplies worry becomes worried merry becomes merrier This does not apply to the ending -ing, however. crying studying

Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel. obeyed saying

Rule #: Doubling Final Consonants When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we double that consonant in many situations. First, we have to determine the number of syllables in the word. Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a vowel when the last syllable of the word is accented and that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant. submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double the t before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: submitting, submitted. flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always accented. Again, the last consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: flapping, flapped. open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by a single vowel, but the accent falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable, so we don't double the n before adding an ending: opening, opened. refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last syllable and a single vowel precedes the final consonant, so we will double the r before adding an ending, as in referring,

referral. The same would apply to begin, as in beginner, beginning. relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is preceded by another consonant, not a vowel, so we do not double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting. deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a consonant preceded not by a single vowel, but by two vowels, so we do not double the final l as in dealer dealing.. The same would apply, then, to despair, despairing, despaired.

Rule #: Adding Prefixes Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change its spelling. For some reason, the word misspelling is one of the most often misspelled words in English. unnecessary, dissatisfied, disinterested, misinform

Exercises on Spelling Practice Exercise . I don't care what you read on ____________ label! This is poisonous ! its it's . ____________ mine ! Its It's . If ____________ patient enough, you might see a rainbow . your you're . They have left ____________ home because of the storm . their they're there . ____________ going where no one has gone before . We're Were Where . ____________ bike is that Whose Who's . The computer has been ____________ there since yesterday . sitting setting

. My brother ____________ in bed all day yesterday . laid lay lied . How did they manage to ____________ that game lose loose . The library has been incredibly ____________ today . quite quit quiet Practice Exercise Indicate if the word is spelled correctly or not. . accidently . independance . foreign . paralel . privilege . maintnance . ommited . grammar . heighth . cemetery . irresistable . arguing

. catagory . embarrass . enviroment

SUMMARY PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL

Remember: . A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. . A clause could be independent or dependent. . Independent clauses could stand by themselves as discrete
sentences.

. To combine independent clauses, we can use coordination,

subordination and a semicolon.

. Dependent clauses cannot stand by themselves. They must be

combined with independent clauses so that they become parts of sentences. Dependent clauses could function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs.

. Clauses are combined into larger sentence-units: Compound,

complex and compound complex sentences (refer to the section on " Sentence variety " p. ).

. Elliptical clauses are elegant efficient means of expression. . Redundancy is the degree to which a written bit of discourse
contains more information than is needed for it to be understood. Redundant phrases in writing are bad habits which should be avoided. Writing short and clear sentences (i.e. concise sentences) is a major feature of good writing.

. Language units which are similar in content and function should

be expressed in similar form. Example: Shall we go home or go to movie? (The two ideas or clauses are coordinate, i.e. equal in importance or rank)

. Correlative conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions used in

pairs in a parallel construction (e.g. both.. and, either... or, neither... nor, not only.... but also, etc....,) They should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Example: Either say you're sorry or get out. (Two possibilities separated by ' or')

. The tone of a piece of writing is its general quality or nature.

The choice of words and the way sentences are put together, therefore, convey the tone of a given piece of writing. Tone reflects the writers' attitude towards both . audience and subject matter.

. One measure of the formality of writing is the use of

contractions. Using contractions makes a text informal, whereas eliminating contractions elevates the style and maintains a tone of formality. Spelling rules: " I before E except after C " This rule helps us remember the spelling of words like achieve, believe, grief, thief, grieve, etc........

. "Dropping Final E "

Drop the Final 'e' if the ending of word begins with a vowel (e.g. advancing). But, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e as in advancement

. " Dropping Final Y "

When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the 'y' to i when it is preceded by a consonant.. Accordingly " supply becomes supplies.

. Doubling final consonants:

Double the consonants which mark the ending of words. e.g. submit: submitting - submitted. Adding prefixes to words does not change their spelling (e.g. unnecessary, disinterested, dissatisfied etc...).

PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL SENTENCE VARIETY

Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:

. differentiate between a run - on sentence and a long one . understand that a long sentence should develop its complexity
after the verb.

. appreciate the significance of repeating some key words and

phrases in writing.

. establish the relationship between repeated terms in a piece of

writing and understanding its meaning.

. appreciate the value of beginning a paragraph with a question

which summarizes what preceded and prepares for what follows.

. appreciate the value of changing the normal sentence word

order.

. identify the four types of sentences: Simple, compound,

complex and compound complex.

.define a cumulative sentence

. appreciate the value of using a variety of sentences in achieving

shifts in tone

. do the exercise based on run - on sentences on pages - . grasp what the concept of consistency of tense involves in
writing.

. understand the concept of consistency of pronoun reference in

writing.

. do the exercise based on consistency in tense and pronouns. . identify the features of " primer style ". . avoid using ' primer language' doing the exercises on pages .

. understand the rationale behind the need to combine sentences

in writing.

. know how to compound sentences. . know how to compound sentence elements. . know how to subordinate one clause to another. . define 'an appositive '. . use appositives to combine ideas. . define a "participial phrase " . use participial phrases to connect ideas.

. define an 'absolute phrase ' . use absolute phrases to connect ideas. . do the exercise based on ' Combining sentences ' on pages

. identify the four mechanical considerations in providing

"transition" between ideas.

. appreciate the value of coherence in a piece of writing. . recognise the given set of 'transitional tags ' . match the given set of transitional devices on pages -
with the functions provided.

. understand how repetition lends itself to coherence. . appreciate the value of pronoun reference in a piece of writing. . read critically the paragraph on page "". . provide reasons for describing this paragraph as " unified ". . identify the difference between the paragraph on page and its
revised version on the next page.

. define a "topic sentence". . understand the concept of paragraph development by using

relevant details.

PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL

Sentence Variety
A Note on Sentence Variety Many writers, unsure of themselves, are leery of long sentences because they fear the run-on, forgetting that it is often better to risk imperfection than boredom. What we need, then, is practice in handling long sentences. It's easy to feel confident in writing shorter sentences, but if our prose is made up entirely of shorter structures, it would drive a reader crazy after a while.

Run-ons and Length Remember that a really long sentence and a run-on sentence are not the same thing. Note the following monster of a sentence from Thomas Hooker: Now if nature should intermit her course and leave altogether, though it were but for awhile, the

observation of her own laws; if those principal and mother elements of the world, whereof all things in this lower world are made, should lose the qualities which now they have; if the frame of that heavenly arch erected over our heads should loosen and dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their wonted motions, and by irregular volubility turn themselves any way as it might happen; if the prince of the lights of heaven which now as a giant doth run his unwearied course, should, as it were through a languishing faintness, begin to stand and to rest himself; if the moon should wander from her beaten way, the times and seasons of the year blend themselves by disordered and confused mixture, the winds breathe out their last gasp, the clouds yield no rain, the earth be defeated of heavenly influence, the fruits of the earth pine away as children at the withered breasts of their mother no longer able to yield them reliefwhat would become of man himself, whom these things now do all serve? from Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity The modern reader might rebel at the complexity of those clauses piled one upon the other, and it does seem rather ponderous at first. In fact, if you were to write such a sentence in academic prose, your instructor would probably call you in for a conference. But if, as reader, you let yourself go a bit, there's a well earned delight in finding yourself at the end of such a sentence, having successfully navigated its shoals. And, as writer (avoiding such extremes), there's much to be learned by devising such monsters and then cutting them back to reasonable size.

Here are some hints about using long sentences to your advantage.

Coordination Allow the complexity of a longer sentence to develop after the verb, not before it. Make the connection between subject and verb quick and then allow the sentence to do some extra work. In the completer (predicate), however, be careful to develop the complex structures in parallel form. Here is a -word sentence (not a run-on, though) that succeeds grammatically but fails stylistically because it gives way to too much work before the subject-verb connection is made:
Knowing that millions of people around the world would be watching in person and on television and expecting great things from himat least one more gold medal for America, if not another world recordduring this, his fourth and surely his last appearance in the World Olympics, and realizing that his legs could no longer carry him down the runway with the same blazing speed and confidence in making a huge, eyepopping leap that they were capable of a few years ago when he set world records in the -meter dash and in the -meter relay and won a silver medal in the long jump, the renowned sprinter and track-and-field personality Carl Lewis, who had known pressure from fans and media before but never, even as a professional runner, this kind of pressure, made only a few appearances in races during the few months before the Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, partly because he was afraid of raising expectations even higher and he did not want to be distracted by interviews and adoring

fans who would follow him into stores and restaurants demanding autographs and photo-opportunities, but mostly because he wanted to conserve his energies and concentrate, like a martial arts expert, on the job at hand: winning his favourite competition, the long jump, and bringing home another Gold Medal for the United States, the most fitting conclusion to his brilliant career in track and field.

Repeated Terms One of the scariest techniques for handling long sentences is the repetition of a key term. When properly handled, repetition of key words and phrases within a sentence and then within a paragraph not only holds things together but creates a rhythm that provides energy and drives the meaning home. Heres an example: The Swiss watchmakers' failure to capitalize on the invention of the digital timepiece was both astonishing and alarmingastonishing in that the Swiss had, since the beginnings of the industrial revolution in Europe, been among the first to capitalize on technical innovations, alarming in that a tremendous industrial potential had been lost to their chief competitors, the watchmakers of Japan. In the following sentence, from a speech by John F. Kennedy (dedicating the Robert Frost Library at Amherst College), observe how the repeated, parallel phrases pile up the meaning in waves:

In America, our heroes have customarily run to men of large accomplishments. But today this college and country honours a man whose contribution was not to our size but to our spirit, not to our political beliefs but to our insight, not to our self-esteem, but to our self-comprehension.... I look forward to a great future for America, a future in which our country will match its military strength with our moral restraint, its wealth with our wisdom, its power with our purpose. I look forward to an America which will not be afraid of grace and beauty, which will protect the beauty of our natural environment, which will preserve the great old American houses and squares and parks of our national past, and which will build handsome and balanced cities for our future. The same principle can apply in repeated whole sentences in a paragraph. Watch how President Kennedy drove him his point in the famous "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech: There are many people in the world who really don't understand, or say they don't, what is the great issue between the free world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin. There are some who say that communism is the wave of the future. Let them come to Berlin. And there are some who say in Europe and elsewhere we can work with the Communists. Let them come to Berlin. And there are even a few who say that it is true that communism is an evil system, but it permits us to make economic progress. Lass' sie nach Berlin kommen. Let them come to Berlin.

Remarks in the Rudolph Wilde Platz West Berlin: June , Additional Hints on Variety Try an occasional question, exclamation, or command. A question can be especially useful at the beginning of a paragraph where you want to summarize quickly what preceded and launch into what will now follow. "And what were the results of this Proclamation of ?" This reminds your readersAh, that's what we're talking aboutand prepares them for what comes next. A command or directive provides direction and energy. Readers react to being grabbed by the collar and told what to do. It's hard to ignore, if not to resist. Tone is very important here. "Learning the principle of parallel structure can be the most important thing you learn in writing class. Learn it now!" Try beginning an occasional sentence with something other than the normal subject-followed-by-verb order of things. Begin with a modifying clause or participial phrase instead. "Having led his people in a successful resistance, Pontiac was astonished to discover how Indian tribal differences and individualism began, instantly, to erode their base of unified power." Try beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, nor, for, yet, or, so). Many writers assert that if you begin a sentence with and or but you should have connected that sentence to the prior sentence. Well, perhaps

you should have, but give it a try. A sentence beginning with a conjunction will almost always call attention to itself, and if that's what you want, do it. But not so often that it gets out of control. Try using a variety of basic sentence structures. We can categorize sentences into four main types, depending on the number and type of clauses they contain: . Simple (one independent clause): We drove from Cairo to Libya in one day. . Compound (more than one independent clause): We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday party. . Complex (one independent clause and at least one dependent clause): Although he is now years old, he still claims to be . . Compound-complex (more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause): After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he was really surprised. In terms of style, you will also find that sentences are classified as periodic or cumulative sentences. Periodic sentences begin with modifying phrases and clauses, sometimes piling them on, and then end with an independent clause, period. If, instead of listening to the war-mongers of the military-industrial establishment, the politicians had only listened to what people had been writing in

their letters and in the newspaper columns, if they had only listened to what the demonstrators had been shouting in the streets and on the campuses, if they had only listened to what was in their hearts, the war would have ended long ago. Cumulative sentences, on the other hand, begin with the independent clause and then finish with a flurry of modifying constructions. See the sentences of President Kennedy above. Again, it is not so much that one kind of sentence is to be preferred over another but that a good craftsperson uses the right tool for the right job and doesn't use the same tool all the time. It does no good to be overly conscious of these sentence types in the first draft of your essay, but as you review your essay, keep in mind that too many sentences of any one kind especially too many simple sentenceswill be tedious for your reader. On the other hand, as we have seen, there is nothing like a brief sentence to drive home a point after a lengthy, rambling sentence. Try spicing up your prose by combining sentences into different structures. The most important thing you will derive from using a variety of sentence types is the shifts in tone that will result. Variety of sentence structure and type liberates your text from the monotone. Ezra Pound said that writing aspires to music, "which is the art of arts." Good academic prose is not poetry and it is not music, but there is surely no reason for it to remain on the dull plains of sameness. Try using an occasional cleft sentence. The structure of a cleft sentence allows a writer to emphasize a part of a

sentence in the same way that a speaker can emphasize part of a sentence using voice stress. We could say "Coach CALHOUN came up with the program of recruiting players from foreign countries." and by stressing the word "Calhoun" we let the listener know that we're distinguishing this coach from all others (in this particular context). To create the same kind of stress in writing, we can "cleave" (split) the sentence into two parts: It was Coach Calhoun who came up with the program of recruiting players from foreign countries. Or we could stress the idea of the PROGRAM in this way: It was the program of recruiting players from foreign countries that Coach Calhoun came up with. The cleft sentence usually uses it as the main subject with a to be verb; the real information in the sentence, oddly enough, follows in the predicate and then in a dependent clause beginning with a dependent word (usually who, which, or that). Another form of the cleft sentence can be created with what (instead of it). What you did in your youth is your own business. The what form of the cleft sentence will frequently take the main verb (and business) of the sentence and put it into an initial noun clause:

 A massive typhoon off the east coast delayed the invasion. What delayed the invasion was a massive typhoon off the east coast. Cleft sentences are useful for putting stress in a sentence exactly where you want it, but they should be used sparingly, reserved for special occasions like birthdays and wedding anniversaries. Exercise on Run-on Sentences Each of the following is a run-on sentence. From the group of three sentences that follows, select the group of words that corrects the run-on. . Our solar system has nine major planets only one is known to have intelligent life. Our solar system has nine major planets, only one is known to have intelligent life. Our solar system has nine major planets only one, is known to have intelligent life. Our solar system has nine major planets; only one is known to have intelligent life. . Most asteroids are small and far away therefore they are dim and hard to see.

Most asteroids are small and far away, therefore they are dim and hard to see. Most asteroids are small and far away therefore, they are dim and hard to see. Most asteroids are small and far away; therefore, they are dim and hard to see. . Look through Angelo's telescope you can see Saturn's rings. If you look through Angelo's telescope, you can see Saturn's rings. Look through Angelo's telescope, you can see Saturn's rings. You can see Saturn's rings, look through Angelo's telescope. . Please check the position of that star cluster I can't find it. Please check the position of that star cluster; I can't find it. Please check the position of that star cluster, I can't find it. Please check the position, of that star cluster, I can't find it. . Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter however on warm summer nights she often goes to the college observatory.

Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter, however, on warm summer nights she often goes to the college observatory. Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter. However, on warm summer nights she often goes to the college observatory. Marie is never interested in stargazing, during the winter however, on warm summer nights she often goes to the college observatory. . The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the night sky it is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of stars. The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the night sky, it is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of stars. The cloud-like Milky Way stretching across the night sky is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of stars. Although the Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the night sky. It is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of stars. . Watch the sky closely for several minutes you are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over. Watch the sky closely for several minutes; you are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over.

Watch the sky closely for several minutes, you are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over. If you watch the sky closely for several minutes. You are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over. . Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby she secretly wished she had stayed at home. Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby, she secretly wished she had stayed at home. Pretending to be interested in her brother's hobby, Louisa secretly wished she had stayed at home. Louisa pretended to be interested, in her brother's hobby, she secretly wished she had stayed at home. . Some club members were late for the meeting for example, Tanya and Scott came in at :. Some club members were late for the meeting, for example Tanya and Scott came in at :. Some club members were late for the meeting, for example, Tanya and Scott came in at :. Some club members were late for the meeting; for example, Tanya and Scott came in at :.

. His salary is enormous however most fans think he's worth it. His salary is enormous; however, most fans think he's worth it. His salary is enormous, however most fans think he's worth it. His salary is enormous, however, most fans think he's worth it.

Consistency of Tense and Pronoun Reference Tense Consistency Remember that if you're writing in the present tense, don't shift to the past tense (or vice versa) unless you have a good reason to do so. For instance, in the sentences below there is no reason to switch from the present tense. This is especially true when writing papers about literature: wherever possible, stay in the present tense. Confusion In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, the narrator is one of the few truly successful characters in terms of moral development. However, she was also seriously flawed in some ways. Repair Work In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, the narrator is one of the few truly successful characters in terms of moral development. However, she is also seriously flawed in some ways.

Confusion She intended to play for the team during the upcoming season, but then she blows out her knee. [Shifting to the present tense this way would be common in casual speech; it will not do, however, in writing.] Repair Work She intended to play for the team during the upcoming season, but then she blew out her knee.

Pronoun Reference Remember that if you're referring to you, or we, or I, or one, try to remain consistently within the same case. One You should observe this carefully whenever you write. Confusion In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, we find the narrator to be one of the few successful characters in terms of moral development. However, even the narrator, you soon realize, is seriously flawed. [We've shifted from the third-person, plural "we" (quite common when writing about literature) to the second-person, singular "you."] Repair Work In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, we find the narrator to be one of the few successful characters in terms of moral development. However, even the narrator, we soon realize, is seriously flawed.

Confusion People enjoy themselves immensely at UConn women's basketball games. You don't have to be an expert in basketball to get caught up in the crowd's enthusiasm. [In these sentences, we've gone from a third-person, plural reference, "People," to second-person "you."] Repair Work [We could write, instead:] People enjoy themselves immensely at Uconn women's basketball games. One doesn't have to be an

expert in basketball to get caught up in the crowd's enthusiasm. [However, the "one," after a while, is going to feel overly formal, stuffy.] Repair Work [Most writers would probably prefer this:] People enjoy themselves immensely at UConn women's basketball games. It isn't necessary to be an expert in basketball to get caught up in the crowd's enthusiasm.

Exercise on Consistency in Tense and Pronouns Select one answer from the choices provided after each sentence. The word you choose should fit the blank in the sentence. . When one has been going to college for as long as he has, __________ to think the college owes _______ a degree . a) you start; you b) one starts; one c) he starts; him

. Spring begins early in Tennessee. First, the forsythia bursts into blossom; then the dogwood trees _______ to bloom, and the redbud is soon in its glory . a) begin b) began . The poetry of Robert Frost (-) often seems to suggest some kind of fate controls our lives. His essays, too, ____________ a similar malignant presence. a) indicate b) indicated

. We have never seen this kind of impatience in the media before. ________ think it has something to do with the weather . a) You b) We c) I

. The climate of New Zealand can be a pleasure for you if _______ don't mind a little rain . a) we b) he c) you

. Aunt Mina wrote to tell us of her recent trip to California. She said it was a delightful journey on the plane. Seeing her brother again _________ a real treat . a) is b) was

. When NYPD Blue went off the air in May, many viewers felt they had lost a friend in ________ own family. a) his b) our c) their

Avoiding Primer Language Primer style is characterized by too many short sentences. It is important to note that there is nothing inherently wrong with short sentences. Too many of them in a small space, however, can remind readers of material they read in kindergarten or first grade: See Dick. See Dick chase Jane. See Jane run. Used within a mix of sentences cut to various lengths, short sentences can be extremely effective as they are capable of focusing the reader's attention on a particular point. Look at this one. See? A quick review of your text, however, could reveal an overabundance of short sentences and the need to combine some of those sentences into longer structures. Variety and rhythm are the keys here: long sentences, average sentences, short sentences. Another symptom of primer style is a proliferation of verbs that don't do anything. There's nothing wrong with the sentence, "I am a student," but nothing is really happening in that sentence. A large section of text in which there are only intransitive or linking verbs that express being but no action is just asking readers to turn off the dial of their attention and go read something else. Sentences weighed down with a preponderance of linking verbs can often be eliminated or embedded into larger, more complex and interesting structures. For example, the two sentences: My sister is an engineer. My sister works for the state.

can be combined to read: My sister works as an engineer for the state. OR My sister, an engineer, works for the state. Exercises on Avoiding Primer Language Try to combine the following sentences into one effective sentence with only one independent clause. (Any exceptions to this requirement are noted as a hint.) . One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is a novel written by Ken Kesey. Its protagonist is Randall Patrick McMurphy. He pretends to be insane to escape a work farm. He discovers he is now trapped in an asylum. He shows other characters the truth of their situation. . Tiger Woods is the name of a young American golfer. He set a record in the Master's Tournament. He surprised all the veterans. He was at the time. . Ramonita Espinoza used to coach at Notre Dame University. She now works at UConn. She is the new tennis coach. . Ronald E. Pepin is a well known translator of medieval texts.

He has two honorary degrees from Fordham University. He recently published his fourth book on ancient medical practices. He was only forty-four years old at the time. . John F. Kennedy was inaugurated into office in January of . He was assassinated in November of . He spent only days in office. . Some students become nervous around computers. They are nervous around anything high-tech. Other students seem to enjoy new challenges. They regard learning how to use computers as a kind of game. HINT: Use a semicolon in this re-write. . ER is my favourite television program. ER is now in its third year. It has won numerous Emmy Awards. . Lowell Weicker was once Governor of Connecticut. He was leader of that state's American Party. Weicker has long been known as a maverick among politicians. He now teaches at the University of Virginia.

Sentence-Combining Skills The need to combine sentences Sentences have to be combined to avoid the monotony that would surely result if all sentences were brief and of equal length. Part of the writer's task is to employ whatever music is available to him or her in language, and part of language's music lies within the rhythms of varied sentence length and structure. Even poets who write within the formal limits and sameness of an iambic pentameter beat will sometimes strike a chord against that beat and vary the structure of their clauses and sentence length, thus keeping the text alive and the reader awake. This section will explore some of the techniques we ordinary writers use to combine sentences.

Compounding sentences A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. That means that there are at least two units of thought within the sentence, either one of which can stand by itself as its own sentence. The clauses of a compound sentence are either separated by a semicolon (relatively rare) or connected by a

coordinating conjunction (which is, more often than not, preceded by a comma). And the two most common coordinating conjunctions are and and but. (The others are or, for, yet, and so.) This is the simplest technique we have for combining ideas: Jack Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the territory of the Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few people know of his contributions to natural science. Lewis had been well trained by scientists in Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he was a curious man by nature. Notice that the and does little more than link one idea to another; the but also links, but it does more work in terms of establishing an interesting relationship between ideas. The and is part of the immediate language arsenal of children and of dreams: one thing simply comes after another and the logical relationship between the ideas is not always evident or important. The word but (and the other coordinators) is at a slightly higher level of argument.

Compounding sentence elements Within a sentence, ideas can be connected by compounding various sentence elements: subjects, verbs, objects or whole

predicates, modifiers, etc. Notice that when two such elements of a sentence are compounded with a coordinating conjunction (as opposed to the two independent clauses of a compound sentence), the conjunction is usually adequate and no comma is required. Subjects: When two or more subjects are doing parallel things, they can often be combined as a compounded subject. Working together, President Jefferson and Meriwether Lewis convinced Congress to raise money for the expedition.

Objects: When the subject(s) is/are acting upon two or more things in parallel, the objects can be combined. President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border. He also believed that that meant he could claim all that land for the United States .

President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri might reach all the way to the Canadian border and that he could claim all that land for the United States. Notice that the objects must be parallel in construction: Jefferson believed that this was true and that was true. If the objects are not

parallel (Jefferson was convinced of two things: that the Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border and wanted to begin the expedition during his term in office.) the sentence can go awry.

Verbs and verbals: When the subject(s) is/are doing two things at once, ideas can sometimes be combined by compounding verbs and verb forms. He studied the biological and natural sciences . He learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately .

He studied the biological and natural sciences and learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.

Notice that there is no comma preceding the "and learned" connecting the compounded elements above. In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the movement of the stars. analyze their movements with

He also learned to mathematical precision .

 In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart and analyze the movement of the stars with mathematical precision. ORIn Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the stars and analyze their movements with mathematical precision. (Notice in this second version that we don't have to repeat the "to" of the infinitive to maintain parallel form.)

Modifiers: Whenever it is appropriate, modifiers such as prepositional phrases can be compounded. Lewis and Clark recruited some of their adventurers from river-town bars . They also used recruits from various military outposts . Lewis and Clark recruited their adventurers from river-town bars and various military outposts. Notice that we do not need to repeat the preposition from to make the ideas successfully parallel in form.

Subordinating one clause to another The act of coordinating clauses simply links ideas; subordinating one clause to another establishes a more complex

relationship between ideas, showing that one idea depends on another in some way: a chronological development, a cause-andeffect relationship, a conditional relationship, etc. William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expeditions departure . Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank. Although William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's departure, Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.

The explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri . They discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific .

As the explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri, they discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.

When we use subordination of clauses to combine ideas, the rules of punctuation are very important.

Using appositives to connect ideas The appositive is probably the most efficient technique we have for combining ideas. An appositive or appositive phrase is a re-naming, a re-identification, of something earlier in the text. You can think of an appositive as a modifying clause from which the clausal machinery (usually a relative pronoun and a linking verb) has been removed. An appositive is often, but not always, a parenthetical element which requires a pair of commas to set it off from the rest of the sentence. Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of Charbonneau, who was a French fur-trader, accompanied the expedition as a translator. A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one of the wives of the French fur-trader Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition as a translator. Notice that in the second sentence, above, Sacagawea's name is a parenthetical element (structurally, the sentence adequately identifies her as "a pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman"), and thus her name is set off by commas; Charbonneau's name, however, is essential to the meaning of the sentence (otherwise,

which fur-trader are we talking about?) and is not set off by a pair of commas. Using participial phrases to connect ideas A writer can integrate the idea of one sentence into a larger structure by turning that idea into a modifying phrase. Captain Lewis allowed his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner . This democratic attitude fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment on the part of Lewis's fellow explorers. Allowing his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner, Lewis fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment among his fellow explorers. In the sentence above, the participial phrase modifies the subject of the sentence, Lewis. Phrases like this are usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma. The expeditionary force was completely out of touch with their families for over two years . They put their faith entirely in Lewis and Clark's leadership . They never once rebelled against their authority . Completely out of touch with their families for over two years, the men of the expedition put their faith in Lewis and

Clark's leadership and never once rebelled against their authority. Using absolute phrases to connect ideas Perhaps the most elegantand most misunderstoodmethod of combining ideas is the absolute phrase. This phrase, which is often found at the beginning of sentence, is made up of a noun (the phrase's "subject") followed, more often than not, by a participle. Other modifiers might also be part of the phrase. There is no true verb in an absolute phrase, however, and it is always treated as a parenthetical element, an introductory modifier, which is set off by a comma. The absolute phrase might be confused with a participial phrase, and the difference between them is structurally slight but significant. The participial phrase does not contain the subjectparticiple relationship of the absolute phrase; it modifies the subject of the independent clause that follows. The absolute phrase, on the other hand, is said to modify the entire clause that follows. In the first combined sentence below, for instance, the absolute phrase modifies the subject Lewis, but it also modifies the verb, telling us "under what conditions" or "in what way" or "how" he disappointed the world. The absolute phrase thus

modifies the entire subsequent clause and should not be confused with a dangling participle, which must modify the subject which immediately follows. Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his exploits . Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals . His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.

Lewis's long journey was finally completed . His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed . Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone .

His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of Discovery dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.

Exercise on Combining Sentences Combine each group of sentences into one effective sentence, containing only one independent clause. . Hartford is the capital of Connecticut. It is the second largest city in the state. . Hartford was once known as an industrial centre. It was the home of several manufacturers. They made firearms, typewriters, bicycles, and even cars. . Today, though, several insurance companies make Hartford their home. Aetna, the Travellers, the Hartford, and Cigna are in Hartford. Their home offices are within miles of one another. . Manufacturers once took advantage of Hartford's access to the Connecticut River. They also enjoyed Hartford's well educated workforce. . Eventually, cheap labour in the south lured manufacturing away from Hartford. Large empty factories were all that was left of Hartford's industrial past.

. Some of these factories have been torn down. Some of them have been converted to artists' studios. . There is much wealth in Hartford today. The wealth is centred in the insurance industry. There are, however, few manufacturing jobs available. . Mark Twain is the author of Huckleberry Finn. Huckleberry Finn is a classic American novel. Mark Twain's real name was Samuel L. Clemens. He lived in Hartford for several years. . Mark Twain's house was very elaborate and elegant. It was on Farmington Avenue. It was in an area called Nook Farm. He was a neighbor of Harriet Beecher Stowe. Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin. . Mark Twain's home has a large side porch. Windows and a balcony overlook the porch. Today, people say the windows and balcony remind them of a steamboat. In his youth, Twain piloted steamboats on the Mississippi. . Mark Twain was one of the first three people in Hartford to own a telephone. The telephone was first used commercially in nearby New Haven. There was practically no one to talk to. Mark Twain never really liked this newfangled gadget.

. Mark Twain loved industrial inventions. He lost a fortune investing in them. One of these inventions was the elaborate Paige typesetter. Unfortunately for Twain, this machine was developed at the same time as the Linotype. The Linotype machine was much simpler and less expensive. . Mark Twain's beloved daughter, Susy, died in the Hartford home. She died of spinal meningitis. Twain never felt the same about the house again. He soon left the house and Hartford. He returned only once. He came back for the funeral of his friend, Charles DudleyWarner.

Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas The most convincing ideas in the world, expressed in the most beautiful sentences, will move no one unless those ideas are properly connected. Unless readers can move easily from one thought to another, they will surely turn to something else or turn on the television. Providing transitions between ideas is largely a matter of attitude. You must never assume that your readers know what you know. In fact, it's a good idea to assume not only that your readers need all the information that you have and need to know exactly how you arrived at the point you're at, but to assume also that they are not quite as quick as you are. You might be able to leap from one side of the stream to the other; believe that your readers need some stepping stones and be sure to place them in readily accessible spots. There are four basic mechanical considerations in providing transitions between ideas: using transitional expressions, repeating key words and phrases, using pronoun reference, and using parallel form.

USING TRANSITIONAL TAGS Transitional tags run the gamut from the most simplethe six little conjunctions: and, but, nor, for, yet, or, soto more complex signals that ideas are somehow connectedthe conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions such as however, moreover, nevertheless, on the other hand.

The use of the little conjunctionsespecially and and but comes naturally for most writers. However, the question whether one can begin a sentence with a small conjunction often arises. Isn't the conjunction at the beginning of the sentence a sign that the sentence should have been connected to the prior sentence? Well, sometimes. But often the initial conjunction calls attention to the sentence in an effective way, and that's just what you want. Over-used, it's distracting, but it can add a refreshing dash to a sentence. Here is a chart of the transitional devices (called conjunctive adverbs or adverbial conjunctions) accompanied with a simplified definition of function (note that some devices appear with more than one definition):

addition Comparison Concession

Contrast

Emphasis Example or Illustration

again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too also, in the same way, likewise, similarly granted, naturally, of course although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet certainly, indeed, in fact, of course after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in

Summary

Time sequence

other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when

A word of caution: Do not interlard your text with transitional expressions merely because you know these devices connect ideas. They must appear, naturally, where they belong, or they'll stick like a fishbone in your reader's stomach. (For that same reason, there is no point in trying to memorize this vast list.) Having said that, if you can read your entire essay and discover none of these transitional devices, then you must wonder what, if anything, is holding your ideas together. Practice by inserting a tentative however, nevertheless, consequently. Re-read the essay later to see if these words provide the glue you needed at those points.

REPETITION OF KEY WORDS AND PHRASES The ability to connect ideas by means of repetition of key words and phrases sometimes meets a natural resistance based on the fear of being repetitive. We've been trained to loathe redundancy. Now we must learn that catching a word or phrase that's important to a reader's comprehension of a piece and replaying that word or phrase creates a musical motif in that reader's head. Unless it is overworked and obtrusive, repetition lends itself to a sense of coherence (or at least to the illusion of coherence). Remember Lincoln's advice: You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time. In fact, you can't forget Lincoln's advice, because it has become part of the music of our language. Remember to use this device to link paragraphs as well as sentences.

PRONOUN REFERENCE Pronouns quite naturally connect ideas because pronouns almost always refer the reader to something earlier in the text. I cannot say "This is true because..." without causing the reader to consider what "this" could mean. Thus, the pronoun causes the reader to sum up, quickly and subconsciously, what was said before (what this is) before going on to the because part of my reasoning. We should hardly need to add, however, that it must always be perfectly clear what a pronoun refers to. If my reader cannot

instantly know what this is, then my sentence is ambiguous and misleading. Also, do not rely on unclear pronoun references to avoid responsibility: "They say that..." PARALLELISM Music in prose is often the result of parallelism, the deliberate repetition of larger structures of phrases, even clauses and whole sentences. (See the section on Parallel Form).

COHERENCE DEVICES IN ACTION Look at the following paragraph: The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by making mummies of them. Mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. The skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features of the mummies were evident. It is possible to diagnose the disease they suffered in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. The process was remarkably effective. Sometimes apparent were the fatal afflictions of the dead people: a middleaged king died from a blow on the head, and polio killed a child king. Mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. Though weak, this paragraph is not a total failure. It starts with a topic sentence, and the sentences that follow are clearly related to the topic sentence. In the language of writing, the

paragraph is unified (i.e., it contains no irrelevant details). However, the paragraph is not coherent. The sentences are disconnected from each other, making it difficult for the reader to follow the writer's train of thought. Below is the same paragraph revised for coherence. Italics indicates pronouns and repeated/restated key words, bold indicates transitional tag-words, and underlining indicates parallel structures. The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by making mummies of them. In short, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head; a child king died from polio. The paragraph is now much more coherent. The organization of the information and the links between sentences help readers move easily from one sentence to the next. Notice how this writer uses a variety of coherence devices, sometimes in combination, to achieve overall paragraph coherence.

Paragraph Development & Topic Sentences A typical expository paragraph starts with a controlling idea or claim, which it then explains, develops, or supports with evidence. Paragraph sprawl occurs when digressions are introduced into an otherwise focused and unified discussion. Digressions and deviations often come in the form of irrelevant details or shifts in focus.

Irrelevant Details When I was growing up, one of the places I enjoyed most was the cherry tree in the back yard. Behind the yard was an alley and then more houses. Every summer when the cherries began to ripen, I used to spend hours high in the tree, picking and eating the sweet, sun-warmed cherries. My mother always worried about my falling out of the tree, but I never did. But I had some competition for the cherries flocks of birds that enjoyed them as much as I did and would perch all over the tree, devouring the fruit whenever I wasn't there. I used to wonder why the grown-ups never ate any of the cherries; but actually when the birds and I had finished, there weren't many left. No sentence is completely irrelevant to the general topic of this paragraph (the cherry tree), but the sentences Behind the yard was an alley and then more houses and My mother always

worried about my falling out of the tree, but I never did do not develop the specific idea in the first sentence: enjoyment of the cherry tree.

Shift in Focus () It is a fact that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. () Statistics show that in states with capital punishment, murder rates are the same or almost the same as in states without capital punishment. () It is also true that it is more expensive to put a person on death row than in life imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security. () Unfortunately, capital punishment has been used unjustly. () Statistics show that every execution is of a man and that nine out of ten are black. () So prejudice shows right through.

Once again, no sentence in this paragraph (to the left) is completely irrelevant to the general topic (capital punishment), but the specific focus of this paragraph shifts abruptly twice. The paragraph starts out with a clear claim in sentence : It is a fact that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. Sentence provides evidence in support of the initial claim: Statistics show that in states with capital punishment, murder rates are the same or almost the same as in states without capital punishment. Sentence , however, shifts the focus from capital punishment as

a deterrent to crime to the cost of incarceration: It is also true that it is more expensive to put a person on death row than in life imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security. Sentence once again shifts the focus, this time to issues of justice: Unfortunately, capital punishment has been used unjustly. Sentences and , Statistics show that every execution is of a man and that nine out of ten are black and So prejudice shows right through, follow from if one believes that executing men and blacks is in fact evidence of injustice and prejudice. More importantly, however, we are now a long way off from the original claim, that capital punishment does not deter crime. The focus has shifted from deterrence to expense to fairness. The following paragraph on the same topic is much more effectively focused and unified: ()The punishment of criminals has always been a problem for society. () Citizens have had to decide whether offenders such as first-degree murderers should be killed in a gas chamber, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in society. () Many citizens argue that serious criminals should be executed. () They believe that killing criminals will set an example for others and also rid society of a cumbersome burden. () Other citizens say that no one has the right to take a life and that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. () They believe that society as well as the criminal is responsible for the crimes and that killing

the criminal does not solve the problems of either society or the criminal. Sentence puts forth the main claim: The punishment of criminals has always been a problem for society. Sentence specifies the exact nature of the problem by listing society's choices: Citizens have had to decide whether offenders such as first-degree murderers should be killed in a gas chamber, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in society. Sentence further develops the topic by stating one point of view: Many citizens argue that serious criminals should be executed. The reasons for this point of view are then provided in sentence : They believe that killing criminals will set an example for others and also rid society of a cumbersome burden. Sentence states an opposing point of view: Other citizens say that no one has the right to take a life and that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. Sentence states the reason for the opposing point of view: They believe that society as well as the criminal is responsible for the crimes and that killing the criminal does not solve the problems of either society or the criminal. Topic Sentences All three paragraphs start out well with a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea or claim controls the rest of the paragraph; the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the topic sentence's main idea

or claim. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come, for example, after a transition sentence; it may even come at the end of a paragraph. Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need a topic sentence. For example, paragraphs that describe, narrate, or detail the steps in an experiment do not usually need topic sentences. Topic sentences are useful, however, in paragraphs that analyze and argue. Topic sentences are particularly useful for writers who have difficulty developing focused, unified paragraphs (i.e., writers who tend to sprawl). Topic sentences help these writers develop a main idea or claim for their paragraphs, and, perhaps most importantly, they help these writers stay focused and keep paragraphs manageable. Topic sentences are also useful to readers because they guide them through sometimes complex arguments. Many well-known, experienced writers effectively use topic sentences to bridge between paragraphs. Here's an example of how one professional writer does this: Soon after the spraying had ended there were unmistakable signs that all was not well. Within two days dead and dying fish, including many young salmon, were found along the banks of the stream. Brook trout also appeared among the dead fish, and along the roads and in the woods birds were dying. All the life of the stream was stilled. Before the spraying there had been a rich assortment of the water life that forms the food of salmon and trout caddis fly larvae, living in loosely fitting protective cases of leaves, stems or gravel cemented together

with saliva, stonefly nymphs clinging to rocks in the swirling currents, and the wormlike larvae of blackflies edging the stones under riffles or where the stream spills over steeply slanting rocks. But now the stream insects were dead, killed by DDT, and there was nothing for a young salmon to eat. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring The first part of Carson's topic sentenceSoon after the spraying had endedis a transitional clause that looks back to the previous topic: DDT spraying. Topic sentences often begin with such transitional clauses referring to the previous paragraph. The second part of the topic sentencethere were unmistakable signs that all was not wellshapes and controls what follows. This kind of bridging helps the reader follow Carson's argument. Notice, too, how Carson further helps the reader follow her argument by providing a more focused version of the topic sentence later in the paragraphAll the life of the stream was stilled. This sentence tells us exactly what Carson meant by all was not well.

SUMMARY PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL

Remember: . A long sentence and a run - on sentence are not the same thing. . Repetition of key words and phrases in a long sentence and
within a paragraph holds things together, provides energy and makes the meaning clear.

. Sentence variety in a piece of writing liberates it from

monotony.

. Consistency of tense means sticking to one tense throughout a

given piece of writing.

. If you refer to " one", remain consistent, i.e. within the same
case. Example: The climate of New Zealand can be a pleasure for you if you don't mind a little rain.

. Primer language is characterized by too many short sentences

and a proliferation of verbs.

. Variety in length of sentence (long, average and short

sentences) is a key feature of good writing.

. To avoid the monotony of having many short sentences,

sentences have to be combined.

. The two most common coordinating conjunctions used in

making compound sentences are " and" and " but".

. Subjects, verbs, objects and predicates within a sentence can be

compounded (study the given examples on pages - ).

. Subordinating one clause to another is a technique for linking

ideas (study the examples on p. ).

. An efficient technique for combining is the use of appositives.

The use of participial phrases to connect ideas is another efficient technique.

. An absolute phrase modifies the whole clause that follows. It is

the most elegant technique for combining ideas.

.Coherence refers to the relationships which link the meanings of

the sentences in a piece of writing. A paragraph, therefore, has coherence if it contains a number of sentences that develop a main idea.

. The use of transitional tags, repetition of key words and

phrases, pronoun reference and the use of parallel form can provide transition between ideas - thus making a paragraph coherent.

. A topic sentence contains the main idea which controls the

other sentences in a paragraph. Paragraphs which describe, narrate or provide a procedure do not usually need topic sentences.

PART III : ESSAY LEVEL

Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:

. identify the main parts of an essay. . read critically the "Essay Writing Tips ". . know what an introduction to an essay should contain. . define the body of an essay. . identify the content of the body of an essay. . identify the approaches which can be used in organizing the
body of essay.

. define a "paragraph". . specify the features of the body of an essay. . recognise what a conclusion in an essay usually contains. . read critically " Things not to do in an introductory paragraph "
on p.

. identify the tasks an introductory paragraph should achieve.

. list the patterns which professional writers usually use to

capture readers' interests.

. define a " supporting paragraph ". . realize how supporting paragraphs are significant in writing an
essay.

.describe the procedure for writing a number of supporting

paragraphs in an essay.

. go through the list of transition words given. . match the transition words with their functions. .provide the features of a supporting paragraph. . define a summary paragraph. .specify the function of a summary paragraph. . describe the procedure for writing a summary paragraph. . identify the four stages of writing an essay. . list the six pre-writing steps in sequence. .understand what each of the six pre- writing steps involves. .identify the five steps involved in the writing stage. . know what editing an essay means. . identify the steps followed in the stage of editing an essay. . define what publishing an essay means.

. identify the different kinds of essay. . specify what each kind of essay aims at. . describe how each kind of essay is organized. . go through the examples illustrating the different kinds of essay
on pages - .

. look / read critically how each of the three parts of each essay
example (pp.- ) is realized functionally

. read critically the part entitled " The Five - paragraph Essay ". . match the model essay provided with the generalizations given
on pages - .

. read analytically the commentary on pages - . appreciate how "organization" of an essay makes it unique.

PART III: ESSAY LEVEL Essay Writing Tips An essay does not merely list facts. The facts must be organized into themes to support a central argument or thesis. The thesis is introduced at the beginning and developed one step at a time. The stronger the thesis, the easier it will be to develop a strong argument. Using an outline can help organize your thoughts and guide in writing the essay. Organizationally, the essay has three main parts: Introduction Body Conclusion . Introduction. In the introduction, state the thesis, outline the main points to be made, and describe the conclusions to be drawn. Essays don't have surprise endings. They are not mysteries; the reader should know from the beginning what conclusions will be drawn. The reader should be drawn into the essay by the introduction. (Hint: Many times, it is easier to

write the introduction last, after you clearly know the arguments developed in the essay.) . Body. The bulk of an essay is in the body. In the body, present the facts and develop thoughts and arguments. The body may be organized in many ways, but the approach must be clear, whether it is chronological, thematical, geographical, or otherwise. Keep in mind these guidelines: Use paragraphs. Remember the definition of a paragraph as a unit of thought limited to one major idea. Every paragraph relates to and supports the thesis or central argument. Make sure of facts and that they support the argument. Use specific examples to support general statements. Use good grammar. Write in complete sentences. Use past tense instead of present tense when appropriate. Use active verbs rather than passive ones. Vary vocabulary. Avoid sexist language (such as generic "he" or "the history of man" when you mean humans or people.) Analyze, don't describe. Don't just tell what happened. Try to explain why it happened and why it is significant. Facts are important, but meaningless without interpretation. Support your point of view. Essays don't have "correct" answers. The point is to use facts to develop an argument supporting a point of view.

 Think independently and originally. The best essays usually come from giving individual opinions and interpretations. Everyone has a perspective which can give a different slant to approaching the same material. Don't be afraid to disagree with an author's views. Be creative. Make it interesting to read. Don't assume your reader knows everything about the topic. Write as if you are teaching someone something that is new and interesting. . Conclusion. The conclusion emphasizes the thesis, and briefly summarizes how it is proven in the body. In this way, an essay is cyclical - it ends up where it started. In the conclusion, you may also interpret, assess and argue with the source material for the facts, or point to historical knowledge gaps. The conclusion may be as simple as a restatement of the introduction.

Parts of an Essay Introductory Paragraphs

Things NOT to do in an introductory paragraph

Apologize. Never suggest that you don't know what you're talking about or that you're not enough of an expert in this matter that your opinion would matter. Your reader will quickly turn to something else. Avoid phrases like the following: In my [humble] opinion... I'm not sure about this, but.. Announce your intentions. Do not flatly announce what you are about to do in an essay. In this paper I will... The purpose of this essay is to. Get into the topic and let your reader perceive your purpose in the topic sentence of your beginning paragraph. Use a dictionary or encycopedia definition. According to Oxford Dictionary, a widget is

Although definitions are extremely useful and it might serve your purpose to devise your own definition(s) later in the essay, you want to avoid using this typical beginning to an essay.

Students are told from the first time they receive instruction in English composition that their introductory paragraphs should accomplish two tasks: . They should get the reader's interest so that he or she will want to read more. . They should let the reader know what the writing is going to be about. The second task can be accomplished by a carefully crafted "thesis statement." Writing thesis statements can be learned rather quickly. The first tasksecuring the reader's interestis more difficult. It is this task that this discussion addresses. First, admit that it is impossible to say or do or write anything that will interest everybody. With that out of the way, the question then becomes: "What can a writer do that will secure the interest of a fair sized audience?" Professional writers who write for magazines and receive pay for their work use five basic patterns to grab a reader's interest: . historical review . anecdotal . surprising statement

. famous person . declarative What follows is an explanation of each of these patterns with examples from real magazine articles to illustrate the explanations.

Historical review: Some topics are better understood if a brief

historical review of the topic is presented to lead into the discussion of the moment. Such topics might include "a biographical sketch of a war hero," "an upcoming execution of a convicted criminal," or "drugs and the younger generation." Obviously there are many, many more topics that could be introduced by reviewing the history of the topic before the writer gets down to the nitty-gritty of his paper. It is important that the historical review be brief so that it does not take over the paper.

from "Integration Turns " by Juan Williams in Modern Maturity, April/May, . The victory brought pure elation and joy. It was May , just days after the Supreme Court's landmark ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. At NAACP headquarters in New York the mood was euphoric. Telegrams of congratulations poured in from around the world; reporters and well-wishers crowded the halls.

[After reaching back forty years ago to bring up the landmark Supreme Court decision that started school desegregation, this article discusses school segregation in the present time.]

Anecdotal: An anecdote is a little story. Everyone loves to

listen to stories. Begin a paper by relating a small story that leads into the topic of your paper. Your story should be a small episode, not a full blown story with characters and plot and setting. If you do it right, your story will capture the reader's interest so that he or she will continue to read your paper. One caution: be sure that your story does not take over the paper. Remember, it is an introduction, not the paper. from "Going, Going, GONE to the Auction!" by Laurie Goering in Chicago Tribune Magazine, July , . Mike Cantlon remembers coming across his first auction ten years ago while cruising the back roads of Wisconsin. He parked his car and wandered into the crowd, toward the auctioneer's singsong chant and wafting smell of barbecued sandwiches. Hours later, Cantlon emerged lugging a $ beam drill-for constructing post-and-beam barnsand a passion for auctions that has clung like a cocklebur on an old saddle blanket. "It's an addiction," says Cantlon, a financial planner and one of the growing number of auction fanatics for whom Saturdays will never be the same. [This is an anecdote, a little story about one man and his first auction, that is the lead to an article about

auctions. In this article the author explains what auctions are, how to spot bargains in auctions, what to protect yourself from at auctions, and other facts about auctions and the people who go to them.]

Surprising statement: A surprising statement is a favourite

introductory technique of professional writers. There are many ways a statement can surprise a reader. Sometimes the statement is surprising because it is disgusting. Sometimes it is joyful. Sometimes it is shocking. Sometimes it is surprising because of who said it. Sometimes it is surprising because it includes profanity. Professional writers have honed this technique to a fine edge. It is not used as much as the first two patterns, but it is used.

from " Seconds That Could Save Your Child" by Cathy Perlmutter with Maureen Sangiorgio in Prevention, September, . Have a minute? Good. Because that may be all it takes to save the life of a childyour child. Accidents kill nearly children under age each year. And for every fatality, more children are admitted to hospitals for treatment. Yet such deaths and injuries can be avoided through these easy steps parents can take right now. You don't have a minute to lose.

[This article begins with a surprising, even shocking, statistic, children die each year from accidents. The article then lists seven easy actions a person can take to help guard a child against accidents. These range from turning down the water heater to degrees Fahrenheit to putting firearms under lock and key.]

Famous person: People like to know what celebrities say and

do. Dropping the name of a famous person at the beginning of a paper usually gets the reader's attention. It may be something that person said or something he or she did that can be presented as an interest grabber. You may just mention the famous person's name to get the reader's interest. The famous person may be dead or alive. The famous person may be a good person like the Pope, or he or she may be a bad person like John Wilkes Booth. Of course, bringing up this person's name must be relevant to the topic. Even though the statement or action may not be readily relevant, a clever writer can convince the reader that it is relevant.

from "Dear Taxpayer" by Will Manley in Booklist, May , . The most widely read writer in America today is not Stephen King, Michael Chrichton or John Grisham. It's Margaret Milner Richardson, the Commissioner of the Internal Revenue Service, whose name appears on the " Forms and Instructions" booklet. I doubt that Margaret wrote the entire

pamphlet, but the annual introductory letter, "A Note from the Commissioner," bears her signature. [This is the first paragraph of an article about the lady named above. The author used the names of three famous, modern American writers to get a reader's interest. Notice that the first name on his list is a name that is probably more widely known than the other two. Stephen King has been around for some time now, and everyone, from teenagers to grandparents, know his name whether they have read his books or not.]

Declarative: This technique is quite commonly used, but it must be carefully used or the writer defeats his whole purpose of using one of these patterns, to get the reader's interest. In this pattern, the writer simply states straight out what the topic of his paper is going to be about. It is the technique that most student writers use with only modest success most of the time, but good professional writers use it too.

from "The Tuition Tap" by Tim Lindemuth in K-Stater, February, . In the College of Veterinary Medicine and Engineering, for example, nearly one-third of the teaching faculty may retire by the year . In the College of Education, more than a third of the professors are years old and older. The largest turnover for a single department is projected to be in

geology. More than half of its faculty this year are in the age group that will retire at the millennium, says Ron Downey of K-State's Office of Institutional Research and Analysis. The graying of K-State's faculty is not unique. A Regents' report shows approximately percent of the faculty at the six state universities will retire by the end of this decade, creating a shortage of senior faculty. [This is a straight forward introduction that gets right down to the topic of the aging of the faculty of Kansas State University. There are no historical reviews, no surprising statements, no anecdotes, no quotations from or about famous people. This is a discussion that leads to further discussion about the topic. The biggest difficulty about this type of introduction is that it can get boring. It is not likely to get the interest of anyone except those who are already interested in this subject. Use this pattern with caution.] These patterns can give a "lift" to your writing. Practice them. Try using two or three different patterns for your introductory paragraph and see which introductory paragraph is best; it's often a delicate matter of tone and of knowing who your audience is. Do not forget, though, that your introductory paragraph must also include a thesis statement to let your reader know what your topic is and what you are going to say about that topic. Supporting Paragraphs What are supporting paragraphs?

Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay. What do they do? They develop the main idea of your essay. How do I write them? . List the points that develop the main idea of your essay. . Place each supporting point in its own paragraph. . Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and examples. To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use special transition words. Transition words link your paragraphs together and make your essay easier to read. Use them at the beginning and end of your paragraphs. Examples of transition words that can help you to link your paragraphs together:

For listing different points First Second Third

For counter examples However Even though On the other hand Nevertheless To show cause and effect Therefore Thus

For additional ideas Another In addition to

Related to Furthermore Also

As a result of Consequently

Like all good paragraphs, each supporting paragraph should have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a summary sentence.

Summary Paragraph What is a summary paragraph? The summary paragraph comes at the end of your essay after you have finished developing your ideas. The summary paragraph is often called a "conclusion." What does it do? It summarizes or restates the main idea of the essay. You want to leave the reader with a sense that your essay is complete. How do I write one? . Restate the strongest points of your essay that support your main idea. . Conclude your essay by restating the main idea in different words. . Give your personal opinion or suggest a plan for action.

How to Write an Essay Prewriting Essays What is the prewriting stage? The prewriting stage is when you prepare your ideas for your essay before you begin writing. You will find it easier to write your essay if you build an outline first, especially when you are writing longer assignments. Six Prewriting Steps: . Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I best answer this question? What is the most important part of my answer? How can I make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from the most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I make this paragraph or essay interesting? Do I need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this topic? . Open your notebook. Write out your answers to the above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this; just write enough to help you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph or essay. . Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic. Look for and write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Timesaving hint: make sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.

. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I want to say about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is this topic important? . Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the most important point you are going to present. If you cannot decide which point is the most important, just choose one point and stick to it throughout your paragraph or essay. . Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea. Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your essay. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which order to put them in the essay. Write down your own note set that you can use to guide yourself as you write your essay.

Writing Essays What is the writing stage? The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences. Five Writing Steps: . For the introduction, write the thesis statement and give some background information. . Develop each supporting paragraph and make sure to follow the correct paragraph format.

. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning. . Focus on the main idea of your essay. . Use a dictionary to help you find additional words to express your meaning.

Editing Essays What is the editing stage? The editing stage is when you check your essay for mistakes and correct them. Editing Steps: Grammar and Spelling . Check your spelling. . Check your grammar. . Read your essay again. . Make sure each sentence has a subject. . Make sure your subjects and verbs agree with each other. . Check the verb tenses of each sentence. . Make sure that each sentence makes sense.

Style and Organization . Make sure your essay has an introduction, supporting paragraphs, and a summary paragraph. . Check that you have a thesis statement that identifies the main idea of the essay. . Check that all your paragraphs follow the proper paragraph format. . See if your essay is interesting. Publishing Essays What is the publishing stage? The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your essay to hand in. Publishing Steps: . Make a paper copy of your essay. . Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents. . Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.

Kinds of Essay . Definition Essay When you are writing a definition essay, you take a term or an idea and write about what it is. Often, definitions are combined with classification or other forms of organization in the essay. You need to give a careful definition of the key term before going on to discuss different types or examples.

Example question: Introduction:

Write an essay defining energy resources and discuss the different types. Define the key term energy resources.

Supporting paragraphs: . Define one type of energy resources: renewable resources. . Define another type of energy resources: non-renewable resources. Summary paragraph: Summarize energy resources.

. Classification Essay

In a classification essay, you separate things or ideas into specific categories and discuss each of them. You organize the essay by defining each classification and by giving examples of each type.

Example question:

Write an essay discussing the different stages of education in Egypt. Give background information education in Egypt. Define and education. describe about primary

Introduction:

Supporting paragraphs: .

. Define and describe preparatory education. . Define and education. describe secondary

. Define and describe higher education. Summary paragraph: Summarize education in Egypt.

. Description Essay In a description essay, you write about what a person, place, or thing is like. You organize the essay by describing different parts or aspects of the main subject.

Example question: Write an essay describing the polar bear. Introduction: Introduce what a polar bear is. Supporting paragraphs: . Describe where the polar bear lives. . Describe the body of the polar bear. Summary paragraph: . Describe what the polar eats. Summarize what a polar bear is.

. Compare and Contrast Essay In a compare and contrast essay, you write about the similarities and differences between two or more people, places, or things. You can organize the essay by writing about one subject first and then comparing it with the second subject. A more effective way is to organize the essay by comparing each subject by category. Write an essay comparing the weather in Cairo with the weather in Aswan. Introduction: Introduce weather in the cities of Cairo and Aswan. . Compare weather in spring and Supporting paragraphs: summer for both cities. State how they are similar or different. . Compare weather in autumn and winter for both cities. State how they are similar or different. Summarize the similarities and Summary paragraph: differences. .Sequence Essay In a sequence essay, you are writing to describe a series of events or a process in some sort of order. Usually, this order is based on time. You organize the essay by writing about each step of the process in the order it occurred. Example:

Example question:

Write an essay outlining the stages of privatization in Egypt.

Introduction:

Define what privatization is.

Supporting paragraphs: . Describe what the public sector was like in the past. . Describe what the public sector is like now. . Describe the future of the public sector in Egypt. Summary paragraph: Summarize the main stages of privatization in Egypt.

. Choice Essay In a choice essay, you need to choose which object, idea, or action that you prefer. You organize the essay by describing each option and then giving your opinion.

Example question:

Write an essay choosing between spending time with one or two close friends and spending time with a large number of friends. Introduce the concept of friendship.

Introduction:

Supporting paragraphs: .

Describe the advantages or disadvantages of spending time with a large number of friends. Describe the advantages or disadvantages of spending time with a limited number of close friends.

. State which way of spending time you prefer and why. Summary paragraph: Summarize the ideal way of spending time.

. Explanation Essay In an explanation essay, you explain how or why something happens or has happened. You need to explain different causes and effects. You should organize the essay by explaining each individual cause or effect. Example question: Introduction: Supporting paragraphs: Write an essay explaining why so many people prefer to live in the newly-built cities. Give background information on the newlybuilt cities. . Explain first reason: poor living conditions in big cities.

. Summary paragraph:

Explain second reason: better conditions in the newly-built cities.

living

Summarize main reasons.

. Evaluation Essay

In an evaluation essay, you make judgments about people, ideas, and possible actions. You make your evaluation based on certain criteria that you develop. Organize the essay by discussing the criteria you used to make your judgment.

Example question: Introduction: Supporting paragraphs:

Write an essay evaluating the importance of the Parliament. Give your judgment on whether the Parliament is important. . Explain first criteria: meeting place for government . Explain second criteria: represent Egyptians . Explain third criteria: make laws for Egypt

Summary paragraph:

Conclude with an overall judgment about the Parliament

The Five-Paragraph Essay A classic format for compositions is the five-paragraph essay. It is not the only format for writing an essay, of course, but it is a useful model for you to keep in mind, especially as you begin to develop your composition skills. Introduction: Introductory Paragraph See, first, Writing Introductory Paragraphs for different ways of getting your reader involved in your essay. The introductory paragraph should also include the thesis statement, a kind of mini-outline for the paper: it tells the reader what the essay is about. The last sentence of this paragraph must also contain a transitional "hook" which moves the reader to the first paragraph of the body of the paper.

Body: BodyFirst paragraph: The first paragraph of the body should contain the strongest argument, most significant example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning point. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the "reverse hook" which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the introductory paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the second paragraph of the body.

BodySecond paragraph: The second paragraph of the body should contain the second strongest argument, second most significant example, second cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up the first paragraph in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the first paragraph of the body. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the third paragraph of the body.

BodyThird paragraph: The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest argument, weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious follow up to the second paragraph in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the second paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the final major point being made in this paper. This hook also leads into the last, or concluding, paragraph. Conclusion: Concluding paragraph: This paragraph should include the following: . an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph,

. a restatement of the thesis statement, using some of the original language or language that "echoes" the original language. (The restatement, however, must not be a duplicate thesis statement.) . a summary of the three main points from the body of the paper. . a final statement that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end. (This final statement may be a "call to action" in an persuasive paper.)

A Sample Essay () Stephen King, creator of such stories as Carrie and Pet Sematary, stated that the Edgar Allan Poe stories he read as a child gave him the inspiration and instruction he needed to become the writer that he is. () Poe, as does Stephen King, fills the reader's imagination with the images that he wishes the reader to see, hear, and feel. () His use of vivid, concrete visual imagery to present both static and dynamic settings and to describe people is part of his technique. () Poe's short story "The Tell-Tale Heart" is a story about a young man who kills an old man who cares for him, dismembers the corpse, then goes mad when he thinks he hears the old man's heart beating beneath the floor boards under his feet as he sits and discusses the old man's absence with the police. () In "The Tell-Tale Heart," a careful reader can observe Poe's skilful manipulation of the senses. () The sense of sight, the primary sense, is particularly susceptible to manipulation. () In "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe

uses the following image to describe a static scene: "His room was as black as pitch with the thick darkness..." Poe used the words "black," "pitch," and "thick darkness" not only to show the reader the condition of the old man's room, but also to make the reader feel the darkness." () "Thick" is a word that is not usually associated with colour (darkness), yet in using it, Poe stimulates the reader's sense of feeling as well as his sense of sight. () Further on in the story, Poe uses a couple of words that cross not only the sense of sight but also the sense of feeling to describe a dynamic scene. () The youth in the story has been standing in the open doorway of the old man's room for a long time, waiting for just the right moment to reveal himself to the old man in order to frighten him. () Poe writes: "So I opened it [the lantern opening]you cannot imagine how stealthily, stealthilyuntil, at length, a single dim ray, like the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye." () By using the metaphor of the thread of the spider (which we all know is a creepy creature) and the word "shot," Poe almost makes the reader gasp, as surely did the old man whose one blind eye the young man describes as "the vulture eye." () The reader does not know much about what the old man in this story looks like except that he has one blind eye. () In the second paragraph of "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe establishes the young man's obsession with that blind eye when he writes: "He had the eye of the vulturea pale blue eye, with a film over it." () This "vulture eye" is evoked over and over again in the story until the reader becomes as obsessed with it as does the young

man. () His use of the vivid, concrete word "vulture" establishes a specific image in the mind of the reader that is inescapable. () "Thick darkness," "thread of the spider," and "vulture eye" are three images that Poe used in "The Tell-Tale Heart" to stimulate a reader's senses. () Poe wanted the reader to see and feel real life. () He used concrete imagery rather than vague abstract words to describe settings and people. () If Edgar Allan Poe was one of Stephen King's teachers, then readers of King owe a debt of gratitude to that nineteenth-century creator of horror stories.

Commentary: The introductory paragraph includes a paraphrase of something said by a famous person in order to get the reader's attention. The second sentence leads up to the thesis statement which is the third sentence. The thesis statement (sentence ) presents topic of the paper to the reader and provides a minioutline. The topic is Poe's use of visual imagery. The minioutline tells the reader that this paper will present Poe's use of imagery in three places in his writing: () description of static setting; () description of dynamic setting; and () description of a person. The last sentence of the paragraph uses the words "manipulation" and "senses" as transitional hooks. In the first sentence of the second paragraph (first paragraph of the body) the words "sense" and "manipulation" are used to hook into the end of the introductory paragraph. The first part of the second sentence provides the topic for this

paragraphimagery in a static scene. Then a quotation from "The Tell-Tale Heart" is presented and briefly discussed. The last sentence of this paragraph uses the expressions "sense of feeling" and "sense of sight" as hooks for leading into the third paragraph. The first sentence of the third paragraph (second paragraph of the body) uses the words "sense of sight" and "sense of feeling" to hook back into the previous paragraph. Note that in the second paragraph "feeling" came first, and in this paragraph "sight" comes first. The first sentence also includes the topic for this paragraphimagery in a dynamic scene. Again, a quotation is taken from the story, and it is briefly discussed. The last sentence uses the words "one blind eye" which was in the quotation. This expression provides the transitional hook for the last paragraph in the body of the paper. In the first sentence of the fourth paragraph (third paragraph in the body), "one blind eye" is used that hooks into the previous paragraph. This first sentence also lets the reader know that this paragraph will deal with descriptions of people: "... what the old man looks like...." Once again Poe is quoted and discussed. The last sentence uses the word "image" which hooks into the last paragraph. (It is less important that this paragraph has a hook since the last paragraph is going to include a summary of the body othe paper.) The first sentence of the concluding paragraph uses the principal words from the quotations from each paragraph of the body of the paper. This summarizes those three paragraph. The second and third sentences provide observations which can also be considered a summary, not only of the content of the paper, but also offers personal opinion which was logically drawn as the result of this study. The last sentence returns to the Edgar Allan Poe-Stephen King relationship which began this paper. This

sentence also provides a "wrap-up" and gives the paper a sense of finality.

SUMMARY PART III: ESSAY LEVEL

Remember: . In terms of organization, an essay has three main parts:

- introduction - body - conclusion

. The introduction of an essay provides a statement of the thesis,

outlines the main points and describes the conclusions.

. The body of an essay presents the facts and develops the

thoughts and arguments. In writing the body, one has to use paragraphs, use good grammar, analyze rather than describe facts, develop an argument supporting a point of view, think independently and be creative.

. The conclusion of an essay is more or less a restatement of its

introduction.

. Professional writers use the following patterns to keep the

readers' interest: - historical review - anecdotal

- surprising statement - famous person - declarative

. Supporting paragraphs (i.e. the body) in an essay develop its

main idea. They should have topic sentences, supporting sentences, and a summary sentence,

. Transition words link the units (i.e paragraphs) of an essay and

makes it easier to read.

. Writing an essay goes through different stages:

- pre - writing - writing - editing - publishing

. kinds of essay can be classified as follows:

- definition essay - classification essay - description essay - compare and contrast essay. - sequence essay -choice essay - explanation essay

- evaluation essay

. the five- paragraph essay is a classic format for compositions.

PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE

Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:

. extract the main point in each paragraph of the essay entitled "
The Computer as writing assistant...... "

. provide the main topic of the essay. . show evidence whether the writer of the essay has provided all
details about using a computer, a word-processor, or otherwise.

. pick up some of the transitional to go used in the essay. . identify the functions of the tags. . choose one of the composition topics provided and write an
essay on it.

. analyse the model essay on pages - in terms of

organization.

. provide a statement about the topic of the essay entitled " Noise
Pollution ".

. provide a summary of the story at the beginning of the essay. . show whether the story given is relevant to the topic of the
essay or otherwise

. define "Noise Pollution" from the writer's perspective.

. show whether the facts / examples provided in the essay support

the main argument or otherwise.

. identify the conclusion reached at the end of the essay. . choose one of the composition topics provided and write an
essay on it.

. provide a statement about the main topic of the essay " smoking
and quitting are matters of free will ".

. identify the writer's attitude towards smoking. . provide some details from the essay which support the main
argument

. pick up some of the transitional tags used in the essay. . identify the conclusion reached at the end of the essay. . write an essay or one of the composition topics provided. . provide answers to the discussion items based on the essay
entitled "what happened to the News? ".

. write an essay on one of the composition topics provided.

PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE The Computer as Writing Assistant More Than a Fancy Typewriter

That computer sitting before you is more than a fancy typewriter. With modern word-processing programs and the ability of the computer to attend to more than one task at a time, the computer can become an invaluable assistant in the writing process. If you are still typing with two fingers, however, you must learn how to take advantage of all the computer has to offer. It might be a good idea to call a brief time-out in your academic courses and learn some keyboarding skills. Until voicerecognition software becomes a more affordable reality, the ability to use the keyboard with speed and efficiency is going to be one of the keys to academic success. You don't want to spend hours pecking away at the keyboard when a mini-course in keyboarding will give you the skills necessary to keyboard like a speed-demon. And paying someone else to keyboard your paper is not only expensive; it also means that you're not taking advantage of everything that this technology has to offer. If you don't have time during the regular semester, promise yourself that before another winter's intersession or summer session passes by, you will take a course in keyboarding. You will never regret it. There are also software packages that promise to turn you into an executive secretary in a week, and they can be effective. Having the discipline of a course and the encouragement of an instructor and classmates can be helpful, though.

One of the first things you'll learn in a keyboard class is how to SAVE the material you're typing. Once you've learned the first basic step, it's easy to save your document as you go along. Some software, in fact, has an automatic SAVE feature that saves your work every few minutes. When you're done with your work, make sure that final copies of your documents are safely "put away" in two placeson a floppy disc and on the hard drive or on two separate floppies. Floppies "go bad," and someday you will be very glad that you got in the habit of saving things twice. Your instructor is not interested in what is already an old excuse: "My floppy is corrupted." The only caution here is that you must be careful to work with the latest saved version. Carefully label your discs and keep your backup copy as fresh as your main floppy. Also, carry floppy discs in a hard plastic case. If your document is really important or private, learn to keep copies in a safe place, away from nasty weather and electromagnetic fields (like some scissors or paperclips and those magnetic closers on cabinet doors). Also, get in the habit of checking the disc drive before you leave the computer station. Carefully saving your documents on a floppy doesn't do much good if you leave it in the disc drive and the next person who uses the lab accidentally blows away your precious text or helps himself to a free floppy disc. As you enter the Editing and Rewriting phases of writing your paper and you begin to move blocks of text around and delete material or insert new paragraphs here and there, it might be a good idea to begin to save subsequent drafts of your paper. Label the draft files systematically and simply: ozone_.doc, ozone_.doc, etc. The reason for this is that we sometimes "blow away" something that is quite good and when we want to retrieve it, it's gone if we constantly over-ride a single saved document.

(A distinct disadvantage of digital writing!) A high-density floppy disc should be able to hold many versions of several text documents.

Discussion: . Sum up the main points in each paragraph. . What is the main topic of this essay? . Do you think that the writer has provided all the details about using the computer as a word-processor? . Mention some of the transitional tags used by the writer in the essay.

Composition: - Write an essay explaining why you have decided to buy a personal computer. - Write an essay choosing between buying a computer and buying a typewriter. - What possible disadvantages can computers have? Explain with reasons. - Compare and contrast two modern inventions.

Noise Pollution Ever felt like murdering your neighbour for blasting music too loud? That's exactly what -year-old retired farmer Lambrinos Lykouresis did two years ago in Lithakia, on the Greek island of Zakynthos. Lykouresis, who claims he had complained to his neighbour for months and only wanted to listen to the evening news in peace, suddenly snapped. On May , he got up from his armchair, took his hunting rifle from the shelf, hobbled over to the neighbouring apartment and rang the bell. When -year-old housewife Imberia Boziki answered the door, he fired three times at point-blank range, killing her instantly and wounding her -year-old son. Lykouresis now listens to the evening news in Greece's Ioannina maximum security prison. Convicted of manslaughter in , he is serving two life sentences. The Lykouresis case is an extreme example of the lengths to which some people will go for a little peace and quiet. And it's sad testimony to the devastating effects of one of the world's most pervasive yet least publicized environmental problems: noise pollution, the presence of intrusive and unwanted sounds that can seriously affect physical and psychological health. And the Greeks are not alone. According to Europe's Environment, a report published in by the European Environment Agency (E.E.A.), about million people of the European populationare regularly exposed to noise intensities above dB, a level high enough to cause annoyance, aggressive behaviour and sleep disturbance. Although noise-data

collection is limited and methods may vary, the E.E.A. also concluded that some million Europeans are routinely subjected to more than dB, the level at which hypertension can result, and million endure noise above dB, which can lead to high stress levels, increased heart rates and potential hearing loss. Unfortunately, the primary sources of noise pollution are also mainstays of modern life. Apart from peoplewho create a racket through stereos and televisions and at outdoor entertainment and sporting eventsthe usual culprits are planes, trains and automobiles. In Germany, for example, the Federal Environmental Agency estimates that of the country's inhabitants feel continuously disturbed by road traffic. In the Netherlands, more than a million people are subjected to excessive noise levels as a result of their proximity to Schiphol Airport, according to a report by the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (R.I.V.M.). In an increasingly overcrowded and congested Europe, noise pollution is a problem that resonates everywhere, not just in urban centres. And members of the silent majority who suffer from these acoustic intrusions are starting to speak out. In Britain, individuals saddled with loud and uncontrollable neighbours can complain to the local council. But taking noisemakers to court can be a long and exhausting process. And councils often lack the resourcesand the willto prosecute. "There's a lot of prejudice against people who complain," says Gibson. "Most people move house rather than confront the source of the problem." Unfortunately, those unable or unwilling to move away have little choice but to insulate themselves as best they can from the

noise. Double-glazing helps, but the effectiveness of sound barriers is limited. In general, the higher the barrier and the closer to the noise source, the better it works. But with extremely wide highways barriers can't do much to block traffic noise coming from the farthest lanes. The noisy nature of modern life is unlikely to be muted any time soon. But that doesn't mean that noise pollution is destined to drive us all mad or deaf. Sensible urban planning, innovative new technology and creative acoustic architectureplus some old-fashioned good neighbourlinesscan go a long way toward restoring peace and quiet. And that may well be the best way to stop the sound of silence from becoming an endangered species.

Discussion: . State the topic of this essay. . Summarize the story with which the writer begins his essay. . Why, in your opinion, does the writer begin his essay with this story? Is it relevant to the essay topic? . How is noise pollution defined by the writer? . Does the writer include facts/examples in his essay to support his argument? . What conclusion does the writer reach at the end of his essay?

Composition: - Imagine that you are Lykouresis, writing to explain why and how you killed your neighbour, Imberia Boziki. Write the essay in the descriptive style. Write an explanation essay on the sources of noise pollution in Egypt.

Smoking and quitting are matters of free will The increasing attempt to hold tobacco companies responsible for the consequences of smoking behaviour poses a greater threat to liberty in a free society than nicotine ever could. When the government acts like a parent, attempting to protect people from themselves, it makes children out of adult citizens. Most of us know people who smoked for years and then quit abruptly. Their bodies had adapted to nicotine and since they chose to quit, they did. Question: What do we attribute that behaviour to? Answer: Free will. And what of people who do not want to quit? Why explain their behaviour using terms such as weak will and physiological addiction? Those people simply choose to continue smoking, even if a doctor or loved one has suggested they quit. They aren't suffering from a weak will. They have an iron will: They choose to continue smoking against medical advice. And ironically, they are often the ones who transform their iron will into an iron fist, demanding they be financially compensated for the consequences of their own behaviour. There's nothing particularly unusual about non-compliance with medical advice or blaming others for one's own behaviour. Many people continue to engage in certain behaviours against medical advice. How many people continue to eat a high-fat diet when their doctor recommends against it? If they develop cardiovascular disease, will they blame McDonald's or Burger King for hooking them on hamburgers and French fries? Why not?

Smoking and quitting, like eating and dieting or exercising and being a couch potato, are matters of free will and personal choice. Yes, habits may cause diseasebut habits aren't disease in and of themselves. Cancer is a disease. Smoking is a habitual behaviour. Moreover, likening a behaviour to a disease seems especially cruel to people with real diseases. A person cannot choose to quit or moderate diabetes. The price of freedom in a free society is responsibility for the consequences of one's actions. Liberty and responsibility are positively correlated. That's a fact. People who claim addiction causes people to smoke say the two are negatively correlated. That's fiction. We cannot increase freedom by decreasing personal responsibility. That's the road to serfdom.

Discussion: . State the main topic of this essay. . What is the writers attitude towards smoking? . Mention some of the supporting details used by the writer to support his argument. . Give examples of transitional tags used in the essay. . What conclusion does the writer reach at the end of his essay?

Composition: - Compare and contrast two articles you have read on smoking.

- Describe how you feel about being/not being a smoker.

What Happened to the News? When television news started out, back in the s, it occupied less than a thirty-minute slot. Ten or fifteen minutes would be granted to local stations for their news, and then the networks would say all there was to say about national and world news in the remaining fifteen to twenty minutes. There were very few advertisements during the news; it wasn't regarded as appropriate to sponsor news about floods and fires and political disasters. Life must have been simpler then. Nowadays many television stations set apart ninety minutes for local news alone, and that's just for the early evening news show. On March , , we watched a local news show in Hartford for one hour, from to p.m., and kept track of what seemed to be really news and what waswell, not news. First of all, during this one hour of news, there were advertisements. Among other things advertised, there were ads for cars, fast-food chains, mutual funds, feminine hygiene products, cheese, utility companies, phone service, shampoos, and deodorants. Most of the ads were fast paced, colourful, and sometimes funny. They seemed to do a lot in their thirty seconds. Graphically, they were the most interesting part of the hour. In addition, there were ten advertisements apparently produced by the television station itself that advertised programs and services of the stationsometimes featuring what was coming up later that evening, sometimes touting the virtues of the station's news team and weather forecasters. Perhaps the most annoying moments in the news hour are the little moments of conviviality and chit-chat between members of

the news team, the little asides of mutual congratulation and gratitude and commiseration (with the various victims in the day's news) that are supposed to make us see how wonderfully human the newscasters are. What must the fifteen-minute, get-itdone-and-get-out newscasters of the s think of all this? Whatever happened to the news? What we need to do now is to take a stopwatch to the news hour and determine how much of the time is spent actually reporting "hard news," the kind of thing that was put into that fifteen-minute segment during the early days of television news. We're willing to wager that over a onehour news show there is considerably less than fifteen minutes occupied with the news. We can't say that our lives were simpler back then, but apparently we had less time to spend watching nonsense.

Discussion:

Does the writer convince you of anything? Do you think the writer goes overboard with his illustrations? If so, can you say what you would leave out? The writer insists on a difference between "hard news" and the kind of thing he sees on the news program. Is it clear what the writer means by "hard news"? Would it be more fair if the writer provided us with a good definition of what "news" really is? Should the writer do a more scientific or statistical survey of news programsusing a stopwatch, perhaps, watching other

channels and sampling the news on several different evenings over a period of weeks or even months? Which of the following statements would you consider as a the writers conclusion? - News programs are getting longer and longer and offering less and less actual news. - News programs are full of advertisements.

Composition: Write an essay evaluating TV programs Write an essay comparing two TV channels. State which channel you would prefer to watch. Give specific reasons for your choice. Both newspapers and television news programs can be good sources of information about current events. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of each of these sources?

SUMMARY PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE

Remember:
. The Computer as writing assistant more than a fancy typewriter.

. A Computer can be an invaluable assistant in the writing

process.

. A Course in keyboarding can provide you with the necessary

skills.

. Software packages can make you an executive secretary in a

week.

. Keyboard classes help you save the material.

. Noise Pollution.

. Lykouresis desperately killed his neighbour's wife and wounded

her . year - old son for blasting music too loud.

. Noise pollution can seriously affect physical and psychological

health. A high percentage of Europeans are exposed to noise intensities above dB. At the level of dB, hypertension, increased heart rates and hearing loss can result.

. Planes, trains end automobiles are primary sources of noise

pollution

. Urban planning and new technology can help us restore peace

and quiet. . Smoking and quitting are matters of free will.

. Smokers who quit after years of smoking have free will. . People who choose to continue smoking against medical advice
demand financial compensation for the results of their behaviour.

. Many people continue to eat a high fat diet against their doctors'
advice. However, they can never McDonald's for providing them with hamburgers and French fries.

. Smoking and quitting are matters of personal choice. In a free

society, one is responsible for one's actions. We cannot increase freedom by decreasing personal responsibility. . What happened to the new? But nowadays many television stations devote minutes to local news alone. during which there were advertisements for cars,, fast food, shampoos... etc.

. Television news occupied less than minutes in the o's.

. A local news show in Hartford in continued for an hour

. We need to determine how much of the time devoted to the

news is spent actually reporting 'hard news'.

PART V: WRITING TOPICS

Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:

. go through the list of writing topics given. . classify the topics according to the kinds of essay previously
learnt.

. read critically a number of the topics and provide an outline for

each.

. write some topic sentences stating the main points in some of

the topics provided.

. write some essay on a number of the topics based on students'

personal choice.

. exchange their writings with their classmates. . discuss how the writings are organized. . identify some transitional tags used in the writings.

PART V: WRITING TOPICS

Some people enjoy change, and they look forward to new experiences. Others like their lives to stay the same, and they do not change their usual habits. Compare these two approaches to life. Which approach do you prefer? Explain why. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Playing a game is fun only when you win. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some people prefer to spend time with one or two close friends. Others choose to spend time with a large number of friends. Compare the advantages of each choice. Which of these two ways of spending time do you prefer? Give reasons to support your answer.

 Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Playing games teaches us about life. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some people think that the family is the most important influence on young adults. Other people think that friends are the most important influence on young adults. Which view do you agree with? Use examples to support your position. Some people choose friends who are different from themselves. Others choose friends who are similar to themselves. Compare the advantages of having friends who are different from you with the advantages of having friends who are similar to you. Which kind of friend do you prefer for yourself? Why? Neighbours are the people who live near us. In your opinion, what are the qualities of a good neighbour? Use specific details and examples in your answer. Some people believe that a college or university education should be available to all students. Others believe that higher education should be available only to good students. Discuss these views. Which view do you agree with? Explain why. The government has announced that it plans to build a new university. Some people think that your community would be a good place to locate the university. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of establishing a new university in your community. Use specific details in your discussion.

 Think of the most important class you have ever taken. Why did you enjoy this class so much? Use specific reasons and details to explain your answer. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Universities should give the same amount of money to their students sports activities as they give to their university libraries. Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. Some people think that children should begin their formal education at a very early age and should spend most of their time on school studies. Others believe that young children should spend most of their time playing. Compare these two views. Which view do you agree with? Why? Some people prefer to spend most of their time alone. Others like to be with friends most of the time. Do you prefer to spend your time alone or with friends? Give reasons to support your answer. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? People should read only those books that are about real events, real people, and established facts. Use specific reasons and details to support your opinion. When choosing a place to live, what do you consider most important: location, size, style, number of rooms, types of rooms, or other features? Use reasons and specific examples to support your answer.

 Films can tell us a lot about the country in which they were made. What have you learned about a country from watching its movies? Use specific examples and details to support your response. Because of developments in communication and transportation, countries are becoming more and more alike. How is your country becoming more similar to other places in the world? Use specific examples and details to support your answer. Modern life is causing many traditions and beliefs to become less important. Choose one tradition or belief and explain why you think it should be continued and maintained. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. People attend colleges or universities for many different reasons (for example, new experiences, career preparation, increased knowledge). Why do you think people attend colleges? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. If you could change one important thing about your hometown, what would you change? Use reasons and specific examples to support your answer. If you had the time and money to invent something new, what product would you develop? Use specific details to explain why this product is needed. Some people say that physical exercise should be a required part of every school day. Other people believe that students should spend the whole school day on academic studies.

Which opinion do you agree with? Give reasons to support your answer. Some high schools require all students to wear school uniforms. Other high schools permit students to decide what to wear to school. Which of these two school policies do you think is better? Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. If you could make one important change in a school that you attended, what change would you make? Use reasons and specific examples to support your answer. Your school has received a gift of money. What do you think is the best way for your school to spend this money? Use specific reasons and details to support your choice. It has been said, Not everything that is learned is contained in books. Compare and contrast knowledge gained from experience with knowledge gained from books. In your opinion, which source is more important? Why? Some people believe that the best way of learning about life is by listening to the advice of family and friends. Other people believe that the best way of learning about life is through personal experience. Compare the advantages of these two different ways of learning about life. Which do you think is preferable? Use specific examples to support your preference. You need to travel from your home to a place miles ( kilometres) away. Compare the different kinds of transportation you could use. Tell which method of travel you would choose. Give specific reasons for your choice.

 Some people prefer to spend their free time outdoors. Other people prefer to spend their leisure time indoors. Would you prefer to be outside or would you prefer to be inside for your leisure activities? Use specific reasons and examples to support your choice. Some people believe that students should be given one long vacation each year. Others believe that students should have several short vacations throughout the year. Which viewpoint do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples to support your choice. Students at universities often have a choice of places to live. They may choose to live in university dormitories, or they may choose to live in apartments in the community. Compare the advantages of living in university housing with the advantages of living in an apartment in the community. Which would you prefer? Give reasons for your preference. What do you consider to be the most important room in a house? Why is this room more important to you than any other room? Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. Would you prefer to live in a traditional house or in a modern apartment building? Use specific reasons and details to support your choice. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? A persons childhood years (the time from birth to years of age) are the most important years of a persons life.

Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Your country is going to build a new national university. What academic area should be the main focus of this university? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Parents are the best teachers. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. In the twentieth century, food has become easier to prepare. Has this change improved the way people live? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Your community has enough money to hire one new employee. Which one of the following should your community hire? a community health worker a counsellor an emergency medical technician a fire-fighter a judge a landscaper a police officer a recreation centre director a teacher

Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

Children should be required to help with household tasks as soon as they are able to do so. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some young children spend a great amount of their time practising sports. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this. Use specific reasons and examples in your answer. A gift (such as a soccer ball, a camera, or an animal) can contribute to a childs development. What gift would you give to help a child develop? Why? Use reasons and specific examples to support your choice. Some people pay money for the things they want or need. Other people trade products or goods for what they need. Compare the advantages of these two ways of obtaining things. Which way do you prefer? Explain why. Read and think about the following statement: Only people who earn a lot of money are successful. Do you agree or disagree with this definition of success? Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. Read and think about the following statement: People behave differently when they wear different clothes. Do you agree that different clothes influence the way people behave? Use specific examples to support your answer.

 What is the most important animal in your country? Why is this animal important? Use reasons and specific details to explain your answer. Some items (such as clothes or furniture) can be made by hand or by machine. Which do you prefer items made by hand or items made by machine? Use reasons and specific examples to explain your choice. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? A zoo has no useful purpose. Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. Some people prefer to live in a small town. Others prefer to live in a big city. Which place would you prefer to live in? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. People learn in different ways. Some people learn by doing things; other people learn by reading about things; others learn by listening to people talk about things. Which of these methods of learning is best for you? Use specific examples to support your choice. Some people trust their first impressions about a persons character because they believe these judgements are generally correct. Other people do not judge a persons character quickly because they believe first impressions are often wrong. Compare these two attitudes. Which attitude do you agree with? Support your choice with specific examples. A university plans to develop a new research centre in your country. Some people want a centre for business research. Other people want a centre for research in agriculture

(farming). Which of these two kinds of research centres do you recommend for your country? Give reasons for your recommendation. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? There is nothing that young people can teach older people. Use specific reasons and examples to support your position. How do movies or television influence peoples behaviour? Use reasons and specific examples to explain your answer. Music tells us something about a culture. What does the music of your country reveal about the culture of your country? Use reasons and specific examples to support your answer. It has recently been announced that a new movie theatre may be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. A company has announced that it wishes to build a large factory near your community. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this new influence on your community. Do you support or oppose the factory? Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Television has destroyed communication among friends and family.

Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. In some countries people are no longer allowed to smoke in many public places and office buildings. Do you think this is a good law or a bad law? Use specific reasons and examples to support your position. Imagine that you have received some land to use as you wish. How would you use this land? Use specific details to explain your answer. Many parts of the world are losing important natural resources, such as forests, animals, or clean water. Choose one resource that is disappearing and explain why it needs to be saved. Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. When people move to another country, some of them decide to follow the customs of the new country. Others prefer to keep their own customs. Compare these two choices. Which one do you prefer? Support your answer with specific details. Decisions can be made quickly, or they can be made after careful thought. Read and think about the following statement: The decisions that people make quickly are always wrong. Do you agree or disagree with the statement? Use reasons and examples to support your opinion. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? It is more important for students to study history and literature than it is for them to study science and mathematics.

Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? All students should be required to study art and music in high school. Give specific reasons to support you opinion. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? It is better to make the wrong decision than to make no decision at all. Use specific reasons and examples to support your position. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Reading fiction (such as novels and short stories) is more enjoyable than watching movies. Use specific reasons and examples to support your position. Some people think we should spend as much money as possible exploring outer space (for example, travelling to the moon and to other planets). Other people disagree and think we should spend this money for our basic needs on Earth. Which of these two opinions do you agree with? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. What is one of the most important decisions you have made? Why was this decision important? Use specific reasons and details to explain your answer.

 Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? When people succeed, it is because of hard work; luck has nothing to do with success. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some people think that governments should spend as much money as possible on developing or buying computer technology. Other people disagree and think that this money should be spent on more basic needs. Which one of these opinions do you agree with? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. It is better for children to grow up in the countryside than in a big city. Do you agree or disagree? Use specific reasons and examples to develop your essay. In general, people are living longer now. Discuss the causes of this phenomenon. Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay. In general, people are living longer now. How will this change affect society? Use specific details and examples to develop your essay. We all work or will work in our jobs with many different kinds of people. In your opinion, what are some important characteristics of a co-worker (someone you work closely with)? Use reasons and specific examples to explain why these characteristics are important. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Sometimes it is better not to tell the truth.

Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. In some countries, teenagers have jobs while they are still students. Do you think this is a good idea? Support your opinion by using specific reasons and details. A person you know is planning to move to your town or city. What do you think this person would like and dislike about living in your town or city? Why? Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Private companies should spend more money to clean up pollution in the environment. Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay. In the future, students may have the choice of studying at home by using technology such as computers or television or of studying at traditional schools. Which would you prefer? Use reasons and specific details to explain your choice. When famous people such as actors, athletes and rock stars give their opinions, many people listen. Do you think we should pay attention to these opinions? Give specific reasons and examples to support your answer. When people need to complain about a product or poor service, some prefer to complain in writing and others prefer to complain in person. Which way do you prefer? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

 People remember special gifts or presents that they have received. Why? Give specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some famous athletes and entertainers earn millions of dollars every year. Do you think these people deserve such high salaries? Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. Your school has enough money to purchase either computers for students or books for the library. Which should your school choose to buy computers or books? Use specific reasons and examples to support your recommendation. If you could know something about the future, what would you choose to know about and why? Give reasons and details to support your choice. People listen to music for different reasons and at different times. Why is music important to many people? Give specific reasons and examples to support your choice. When students move to a new school, they sometimes face problems. How can schools help these students with their problems? Use specific reasons and examples to explain your answer. Every generation of people is different in important ways. How is your generation different from your parents generation? Use specific reasons and examples to explain your answer. You want to persuade someone to study your native language. What reasons would you give? Support your answer with specific details.

 You have been asked to suggest improvements to a park that you have visited. This might be a city park, a regional park, or a national park. What improvements would you make? Why? Use specific reasons and examples to support your recommendations. If you were asked to send one thing representing your country to an international exhibition, what would you choose? Why? Use specific reasons and details to explain your choice. There are many different kinds of advertising (on the radio, on television, in newspapers, in magazines, and on billboards). In your opinion, which one of these kinds of advertising is the most effective? Why? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Many people have a close relationship with their pets. These people treat their birds, cats, or other animals as members of their family. In your opinion, are such relationships good? Why or why not? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Advertising helps to sell products. Describe the qualities of an effective advertisement. Use specific details and examples to support your answer.

 Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? A sense of humour can sometimes be helpful in difficult situations. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some people think that they can learn better by themselves than with a teacher. Others think that it is always better to have a teacher. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons to develop your essay. What are some important qualities of a good supervisor (boss)? Use specific details and examples to explain why these qualities are important. Should governments spend more money on improving roads and highways, or should governments spend more money on improving public transportation (buses, trains, subways)? Why? Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay. Choose one of the following careers and explain why it is important to society.

accountant aeroplane pilot architect dentist lawyer

actor computer programmer farmer tour guide

 Use specific reasons and details to explain your answer. It has recently been announced that a shopping centre may be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. It is generally agreed that society benefits from the work of its members. Compare the contributions of artists to society with the contributions of scientists. Which type of contribution do you think is valued more by your society? Give specific reasons to support your answer. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? High schools should allow students to study the courses that students want to study. Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? It is better to be a member of a group than to be the leader of a group. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some people prefer to plan activities for their free time very carefully. Others choose not to make any plans at all for their free time. Compare the benefits of planning free time activities with the benefits of not making plans. Which do you

preferplanning or not planning for your leisure time? Use specific reasons and examples to support your choice. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? People are never satisfied with what they have. They always want something more or something different. Use specific reasons to support your answer. Some people say that advertising encourages us to buy things we really do not need. Others say that advertisements tell us about new products that may improve our lives. Which viewpoint do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. You have enough money to purchase either a house or a business. Which would you choose to buy? Give specific reasons to explain your choice. Some students prefer to study alone. Others prefer to study with a group of students. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Some people like doing work by hand. Others prefer using machines. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. It has recently been announced that a new restaurant may be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. It has recently been announced that a new high school may be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this

plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer. You have been told that dormitory rooms at your university must be shared by two students. Would you rather have the university assign a student to share a room with you, or would you rather choose your own roommate? Use specific reasons and details to explain your answer. Some people say that the best preparation for life is learning to work with others and be co-operative. Others take the opposite view and say that learning to be competitive is the best preparation. Discuss these positions, using concrete examples of both. Tell which one you agree with and explain why. Supporters of technology say that it solves problems and makes life better. Opponents argue that technology creates new problems that may threaten or damage the quality of life. Using one or two examples, discuss these two positions. Which view of technology do you support? Why? Some people believe that automobiles are useful and necessary. Others believe that automobiles cause problems that affect our health and well-being. Which position do you support? Give specific reasons for your answer. Inventions such as eyeglasses and the sewing machine have had an important effect on our lives. Choose another invention that you think is important. Give specific reasons for your choice.

 Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Teachers should make learning enjoyable and fun for their students. Use reasons and specific examples to support your opinion. Imagine that you have been asked to form a five person team to tackle a business problem. Describe the personal attributes, values, and attitudes of ideal team members. Describe someone you admire and explain why you admire this person. How have you incorporated what you have learned from this individual in your life? Describe a difficult decision you have faced. How did you resolve the internal conflicts and the situation? What did you learn from this? Briefly explain your objectives in pursuing a particular postgraduate program and your career aspirations.