Objectives

LSM3254 Ecology of Aquatic Environments

To learn about: Selected freshwater habitats and associated limnological concepts Freshwater habitats in Singapore Scope Watershed Lentic habitat lakes, swamps Lotic habitat streams Freshwater habitats in Singapore
Darren Yeo Dept of Biological Sciences
References: Dodson, S. 2005.Introduction to Limnology. McGraw-Hill Chapters 2, 11

Freshwater habitats

Watershed
Area of land that supplies water to a lake or stream = Area of land drained by a lake or stream Also known as catchment or drainage

Lentic environments
Standing water bodies Lake
Large body of water, depth >3m, area >1-10 ha Often shows thermal stratification

Note: Surface watershed may not correspond with groundwater watershed

Pond
Small body of water, area <110 ha Shallow enough (<3 m) to be fully mixed by light wind (no thermal stratification)

Lakes
Most of the worlds freshwater resides in a few large lakes ~60% of the worlds freshwater in three areas

Lake parameters
Lake morphometrics
Shape, area, volume Shore length (=perimeter)
Varies with shoreline development (human shoreline development)
E.g., for given area, - More elongate, with rough, folded shoreline longer shore length - More circular, with smooth, simple shoreline shorter shore length

Measured shore length of lake

Index of shoreline development of lake = --------------------------------------------------------------Shore length of a circular lake with same area
Minimum index value = 1 Higher index value increased shoreline development

Lake parameters
Water budget: lake inputs and outputs Residence time: amount of time water spends in lake (yr)
= Lake volume/discharge rate Discharge rate: rate of water output from lake (m3 yr-1)

Lake position in landscape

Lake position determines water input/output of lake influences chemical and biological characteristics of lake nd
es a als ulat ic cum ) chem ac ill - ration h own vapo e ns d r ru es (by te Wa entrat c con

Flushing rate: rate of lake volume output (yr-1)

= 1 / residence time
Highest salinity, nutrients, productivity, biodiversity

Lowest salinity, nutrients, productivity, biodiversity

6%

Seepage lakes: no surface inlets; ground water only (-2, -1) Drainage lakes: have surface outlets (-1, 1, 2, 3)

Vertical temperature profile

Vertical stratification in lakes: Thermal, oxygen, light, biological, primary production Thermal stratification: vertical pattern of temperature differences along a depth gradient Water column divided into layers that resist mixing
> 4 deg C: warmer water floats on top of cooler water < 4 deg C: cooler water floats on top of warmer water 4 deg C: max density water sinks to lake bottom

Vertical temperature profile

Graph of lake depth vs temperature
Depth plotted on y axis (vertical) More diagrammatic representation

Fundamental to limnological understanding

Thermal stratification gives rise to other forms of stratification (chemical, light, biological)

Mixing of the water column - breakdown of stratification

Wind-driven Ecologically important
Oxygenation of bottom waters Replenish nutrients in surface waters Stratified lakes - oxygenation/temp regulation of upper layers

Vertical temperature profile

Summer stratification
Epilimnion
Warm, bright, less dense upper layer Oxygen rich higher concentration of fauna Wind-driven mixing

Vertical temperature profile

Winter stratification
Very weak stratifiction Reverse of summer
Cooler, less dense epilimnion Warmer, denser hypolimnion Mixing prevented by ice cover

Metalimnion
Transition zone Includes thermocline where temperature changes most rapidly with depth

Isothermal lake
Spring, autumn No temperature change with depth No layers Mixed

Hypolimnion
Cool, dark, denser lower layer Oxygen-poor lower concentration of fauna

Summer -Epilimnion warms further, mixes -Hypolimnion remains cool but is deeper, i.e. thermocline descends

Annual pattern on temperate zone lake

Vertical temperature profile

Factors affecting thermal stratification
Time of year, location: affect annual/daily variation in environmental temperature

Late spring -Lake warms further -Warmer epilimnion floating on cooler hypolimnion Stratified lake

Early spring -Ice melts -Lake warms slightly -Lake mixes Isothermal lake

Autumn -Epilimnion cools -Cool water sinks -Lake mixes -Breakdown of stratification Isothermal lake

Lake depth: shallow vs deep lakes Fetch:

Uninterrupted distance travelled by wind across lake mixing of lake But correlated with depth stratification intact deeper mixing of epilimnion only (rather than whole lake) pushes hypolimnion

deeper

Topography: geographic features shielding lake from wind Solutes: increased density resist mixing

Winter - Ice cover -Reverse of summer stratification -Cooler epilimnion floating on warmer hypolimnion -Stratified lake

Vertical temperature profile

Lakes based on stratification and annual mixing patterns
Dimictic: biannual mixing (spring, autumn) and stratification (summer, winter) Monomictic: annual mixing (autumn to spring) and stratification (summer only) Amitictic: no mixing Polymictic: frequent, sometimes daily, mixing (afternoon through night) from storms and strong winds and stratification (mornings as sun rises) seen in many shallow tropical lakes Meromictic chemically stratified due to high solute concentration
Monimolimnion (dense, deep, non-mixing layer of salts)
Demarcated by pycnocline, depth with greatest density change (associated with chemocline - depth with most rapid [solute] change)

Vertical oxygen profile

Vertical oxygen profile affected by
Thermal stratification Biological activity Major patterns of oxygen concentration:
Orthograde Spring, low production lakes, lower biological activity
Epilimnion (warmer, lower O2 solubility) lower [O2] higher [O2] Hypolimnion (cooler, higher O2 solubility)

Clinograde Summer, productive lakes, higher biological activity

Epilimnion (warmer, light, photosynthesis) Hypolimnion (cooler, dark, decomposition) higher [O2] lower [O2]

May still be thermally stratified above monimolimnion

Vertical oxygen profile

Heterograde
Just below thermocline peak [O2] (oxygen anomaly) Low production lakes deep light penetration Growth of hypolimnion algae (Algal plate)

Vertical light profile

Euphotic zone
Upper layer with sufficient light for net primary production by algae From surface (100% light penetration) to 1% surface light penetration depth

Compensation zone
Just enough light for photosynthesis to support algae Net primary production = 0

Aphotic zone
Insufficient light for photosynthesis to support growth

Vertical light profile

Light penetration
Estimated using Secchi disk Affected by:
Suspended particles (e.g., phytoplankton, sediment) Dissolved pigments (e.g., tannins) Depth/differential absorbance of colours (wavelengths) by water
Most strongly absorbed: IR, red, UV Least absorbed: blue, green (most reflected)

Biological vertical profiles

Examples
Algae (phytoplankton) affected by light penetration Bacteria and zoobenthos (bottom-dwelling invertebrates) vertical profiles in the sediment affected by [O2] Zooplankton and fishes affected by physical (e.g., [O2]) and biological factors (e.g., predation)
Log

Biological vertical profiles

Diel Vertical Migration (DVM)
Daily pattern observed in zooplankton (small pelagic animals)
Day migration to deeper waters avoid predation from visual predators
Depth limited by [O2]

Primary production vertical profiles

Net primary production (NPP): Energy in lake ecosystem (from photosynthesis) excluding metabolic requirements (for respiration) of algae and plants Highest NPP surface waters (epilimnion) in agricultural and urban watersheds
Higher temperature High light High inorganic nutrients

Night migration to shallow waters faster growth and reproduction

Also observed in larval fishes

Primary production vertical profiles

Lake classification based on primary production
Eutrophic lake: High 1 production
Nutrient-rich Abundant phytoplankton Poor light penetration turbid water due to phytoplankton Photic zone upper epilimnion Oxygen depleted (anoxic) hypolimnion

Primary production vertical profiles

Lake classification based on primary production
Mesotrophic lake: Intermediate 1 production
Intermediate nutrient availability - between oligotrophic to eutrophic conditions

Dystrophic lake: Very low 1 production

Nutrient-poor abundant predacious plants Low in phytoplankton Low light penetration dark water dissolved organic pigments Oxygen depleted anoxic hypolimnion

Oligotrophic lake: Low 1 production

Nutrient-poor Low in phytoplankton Good light penetration clear water Photic zone epilimnion to hypolimnion Well oxygenated hypolimnion

Lake types and origins

Glacial lakes
Glaciation - a major process at higher latitudes
Deposited sediments (glacial till) moraines, alluvial dams Deposited icebergs kettle ponds Depressions/basins plunge basins, glacial scouring, proglacial lakes

Lake types and origins

Non-glacial lakes
Oxbow lakes (billabongs, bayous) erosion/sedimentation along stream meanders Sinkholes dissolved limestone in karst areas Frost polygons thawed permafrost Beaver ponds biological activity

Lake types and origins

Lake Pinatubo Lake Toba

Lakes types and origins

Inland, shallow wetlands Coastal wetlands - part brackish

Crater lakes volcanic activity Rift lakes tectonic activity along fault lines

Lake Songkhla

Lake Baikal

Lake Poso

African Rift Lakes

Tonle Sap Chilka Lake

Inle Lake (Myanmar) Lake Pinatubo (Luzon) Tonle Sap (Cambodia)

Lake development
Lakes have finite life spans Gradually become shallower Lakes wetlands Key process: sedimentation particles dropped by moving water Inorganic sediment (e.g., clay, silt, sand, etc.) in drainage lakes Basins often deeper than water depth Lake Baikal: 1741m water + >3000m of sediment Organic sediment (e.g., peat compressed, very slowly decomposing plant material)

Natural lakes in tropical SE Asia

Lake Songkhla (Thailand) Lake Toba (Sumatra) Tasik Bera (Malaysia)

- Inland, shallow wetlands - Coastal wetlands: part brackish - Volcanic and tectonic lakes

Lake Poso (Sulawesi)

Artificial Lakes
Reservoir
Artificial pond or lake Created by construction of a dam or barrage across a Valley Depression River mouth River basin Morphology and hydrology distinct from natural ponds or lakes

Artificial Lakes
Reservoirs
Often characterised by dendritic shorelines Different from natural lakes

Tasik Temenggor

Swamps
Wetland
Soil saturated with water Shallow standing water (up to 1m depth) Extensively vegetated
Grasses marsh or bog Trees - swamp

Swamps
Lentic environment Low-lying area relative to surrounding topography Water table at or close to the surface; prone to flooding Substratum includes spongy, slowly rotting vegetation Extensive root mats and macrophytes Regulates water flow and quality - functions like a giant, landscape level sponge
Absorbs and holds excess water during rainy periods flood control Slow release of trapped water during dry period maintain water flow Natural filter for polluted runoff traps/absorbs pollutants and nutrients

Important habitat
E.g., Singapores Nee Soon Swamp Forest

Lotic environments
Running or flowing waters (cf. lentic - standing waters)
Rivers Streams (creek, crick, branch, rivulet, trace, brook ) Springs Estuary

Stream parameters
Stream morphometrics
Velocity: rate of downstream movement Gradient: decrease in elevation over fixed distance Cross-sectional area
~1.5 x (depth x width)

Discharge: volume of water carried per unit time

Spates: Small pulses Floods: major peaks

Stream order
Streams classified based on position in landscape Assignment of stream order based on joining of two streams of previous order
First Order: permanent stream originating from ground water; no other streams joining

River Continuum Hypothesis

Predicting downstream characteristics of temperate streams
Low order streams Heavily shaded; allochthonous input - coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) e.g., falling leaves Shredders (that break up CPOM) dominate High order streams Open; allochthonous input FPOM (photosynthesis inhibited by turbid water Filter feeders/collectors dominate

Third Order: Joining of two second order streams

Str e wa am d t pol ershe rains i luti on, d area ncrea si sed ime inc ngly l nta reas arge tion in , tu g rbid ity

Second Order: Joining of two first order streams

Joining of a lower order stream does not raise the order of the stream

Intermediate order streams More open; autochthonous input - aquatic algae and plants and fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) from upstream Scrapers/grazers and filter feeders/collectors dominate

References Singapore freshwater habitats

Corner EJH, 1978. The Freshwater Swamp-forest of South Johore and Singapore. Botanic Gardens, Parks and Recreation Department, Singapore. 266 pp. Johnson DS, 1973. Freshwater life. p. 103-127. In: Chuang, S. H. (ed.). Animal Life and Nature in Singapore. Singapore University Press. xiv + 302 pp. Lim KKP, Ng PKL, 1990. A Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of Singapore. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore. 160 pp. Ng PKL, 1991. A Guide to the Freshwater Life in Singapore. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore. 162 pp. Ng PKL, Lim KKP, 1999. The diversity and conservation status of fishes in the nature reserves of Singapore. Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar (1997). Gardens Bulletin, Singapore, 49: 245265. Tan HTW, Chou LM, Yeo DCJ, Ng PKL, 2010. The Natural Heritage of Singapore, 3rd Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. 323 pp. Turner IM, Boo CM, Wong YK, Chew PT, Ibrahim A, 1996. Freshwater swamp forest in Singapore, with particular reference to that found around the Nee Soon firing ranges. Gardens Bulletin, Singapore, 48: 129157. Yeo DCJ, Wang LK, Lim KKP (eds.), 2010. Private Lives: An Expos of Singapores Freshwaters. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. 258 pp.

Freshwater habitats in Singapore

Up to two-thirds or more of Singapores land area is water catchment Much of Singapores original freshwater habitats lost or modified High biodiversity - including rare and endangered species Singapores freshwater habitats can be broadly classified into three categories:
Natural Urban (artificial or modified) Ephemeral

Classification of habitats in Singapore

Natural habitats
Tree-country forest streams (primary, secondary forest) Freshwater swamp

Natural freshwater ecosystems

Tend to be refuges for native aquatic species

Urban habitats (artificial of modified)

Open-country rural streams Concrete canals, drains Reservoirs (inland, coastal) Park/garden/landscape ponds

Artificial or modified ecosystems Tend to have more exotic species

Ephemeral habitats
In natural areas, e.g., pools, temporary streams in forests In artificial areas, e.g., marshland?

Rivers and streams

Absence of large rivers
Original large natural freshwater ecosystems - small rivers
e.g., Sungei Kranji, Sungei Seletar, Sungei Kallang, Singapore River But now almost all drowned or heavily modified

Absence of native large river species

Natural freshwater ecosystems

Forest streams Primary/secondary rain-forests
Bukit Timah and Central Catchment Nature Reserves Mostly flowing into inland reservoirs Few, if any, torrent streams

Natural freshwater ecosystems

Nee Soon Swamp Forest
In the Central Catchment Nature Reserve Small (<1 km2) but important remnant of original freshwater swamp habitat in Singapore
Last substantial patch Former areas include: Jurong, Mandai and Pulau Tekong

Natural/unmodified environmental conditions

Shallow (<1 m), slow-flowing, soft, mildly acidic (pH 5.56.0) waters Well-shaded by the forest canopy and riparian vegetation relatively cool waters ~25-28 deg C Combinations of sand, clay, or mud substrata often with leaf litter and woody debris Macrophytes Dominated by native aquatic species adapted to forest stream conditions Few/no exotic species so far

Protected by the National Parks Board Important role of Ministry of Defence - military firing ranges

Natural freshwater ecosystems

Nee Soon Swamp Forest (contd) Natural/unmodified environmental conditions
Slow-flowing streams draining into shallow, often flooded, valleys Saturated, waterlogged soils - unstable and anaerobic substratum Plants with some similar adaptations to mangrove plants
stilt or prop roots breathing roots (pneumatophores)

Artificial/modified freshwater ecosystems

Rural streams Shallow (<1 m), slow-flowing, relatively soft, slightly acidic to neutral (>pH 6.5) waters Open, poorly or not shaded relatively warm waters >28 deg C Little any leaf litter or woody debris Algae and macrophytes Different environmental conditions (cf. forest streams)
Open, deeper, less acidic waters
Few robust, adaptable native aquatic species More exotic species better adapted to modified conditions. E.g.,
Small species Species associated with higher pH and temperature waters

Clear, stained (by tannins from decaying vegetation), soft, acidic (typically <pH 5.5) waters High conservation value - highest proportion of Singapores native freshwater aquatic fauna including:
48% of the primary freshwater fishes and 71% of the amphibian fauna

Guppy (Poecilia reticulata)

Name that reservoir

Artificial/modified freshwater ecosystems

Reservoirs
17 reservoirs for domestic/industrial use Artificial equivalents of natural lentic habitats (i.e. lakes), which are absent Damming natural river drainages or river basins
Protected and Urban/Unprotected catchments Inland reservoirs and coastal (estuarine) reservoirs
Inland reservoirs dams at headwaters/upper reaches Coastal (estuarine) reservoirs barrages at river mouth or across common basin
Take years to flush out salt water

http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/Pages/LocalCatchment.aspx

Artificial/modified freshwater ecosystems

Different environmental conditions (cf. forest streams)
Open, deeper, less acidic, sluggish to standing waters Few robust, adaptable native aquatic species More exotic species better adapted to modified conditions. E.g.,
Large river/lentic species Species associated with higher pH and temperature waters

Artificial/modified freshwater ecosystems

Ponds
Small, mostly isolated in parks, golf courses and disused granite quarries

Canals
Heavily modified rivers/streams, especially those flowing through urban areas Canalisation - straightening, deepening, widening, and cementing of the banks and substrates Canalised for:
Flood control Mosquito control

Exposed to urban runoff and pollution Harsh, exposed environmental conditions

Warm, hard, often polluted, shallow waters Bare concrete substratum Frequent and severe flash flooding Few robust, adaptable natives More exotic species. E.g.,
Species associated with hard, high pH and temperature waters