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Objectives

LSM3254 Ecology of Aquatic Environments


To learn about: To learn about the diversity of representative groups of microorganisms, animals, and plants in freshwater Scope
Limnological biodiversity Prokaryotes Protists Rotifers Annelids Arthropods Molluscs Fishes Higher vertebrates Plants

Freshwater biodiversity

Darren Yeo Dept of Biological Sciences

References: - Dodson, S. 2005.Introduction to Limnology. McGraw-Hill Chapters 3-5 - LSM1103 Biodiversity!

Limnological biodiversity
Ecologically and economically important
water quality, energy, human and wildlife health, conservation and management

Prokaryotes
Kingdom Prokaryota Prokaryotic cell structure Include:
Extremophiles (halophiles, methanophiles) Cyanobacteria (=blue-green algae)
Photoautotrophic and heterotrophic Nitrogen fixers (form heterocysts) Produce gas vacuoles Toxic Filamentous or colonial

Often grouped in various artificial groupings, e.g., Based on habit, e.g., benthic vs planktonic vs pelagic Based on size, e.g., plankton Category Zooplankton Nannoplankton Picoplankton Femtoplankton Approx size 50-5000 m 10-50 m 0.5-10 m <0.5 m Representative organisms Protists, rotifers, cladocerans, copepods Protists: protozoa & algae Smaller protists & bacteria Bacteria & viruses

Small size large surface-to-volume ratio ! persistence in low nutrient environment

Prokaryotes
Feeding:
Heterotrophs Autotrophs:
Chemoautotrophs, photoautotrophs

Protists
Kingdom Protista:
catch-all grouping

Eukaryotic cell structure Unicellular, colonial, or multicellular Non-motile or motile cilia, flagella, pseudopodia Free-living or symbiotic

Life cycle and diapause


Asexual reproduction binary fission Sexual reproduction unfavourable environmental conditions ! spore formation

Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Large numbers (e.g., 2-400 million/cm3 in eutrophic lakes) Major food source base of food chains

Green algae

Protists
Feeding:
Autotrophs, e.g., Chlorella Heterotrophs, e.g., Amoeba, Dinobryon Parasites, e.g., Cryptosporidium, Plasmodium, Giardia
Pseudopodia

Rotifers
Phylum Rotifera (wheel animals) Microscopic multicellular organisms
~2,000 species Includes Ascomorpha minima
Smallest metazoan --adult size 80um

Life cycle and diapause


Asexual and sexual reproduction Spores

Largest pelagic rotifers Asplanchna up to 1.5 mm long

Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Major food source: algae - base of pelagic and aufwuchs food chains Oxygen production Microbial loop decreases efficiency of energy transfer Parasites

Aufwuchs = Periphyton = community of microorganisms attached to surfaces (e.g., of leaves, woody debris, bottom substrate, etc.) in the water

Rotifers
Life cycle and diapause
Cell constancy Parthenogenesis Haploid males

Annelids
Phylum Annelida Oligochaetes (freshwater earthworms, tubifex worms)
Lack parapodia; few chaetae per segment Clitellum: secretion of resistant mucous cocoon for eggs Hermaphrodites

Habitats:
pelagic, littoral, benthic, interstitial (meiofauna), still water

Feeding preferences and behavior


Filter-feeding Grasping particles (other rotifers and protists)

Haemoglobin in tubifex worms in anoxic sediment Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Detritivores consumers of organic material and bacteria Bioindicator species stenotopic and broadly tolerant species ! environmental monitoring

Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Food source Consumer in microbial loop

Annelids
Hirudineans (leeches)
Lack parapodia and chaetae Possess clitellum Possess suckers at both ends Thirty-four segments but with secondary annulation

Arthropods
Phylum Arthropoda >1 million spp. ~80% of all known animals. Extant groups include:
Subphylum Chelicerata (spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, horseshoe crabs) Subphylum Crustacea (crabs, krill, barnacles, wood lice, brine shrimp)

Aquatic leeches
Two modes of movement Ectoparasites, scavengers, predators

Subphylum Hexapoda (insects) Subphylum Myriapoda (centipedes, millipedes)

Spiders
Subphylum Chelicerata (Arthropoda) Body divided into: cephalothorax (prosoma) + abdomen Lack antennae Lack mandibles Chelicerae pincer-like first pair of appendages
Cephalothorax Abdomen

Crustaceans
Subphylum Crustacea (Arthropoda) Body divided into: cephalothorax + abdomen Two pairs of antennae Mouthparts: one pair of mandibles, two pairs of maxillae Freshwater groups include:
Branchiopods Copepods Malacostracans (e.g., isopods, amphipods, decapods)

Branchiopods
Class Branchiopoda (Arthropoda: Crustacea)
Compound eyes Compressed, feather-like or leaf-like legs Carapace (covering cephalothorax)

Branchiopods
Freshwater species in 4 major groups:
Anostraca - fairy and brine shrimp
Carapace absent 11-19 pairs thoracic appendages Filter-feeders, grazers, predators

Notostraca - tadpole shrimp


Carapace (head-thorax) 34-70 pairs thoracic appendages Deposit-feeders

Not to be confused with brachiopods Phylum Brachiopoda (lamp shells)

Conchostraca (Spinicaudata, Laevicaudata) - clam shrimp


Carapace (most of body) 10-32 pairs thoracic appendages Filter-feeders

Cladocera (Anomopoda, Ctenopoda, Haplopoda, Onychopoda) - water fleas


Carapace (head-thorax or highly reduced) 4-6 pairs thoracic appendages Filter-feeders, predators

Branchiopods
Swarming behaviour (e.g., fairy shrimp, water fleas)
Individual responses (e.g., food, water quality cues) Group/social responses (e.g., predation avoidance, mating)

Branchiopods
Ecological importance in freshwater environments
Key position in aquatic food web Alternative to microbial loop

Escape behaviour
Rapid directional change Bosmina - dead man s response also in non-aquatic environments

Life cycle and diapause


Epihippium attracts predators

Microbial loop
Microbial loop

Copepods
Simple eyes, carapace absent 3 major free-living freshwater orders:

First antenna

Simple eye cephalothorax metasome urosome

Class Copepoda (Arthropoda: Crustacea)

Significant energy pathway in oligotrophic lakes


Subset of pelagic food web Small pelagic organisms,
e.g., rotifers, picoplankton (small protists, bacteria)

Egg mass

Alternative path

Nauplius larva

Calanoida (pelagic/planktonic) -First antenna ! posterior margin of urosome - Elongate -Urosome narrower than metasome - Eggs in a single mass

Greater no. of trophic levels Less energy reaching higher trophic levels Lower fish production in lake
Cyclopoida (pelagic/planktonic) - First antenna ! posterior margin of cephalothorax - Teardrop shaped - Urosome narrower than metasome - Eggs in two lateral masses Harpacticoida (benthic) - First antenna short - Vermiform - Urosome similar width to metasome - Eggs in a single mass

Copepods
Feeding preferences and behavior Juveniles: bacteria & algae Adults: omnivores or predators Individual particle capture Ecological importance in freshwater environments Similar to branchiopods Key member of food chains especially in oligotrophic lakes

Malacostracans
Class Malacostraca (Arthropoda: Crustacea)
Includes most familiar crustaceans

Isopoda

Amphipoda

Mysidacea Decapoda

Decapods
Five pairs of thoracic walking legs

Insects
Body divided into: head + thorax + abdomen Thorax with:
Three pairs of walking legs One or two pairs of wings

Habitat and feeding


Benthic (also semi-terrestrial spp) Shredders, grazers; detritivores, omnivores

Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Macrodecomposers Important food source

One pair of antennae Mouthparts: one pair of mandibles and maxillae, e.g., piercing, sucking, biting, chewing Gas exchange by spiracles and tracheae

Crayfish (Parastacidae)
first pair three pairs of thoracic legs chelate, i.e. terminate in pincers (cf. prawns only first two pairs chelate)

Prawns (Palaemonidae, Atyidae, Alpheidae) Crabs (Potamidae and Gecarcinucidae in Asia)


Aquatic, Semi-terrestrial

Insects
MAJOR AQUATIC INSECT ORDERS Coleoptera (beetles)

Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) Ephemeroptera (mayflies)* Plecoptera (stoneflies)*

Molluscs
Phylum Mollusca
Soft body Muscular ventral foot Calcareous shell secreted by mantle Mantle cavity

Diptera (flies, midges, mosquitoes) Trichoptera (caddisflies)* Hemiptera (true bugs)

Aquatic phase may be larvae only or both larvae and adult Metamorphosis:
Complete (holometabolous): larvae very different from adult Incomplete (hemimetabolous): larvae smaller but similar to adult

Two main freshwater classes:


Gastropoda snails Bivalvia clams, mussels

*Important organisms for biotic monitoring - collectively known as EPT taxa most intolerant (i.e. sensitive) taxa

Molluscs
Habitat
Hard waters shell-building requirement Bivalves attached to surfaces (byssus threads) or buried in soft sediment

Fishes
Phylum Chordata: Subphylum Vertebrata Vertebrate characteristics in fish skeleton:
Cranium Vertebral column + 2 pairs of jointed limbs and limb girdles

Feeding preferences and behavior


Filter-feeding or deposit-feeding bivalves Grazing gastropods

Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Food source Water quality

Key adaptations for aquatic mode of life


Fins Swim bladder
Pectoral fins (paired) Pelvic fins (paired)

Dorsal fins

Anal fin Caudal fin

Fishes
Fins stabilisation, braking, steering, generating lift, propulsion Unpaired fins (dorsal and anal fins) - counter yaw and roll Paired fins (pectoral and pelvic fins) - counter pitch Pectoral fins also used for braking and steering Tail (caudal fin and caudal peduncle) provides main propulsion

Fishes
Key adaptation: swim bladder
To achieve static lift (neutral buoyancy) Diverticulum of digestive tract Original respiratory function ! tetrapod lung
Highly folded internal walls of some spp.

bladder

gut pneumatic duct gut

Dorsal

Single or paired Physostomous: connected to pharynx by pneumatic duct Physoclistous: isolated from digestive tract associated with gas gland, oval window

Caudal peduncle Pectoral Caudal Anal

Pelvic

Fishes
Feeding preferences and adaptations
Parasites lamprey (not a true bony fish)
Jawless Circular mouth (for suction action) armed with numerous teeth

Fishes
Predators
Vision Lateral line system Gape-limited prey can achieve size refuge Extensible jaws / protrusible mouth Expansion of buccal cavity and protrusion of jaws to form suction tube Tube formation evolved independently in different groups

Planktivores
Toothless/poorly developed teeth Gill rakers for filter feeding Electrical field sensors to detect zooplankton e.g., paddle fish

Herbivores, omnivores, detritivores (grazers, bottomfeeders, scavengers, predators on small organisms)


Downturned mouth Pharyngeal teeth Barbels Body shape

Fishes
Body shape
Large mouth, large size, well-developed sharp teeth
Ambush predators Specialist for acceleration Dorsal and large anal fin posterior (close to caudal fin) Truncate shaped caudal fin, thick peduncle

Higher vertebrates
Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals (Chordata: Vertebrata)
Vertebrate characteristics Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs

Class Amphibia
Thin, highly-vascularised skin for cutaneous gas exchange
unregulated exchange vulnerable to aquatic pollution

Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Food web component Affects water quality
directly foraging Indirectly nutrients in waste products Indirectly removal of macrophytes

Dependent on aquatic environment for part or whole of life-history


Eggs laid in freshwater environment

Higher vertebrates
Reptiles, Birds, Mammals
Predators, many are top predators Waterproof skin Dependent on aquatic environment for part or whole of lifehistory
Waterproof, amniotic or cleidoic eggs laid on land

Plants
Macrophytes large aquatic plants
Macroalgae Lower plants (e.g., mosses) Higher plants (e.g., ferns, flowering plants)

Three main forms (morphology)


Floating Emergent Submerged

Depth limited euphotic zone

Generalised macrophyte zonation in temperate lakes


Shallow water emergent macrophytes

Euphotic zone

Floating macrophytes

Deep water emergent macrophytes

Most important inorganic nutrients for plant growth:


Submerged macrophytes

Nitrogen Phosphorus

Ecological importance in freshwater environments


Habitat Refuge Food source

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