LSM3254 Ecology of Aquatic Environments

Introduction to marine biology + principles of oceanography

Peter Todd Dept of Biological Sciences

Learning outcomes:
By the end of this lecture you should be able to discuss various aspects of:

S Some history of marine research. hi t f i h The geography and geomorphology of the oceans including: where they are their major features and their are, formation. The zones of the marine environment The physical properties of the marine environment Singapores marine environment Singapore s

So what is Marine Biology?

Some history
Pacific Islanders, Phoneicians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, Vikings, Europeans. Greeks Romans Vikings Europeans

Challenger: 1872 for 3 yrs. Published results in 50 volumes still referred to today Birth of modern marine science! today.

US NOAA

4,717 new species The first systematic plot of currents and temperatures in the ocean A map of bottom deposits - much of which still relevant p p An outline of the main contours of the ocean basins The discovery of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Geography and g g p y geomorphology of the p gy oceans

Sea water covers ~71% of the Earths surface (> 80% Southern Hemisphere 61% Northern Hemisphere, Hemisphere).

How many oceans?

Five! Three major oceans (Pacific, Atlantic, Indian) converge in the i th area around th A t ti continent (the Southern d the Antarctic ti t (th S th Ocean). Also the Arctic Ocean smaller and shallower. All the oceans are interconnected.

Continental shelf
Slopes from land to a depth of 100-200m Width varies in different parts of the world Makes up only 7-8% of total sea area But hi h B t high commercial value: i l l - over 95% of landings of world fisheries - oil and gas are also exploited h il d l l i d here

Distribution of the worlds continental shelves.

The seaward edges of these shelves are at an average depth of ~130 m.

Abyss y
Beyond the shelf the average depth is ~4000m Extensive flat sediment-covered abyssal plains flat, Over half the globe lies below 4000m of sea Constant and huge pressure Permanently dark

Submarine ridges
The mid-ocean ridge system is an extensive contiguous chain that has been found in all oceans, e.g. Mid-Atlantic ridge (will explain formation later). S b Submarine peaks may b k th surface and f i k break the f d form islands.

Trenches
7000m to 11,000m deep Marianas Trench (discovered by Challenger II in 1951) explored by the US Navy in the submersible Trieste in 1960. They touched bottom at 10,912m (why has no one gone any deeper?).

Cross section of an ocean basin, showing th C ti f b i h i the various geographic features (not to scale)

Plate tectonics and zones of the marine environment

General structure of t t f the earth

Plate tectonics
Plates are bounded by ridge and trench systems Seven major plates cover most of the planet The rigid plates float and move on the underlying mantle (convection currents) The movement of these plates over geological time is responsible for the differing positions of the continents through time a phenomenon called CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Location and boundaries of the Earths plates Earth s

 The plates move because the oceanic ridges are centers of volcanic activity where new crustal material i f f l i ti it h t l t i l is formed d and added to the crust. As this happens the plates move laterally, in opposite directions, causing SEAFLOOR SPREADING (2-5 cm/yr)

NeMO

Seafloor spreading was proposed in 1960 by US geologist Harry Hess (confirmed by Vine and Matthews in 1963). They observed that the floor of the Atlantic Ocean was made up of strips, each being magnetized either normally or reversely. y y These strips were parallel and formed identical patterns on both sides of the ocean ridge ridge. The implication was that each strip was formed at some stage in geological time when the magnetic field was polarized in a certain way.
Flips on average every 0.25m yrs, but not happened since 0.7 m yrs ago!

US Geological Survey

The opposite occurs in the trench systems, where the margin of one plate dives beneath the margin of the adjoining plate, a process called SUBDUCTION. Ocean crust is more dense (basalt) and so sinks under the continental rock (granite).

NeMO

Location and boundaries of the Earths plates Earth s

Rift valley

The Mid-Atlantic Mid Atlantic Ridge

Pangea, the ancient supercontinent of 200 million years ago, was a single l d mass i l land

Zones of the marine environment

2 main divisions pelagic (open water) and benthic (sea bottom)

Pelagic:
Divided horizontally into neritic (over the continental shelf) and oceanic (all other open water) zones. They are also divided into vertical zones: EPIPELAGIC 0-200m (photic zone) EPI- = top PELGOS = sea MESOPELAGIC 200-1000m (MESO- = middle) BATHYPELAGIC 1000-4000m (BATHY- or BATHO- = deep) ABYSSOPELAGIC 4000-6000m (A-, without; BUSSOS, bottom.] HADOPELAGIC (below 6000m) Hades = lord of the dead and ruler of the nether world

Zones of the marine environment

Benthic
Divided into: Littoral or intertidal zone (seashores) Sublittoral/subtidal extends out along continental shelf Bathybenthic/archibenthic/bathyal zone = 200 to 4000m Abyssalbenthic/abyssobenthic/abyssal zone = 4000 to 6000m Hadal zone = >6000m

Physical properties

Salinity
Total amount of salt dissolved in seawater. Measured in parts per thousand (number of grams of salt left after evaporating 1000gm seawater) seawater). If 35 gm of salt left after evaporating 1000gm of seawater, salinit sea ater salinity is 35 ppt (0/00) ppt.
Sometimes, the unit of measurement used is PSU (Practical Salinity Unit). U it)

Temperature
Narrow range in the marine environment ( g (~37C) ( g ) (range of about 145C in the terrestrial ecosystems). Varies north to south with changes in latitude and vertically with d h i ll i h depth. Very important factor governing ocean currents, the weather, weather life processes and the distribution of organisms organisms.

Th d h zone of most rapid temperature The depth f id decline is the thermocline

Vertical distribution of water temperature and density in 35 y salinity seawater. The thermocline is the depth range over which temperature and density rapidly change.

Thermal stratification
TEMPERATURE (0C)
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

50

DEPTH (M M)

100 150 200 250 300 350

thermocline

Persistent feature of tropical waters Temperate waters in summer months Absent in polar waters

Highest salinities at about 25N and S of equator where there is high evaporation. Equatorial regions receive abundant precipitation, so tropical ti E t i l i i b d t i it ti t i l surface waters approach the average salinity of the worlds oceans.

Gases
The lower the temperature of seawater the greater the solubility of gases There is an oxygen minimum zone between 200-1000m in open oceans (especially in the tropics). Due to minimal mixing and depletion by animals (as well as aerobic bacterial decomposition). No photosynthetic activity and contact with the atmosphere to permit renewal.

North Pacific

Transparency of seawater

Even in clear water about 80% of the total radiation entering the surface is absorbed within the uppermost 10m Light fails to penetrate due to: Angle of light Degree of ruffling of surface Turbidity of water Light penetration is very important for photosynthesis

Different wavelengths of light do not penetrate equally

1) Very turbid coastal water t l t 2) Moderately turbid coastal Water 3) Clear tropical Water NB The shift to shorter wavelengths (bluer light) in clearer water.

Singapore s Singapores marine environment

Marine environment facts

Average depth about 30m. Semi-diurnal tides. Tidal range ~3m. Monsoons (NE and SW) SW). Good mixing throughout water column. Thermal stratification near causeway. Th l t tifi ti Good diversity of marine species and ecosystems. Sea surface temperature range: 27 310C. Salinity range: 28-32ppt.

Thermal stratification

Wind generated currents and waves

Major current patterns in Southeast Asia during southwest and northeast monsoons.

NE

SW

Fish palisade trap. Local term kelong

No major fishery

Floating fish farm (Changi)

Floating fish cages (St. Johns)

Instead, one of worlds , busiest harbours and third largest oil-refining centre.

Oil refinery Container port C t i t

Oil refinery

Main I M i Impacts Coastal geomorphology changes original habitats replaced or eliminated, new living co communities de e op where poss b e u t es develop e e possible. Nutrient levels elevated promotes growth of marine plants and algae. Sediment reduces sunlight penetration (marine life affected); smothers benthic communities. communities

Coastal reclamation and modification

artificial lagoon

east coast reclamation

dredging

dumping

SPOT images. a) Singapore in 1973. b) Singapore in 1999. (The Straits Times 23/04/01) Times, 23/04/01).

Algal bed at Changi indication of nutrient enrichment. enrichment

Sediment mostly from dredging f d d i and land reclamation

Reduced light p penetration

A regular day out g y

But, if you look hard enough! y g

Rocky shore (Labrador)

Mangrove (S M (Sungei B l h) i Buloh)

Mangrove (Pulau Tekong) Raffles Lighthouse reef R ffl Li hth f