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EE3532 Industrial Electronics

Course Notes
Mohamed A. Taha
c PSUT, October 5, 2008
1 Process Control
Process control is the automatic control of an output variable by sensing the
amplitude of the output parameter from the process and comparing it to
the desired or set level and feeding an error signal back to control an input
variable.
1.1 Elements of Process Control
A process control can be described as shown in the block diagram in Figure
1. The block diagram shown in Figure 1 consists of the following elements:
Figure 1: Block diagram of a process control
1
1.1 Elements of Process Control 2
1. Controlled or Measured variable: Monitored output of the process
(variable to be controlled) which is usually held within given limits.
Examples in a process control system may include temperature, pres-
sure and ow rate.
2. Manipulated variable: It is the amount of energy that is physically
altered by the actuator to adjust the controlled variable. Example in
the level control system is the ow rate where the controlled variable
is the level.
3. Set point: It is the desired value of the output (controlled) variable.
4. Sensor: Is a device that can detect physical variables such as temper-
ature, lights, and motion, etc.
5. Transducer: Converts one form of energy to another. Example is the
pressure to current transducers, temperature to voltage transducers.
6. Controller: Is a device that monitors signals from sensors and take the
necessary action to keep the process within specied limits.
7. Actuator: Is a device that is used to control an input variable in re-
sponse to a signal from the controller. Example in the level control is
the valve that controls the ow by the amount it closes and opens.
Example 1.1 Consider the system shown in Figure 2. Identify the process
control elements.
In this example, pressure is used to control the rate of uid ows. This means,
the controlled variable is the uid ow rate and the manipulated variable is
the pressure developed by the uid.
Sensor is the pressure cell. Transducer is the P/I and I/P convertors. Ac-
tuator is the valve that changes the pressure applied to the pipes. Controller
is the processor, memory and summing junction. This controller is a PLC
(Programmable Logic Controller) type (more in CH 8).
Important Notes:
Programmable logic controllers (PLC) are used in process-control ap-
plications, and are microprocessor-based systems. Small systems have
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1.1 Elements of Process Control 3
Figure 2: Process control for example 1.1
the ability to monitor several variables and control several actuators,
with the capability of being expanded to monitor 60 or 70 variables
and control a corresponding number of actuators, as may be required
in a petrochemical renery. PLCs, which have the ability to use ana-
log or digital input information and output analog or digital control
signals, can communicate globally with other controllers, are easily
programmed on line or o line, and supply an unprecedented amount
of data and information to the operator. Ladder networks are normally
used to program the controllers.
An error signal is the dierence between the set point and the amplitude
of the measured variable.
Example 1.2 The process control shown in Figure 3 is a temperature control
system. Identify the elements of the process control for that system. In
this example, the temperature of the ow is controlled using an input steam
adjusted using a valve. The controlled variable is the temperature, and the
manipulated variable is the steam. Sensor is attached to the output ow pipes.
The controller is shown in the gure.
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2 Signal Conditioning and Interfacing circuits 4
Figure 3: Process control for example 1.2
2 Signal Conditioning and Interfacing circuits
When a sensor is used to respond to a change in physical parameter, its out-
put is usually very small, which makes it sensitive to noise and interference.
Therefore, we need a mechanism to amplify the signal level and attenuates
noise. This can be performed using signal conditioning which is a combi-
nation of amplication and ltering. Signal conditioning are needed for the
following reasons:
2.1 Signal Level Changes
This includes amplication and attenuation. The process can be performed
using ampliers. Ampliers must satisfy
Amplier must be chosen carefully to match the frequency response of
the measured variable.
Ampliers must have input impedance that does not load the output
of the sensor.
Usually signal level changes can be performed easily using Operational Am-
plier (OP-AMP)
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2.2 Linearization 5
2.2 Linearization
When the relation between the physical parameter (input of the sensor) and
the output variable (measured variable) is non linear, lineralization is needed.
Linearization can be performed using non linear circuits to undo the eect
of nonlinearity coming from the sensor I/O relation, or it can be performed
using software.
2.3 Conversions
Conversions are necessary to convert the output of the sensor to another
form that can be processed easily. For example, if the sensor output is a
resistance change, it is more useful to convert such change into voltage or
current change. This can be done using bridge circuits and sometimes using
OP-AMP circuits.
2.4 Filtering and Impedance Matching
Filtering is necessary in order to amplify the output of the sensor without
amplifying the noise, in this case ltering is applied to attenuate the the
unwanted signals prior to amplication.
Impedance matching is necessary in order to preserve the signal level for
the next stages. Incorrect impedance matching may reduce the signal when
applied to the next stages.
2.5 Loading Eect
Consider a sensor with internal resistance R
x
and output voltage v
x
as shown
in Figure 4. When the sensor is not loaded (R
L
= ), v
out
= v
x
. When the
sensor equivalent is connected to the load R
L
the output v
out
will be reduced,
v
out
= v
x
_
1
R
x
R
L
+R
x
_
= v
x
R
L
R
L
+R
x
The reduction in v
out
is by the amount of the voltage drop across R
x
that is
v
x
R
x
R
x
+R
L
. It is obvious then that we need a mechanism to isolate the sensor
from the load, this can be done using a buer amplier (will be shown later).
Example 2.1 An amplier outputs a voltage that is ten times the voltage
on its input terminals. It has an input resistance 10 K. A sensor outputs a
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2.5 Loading Eect 6
R
x
V
x
R
L
v
out
Figure 4: Thevenins equivalent of a sensor x
voltage proportional to temperature with a transfer function 20 mv
o
/C. The
sensor has an output resistance of 5 K. If the temperature is 50
o
C, nd the
amplier output.
The circuit for this example is shown in Figure 5. The voltage from the
T
20mv/
o
C
v
out
R
x
R
L
Figure 5: Thevenins equivalent of a sensor and the amplier
sensor at 50
o
C is
v
x
(50
o
C) = 20mv/
o
C 50
o
C = 1 V
The voltage at the input of the amplier is
v
i
(50
o
C) = 1
10
5 + 10
= 0.67 V
The amplier amplies the input signal by a factor of 10
v
out
= 0.67 10 = 6.7 V
It should be noted here that if the parameter of interest is the frequency,
then loading is not very important since although the signal is attenuated
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3 Passive Interfacing Circuits 7
because of loading, we can still gure out the frequency of the output signal,
this also applies if the signal is a digital signal since we can decide the zeros
and ones of the signal even if the level is small.
3 Passive Interfacing Circuits
The most important passive analog passive signal conditioning are the Bridge
and the Divider circuits. The bridge circuits is used when the change in the
physical variable results in a small change in the impedance, in this case,
this small change in the impedance is converted into voltage dierence by
the bridge.
Another application for passive circuits is the Filtering in which a certain
frequency or band of frequencies are passed and other are rejected. This can
be performed by combination of R and C elements.
3.1 Divider Circuits
When the change in the physical variable results in a considerable change in
resistance, divider circuit is used. In this case the change in the impedance is
converted into change in voltage. A typical divider circuit is shown in Figure
6. In Figure 6, either R
1
or R
2
can be a sensor whose remittance (R
1
or R
2
)
is changeling with some physical parameter. The divider voltage V
D
is given
by
V
D
=
R
2
V
s
R
1
+ R
2
(1)
Important Notes:
The variation of V
D
is nonlinear with R
1
or R
2
even in the case of linear
relation between R
1
or R
2
and the physical variable.
The equivalent impedance of the divider circuit is the parallel combi-
nation of R
1
and R
2
, i.e., R
TH
= R
1
||R
2
. The value of R
TH
is not
necessarily high, so loading eect must be considered.
Same current will ow in R
1
and R
2
so power dissipation in both re-
sistors must be considered.
Example 3.1 In the circuit shown in Figure 6, let R
1
= 10.0 K and V
s
=
5.00 V. Suppose R
2
is a sensor whose resistance varies from 4.00 to 12.0 K
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3.1 Divider Circuits 8
R
1
R
2
V
D
V
s
Figure 6: A divider circuit
as some dynamic variable varies over a range. Find (a) the minimum and
maximum of V
D
. (b) the range of output impedance. (c) the range of power
dissipated in R
2
.
(a) V
D
can be found using equation (1). The minimum V
D
results when
R
2
= 4.00 K
V
Dmin
=
4 5
4 + 10
= 1.43 V
The maximum V
D
results when R
2
= 12.0 K
V
Dmax
=
12 5
12 + 10
= 2.73 V
(b) R
TH
= R
1
||R
2
When R
2
= 4.00 K, R
TH
= 10||4 = 2.86 K. When R
2
= 12.0 K,
R
TH
= 10||12 = 5.45 K.
(c) The power dissipated in R
2
R
2
= 4.00 K
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3.2 Bridge Circuits 9
P =
V
2
D
R
2
=
1.43
2
4
= 0.511 m W
R
2
= 12.00 K
P =
V
2
D
R
2
=
2.73
2
12
= 0.621 m W
3.2 Bridge Circuits
Bridge circuit has the advantage of converting small variation of impedance
into varying voltage around zero. An amplier can then be used to increase
the sensitivity (produce higher voltages). A typical bridge circuit is called
Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure 7.
In the circuit in Figure 7, a voltage detector (D) is used to detect the
voltage dierence between the points a and b. This detector is usually a
dierential amplier with high input impedance. For calibration purposes,
D is a low impedance Galvanometer. The detector voltage reading is V =
V
a
V
b
, where V
a
is the voltage at point a with respect to ground (point c)
and V
b
is the voltage at point b with respect to ground (point c).
The voltage V
a
is the voltage division of the right arm
V
a
=
V R
3
R
1
+ R
3
similarly
V
b
=
V R
4
R
2
+ R
4
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3.2 Bridge Circuits 10
V
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
D a b
c
Figure 7: Wheatstone bridge circuit
The voltage dierence V
V = V
a
V
b
=
V R
3
R
1
+ R
3

V R
4
R
2
+ R
4
= V
R
3
R
2
R
1
R
4
(R
1
+ R
3
)(R
2
+R
4
)
(2)
The null condition results from V = 0, in this case
R
3
R
2
= R
1
R
4
(3)
Example 3.2 In the bridge circuit shown in Figure 7, the bridge is nulled
with R
1
= 1000 , R
2
= 842 , and R
3
= 500 , nd the value of R
4
.
Since the bridge is nulled we can use equation (3)
R
4
=
R
3
R
2
R
1
=
500 842
1000
= 421
Example 3.3 The resistors in a bridge shown in Figure 7 are given by R
1
=
R
2
= R
3
= 120 and R
4
= 121 . If the supply voltage V = 10.0 V, nd
the voltage oset.
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3.2 Bridge Circuits 11
The oset voltage V can be found using equation (2)
V = V
R
3
R
2
R
1
R
4
(R
1
+ R
3
)(R
2
+R
4
)
= V
R
3
R
2
R
1
R
4
(R
1
+ R
3
)(R
2
+R
4
)
= 10
120 120 120 121
(120 + 120)(120 + 121)
= 20.8 m V
If the Galvanometer is used to detect the voltage dierence, Galvanometer
resistance R
G
must be included in the analysis. If the Galvanometer resis-
tance is nite, current will ow through this resistance. To nd the value of
this current, we rst assume open bridge (R
G
= ) and nd the Thevenins
equivalent between the points a and b. The equivalent Thevenins circuit
between a and b is shown in Figure 8. In this Figure R
TH
is the equivalent
V
TH
R
TH
R
G
Figure 8: Wheatstone bridge Thevenins equivalent circuit
resistance between a and b, it can be found by short circuit the voltage V ,
in this case
R
TH
= R
1
||R
3
+R
2
||R
4
=
R
1
R
3
R
1
+ R
3
+
R
2
R
4
R
2
+ R
4
(4)
The open circuit voltage V
TH
is found using equation (2). The Gal-
vanometer current can be found easily as
I
G
=
V
TH
R
TH
+ R
G
(5)
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3.2 Bridge Circuits 12
Example 3.4 A bridge circuit has resistance of R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= 2.00 K,
and R
4
= 2.05 K, and a 5.00 V supply. If a galvanometer with a 50.0
internal resistance is used for a detector, nd the oset current.
We rst nd V
TH
using equation (2)
V
TH
= V
R
3
R
2
R
1
R
4
(R
1
+R
3
)(R
2
+ R
4
)
= 5
2.00 2.00 2.00 2.05
(2.00 + 2.00)(2.00 + 2.05)
= 30.9 mV
To nd R
TH
we use equation (4)
R
TH
= R
1
||R
3
+ R
2
||R
4
=
R
1
R
3
R
1
+R
3
+
R
2
R
4
R
2
+ R
4
=
2.00 2.00
2.00 + 2.00
+
2.00 2.05
2.00 + 2.05
= 2.01 K
The oset current can be found using equation (5)
I
G
=
V
TH
R
TH
+ R
G
=
30.9 10
3
2.01 10
3
+ 50
= 15 A
Bridge Resolution: Oset voltage resolution is the minimum voltage
that can be detected by the detector. Resolution of the bridge is the minimum
value of the resistance change that produces the minimum detected oset
voltage. For example, if the detector can measure an oset voltage of 100 V ,
then the minimum resistance change that can be measured is the change that
produces oset voltage of 100 V .
Example 3.5 A bridge circuit has R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= R
4
= 120.0 , and
a 10.0 V supply voltage. If the detector has a resolution of 10 mV, nd the
resolution of R
4
.
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3.3 Filtering 13
We need to nd the value of R
4
that produces an oset voltage of 10 V .
Equation (2) can be used
10 mV = 10
120 120 120 R
4
(120 + 120)(120 + R
4
)
Solving for R
4
, gives
R
4
= 119.52
Thus, the change in R
4
that produces the given oset is
R
4
= 0.48
It should be noted in this example that, if the change in R
4
is less than 0.48
the detector will not detect any oset, since the resulting oset in this case
is less than 10 mV, the resolution of the detector.
Finally, we should note that bridge circuit can be used when the sensor
output for any physical input is a resistive type and the vhange in the re-
sistance is small, this ensures nearly linear relation between V and R as
shown in Figure 9.
3.3 Filtering
When the sensor captures data from measurements, they are usually equipped
with noise. To reduce the eect of noise, ltering must be performed to re-
ject the frequency bands which the noise signals occupy. Filtering is easily
implemented using RC circuits, these circuits are called lters. According to
the conguration of the Rs and Cs, lters have several types.
3.4 Low Pass Filter
Low pass lter, is the circuit that passes signals with frequencies lower than
some frequency called cuto frequency f
c
, and attenuates signals with fre-
quencies beyond f
c
. Low pass ltering can be performed using the circuit
shown in Figure 10.
In the circuit in Figure 10, the output voltage V
out
can be found as
V
out
=
V
in
X
C
R +X
C
(6)
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3.4 Low Pass Filter 14
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
4
2
0
2
4
6
R
4


V
R
4
=100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
R
4


V
R
4
=10
Figure 9: Relation of V as a function of R
4
for large and small changes
in R
4
R
C V
out
V
in
Figure 10: Low pass lter RC circuit
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3.4 Low Pass Filter 15
X
C
=
1
sC
=
1
2fC
, substitute in equation (6) and nd the transfer function
denoted by H(f) =
V
out
V
in
H(f) =
1
RC
j2f +
1
RC
(7)
Dene the critical frequency f
c
as the frequency at which the transfer function
magnitude reaches
1

2
of it value at DC (H(0)) or equivalently (20 log
10
(
1

2
) =
3 dB),
|H(f
c
)| =
1

2
|H(0)|
The magnitude of the transfer function |H(f)| is found as follows
|H(f)| =
1
RC
(2f)
2
+ (
1
RC
)
2
(8)
To nd the critical frequency f
c
, we must solve for f
c
the following equation
|H(f
c
)| =
1

2
|H(0)|
(2f
c
)
2
+ (
1
RC
)
2
= 2(
1
RC
)
2
which gives
f
c
=
1
2RC
(9)
We can express equation (8) in terms of f
c
by substituting
1
RC
= 2f
c
in
equation (8)
|H(f)| =
1
_
1 + (
f
f
c
)
2
(10)
The magnitude of the transfer function (H(f)) can be plotted as a function
of the ratio
f
f
c
as shown in Figure 11.
Example 3.6 A measured signal has a frequency has a maximum frequency
component of 1 KHz. The signal is captured with noise located at frequency
of 1 MHz. Design a low pass lter to attenuate the noise to 0.01 of its value
at the input. What is the eect of the designed lter on the signal.
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3.4 Low Pass Filter 16
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
f/f
c
|
H
(
f
)
|
Figure 11: Low pass frequency response
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3.5 High Pass Filter 17
We need to determine the cuto frequency of the lter using the given
specications. The noise signal of 1 MHz needs to be attenuated to 0.01 of
its value at the input, we use equation (10) as follows
|H(1 MHz)| =
1
_
1 + (
1 MHz
f
c
)
2
Solving for f
c
f
c
= 10 KHz
Select C = 0.01F, and using the equation (9) to nd the resistor, R =
1.59 K.
To nd the eect of the lter on the signal we use equation (10)
|H(1 KHz)| =
1
_
1 + (
1 KHz
10 KHz
)
2
= 0.995
The signal is attenuated by 0.5% using this lter.
3.5 High Pass Filter
High pass lter passes high frequencies and attenuates low frequencies, high
and low frequencies are realtime to the critical frequency f
c
. It can be per-
formed using the RC circuit by interchanging the elements R and C in the
low pass lter circuit as shown in Figure 12.
V
in
V
out
C
R
Figure 12: High pass lter RC circuit
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3.5 High Pass Filter 18
The transfer function ratio H =
V
out
V
in
is as folows
H =
R
R + X
C
=
s
s +
1
RC
=
jf
jf + f
c
(11)
The 3 dB frequency is found on the same manner as in low pass lter and
equals f
c
=
1
2RC
. The magnitude frequency response is found by taking the
magnitude of H in equation (11)
|H| =

jf
jf + f
c

jf/f
c
1 + jf/f
c

=
f/f
c
_
1 + (f/f
c
)
2
(12)
The frequency response of the RC high pass lter is shown in Figure 13.
Example 3.7 Pulses for stepping motor are being transmitted at 2000 Hz.
Design a lter to reduce 60 -Hz noise, but reduce the pulses by no more than
3 dB.
Since signals with frequencies below the cuto frequency will be attenuated
by more than 3 dB, then f
c
= 2000 Hz. The pulses are attenuated by 0.707
times their values at the input, while the noise by
60/2000
_
1 + (60/2000)
2
= 0.03
This means, if the pulses has amplitude of 1 V at the input of the lter,
then this amplitude will be 0.707 V at the output. While, if the noise has
amplitude of 1 V at the input of the lter, then this amplitude will be 0.03 V
at the output of the lter, a reduction by 97%.
The design of the lter will be, selecting C = 0.01F, and nd R as
R =
1
2Cf
c
=
1
20.01F2000 Hz
= 8 K
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3.5 High Pass Filter 19
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
f/f
c
|
H
(
f
/
f
c
)
|
Figure 13: RC High pass lter frequency response
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3.5 High Pass Filter 20
Multistage Filters:
Often, lters are cascaded in order to have better response (more attenua-
tion in the stop band region). In this case, loading eect has to be considered.
If the input impedance of the second stage is much larger than the output
impedance of the rst stage, the output signal of the rst stage will not be
reduced by the second stage, and the response will be squared if the both
stages have the same cuto frequency. Figure 14 shows the scenario when
connecting two stages, in this conguration R
out1
is the Thevenins equiva-
lent impedance of the rst stage, V
out1
is the Thevenins open circuit voltage
of the rst stage, V
in2
is the input voltage to the second stage and R
in2
is the
sum of the input impedance and the load of the second stage .
V
in1
=
V
out1
R
out1
+ R
in1
If R
in1
>> R
out1
V
in1
= V
out1
, No reduction
If R
in
R
out1
V
in1

1
2
V
out1
, A reduction of 0.5 or more
First stage Second stage
V
out1
R
out1
R
in2
V
in2
Figure 14: Loading eect in multistage ltering
Example 3.8 A 2 KHz data signal is contaminated by a 60 Hz noise. Com-
pare the performance of a signal and two stages high pass lter of the signal
(data) for 60dB attenuation of the noise signal.
Since the required attenuation is 60dB (10
60/20
= 10
3
) which is more
than 3dB (10
3/20
= 0.707), then the cuto frequency is not 2000Hz. To
determine f
c
we use equation (12)
0.001 =
60/f
c
_
1 + (60/f
c
)
2
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3.5 High Pass Filter 21
Solving for f
c
, we have
f
c
= 60 KHz
Using a single stage, the amplitude of the signal (2KHz) at the output is
found using equation (12)
V
out
V
in
=
2, 000/60, 000
_
1 + (2, 000/60, 000)
2
= 0.033
The signal is almost killed with 0.0333 left at the output.
For multistage design, assume no loading eect, the magnitude response
is squared
0.001 =
(60/f
c
)
2
1 + (60/f
c
)
2
Solving for f
c
f
c
= 1896 Hz
To nd the eect on the signal
V
out
V
in
=
(2000/1896)
2
1 + (2000/1896)
2
= 0.53
Which is much better attenuation than the a single stage (0.53 of the signal is
left). Since both stages are identical then each stage will provide attenuation
of (

0.53 = 0.71). If we consider the loading eect, the attenuation will be


increased.
Example 3.9 In the previous example, assume C = 0.001 F, nd R and
obtain the performance of the lter considering the loading eect of the mul-
tistage lter.
In the previous example, f
c
= 1896 Hz,
R =
1
2Cf
c
=
1
20.001 10
6
1896
= 83.9 K
To evaluate the performance of the data using this lter, we compute X
C
at
2000Hz
X
C
(2000) =
1
2 2000 10
6
= 79.6 K
The circuit is shown in Figure 15. In this circuit, the second stage is loading
the rst.
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3.5 High Pass Filter 22
C C
R R
V
in
V
out
Figure 15: RC High pass lter multistage circuit
To study the loading eect, we nd Thevenins equivalent of the rst stage,
in this case the second stage is eliminated since it represents the load for the
rst stage.
R
TH
= R||X
C
= 83.9||79.6 = 40.85 K
V
oc
= V
out1
= 0.73V
in
The equivalent circuit for the rsts stage is shown in Figure 16.
R
out1
=R
TH
=40.85K
V
oc
=V
out1
= 0.73V
in
R
in2
Figure 16: Thevenins equivalent of the RC High pass lter multistage circuit
Where R
in2
is the input impedance from the second stage computed as
R
in
2
= R +X
C
= 83.9 + 79.6 = 163.5 K
Now the input voltage to the second stage can be found by voltage division of
R
TH
and R
in2
.
V
in2
=
0.73V
in
R
TH
+ R
in2
R
in2
=
0.73V
in
40.85 + 163.5
163.5 = 0.584V
in
The overall output can be found by noting the relation between V
in2
and V
out
,
V
out
= 0.73V
in2
Thus,
V
out
= 0.73 0.584V
in
= 0.4263
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4 Operational Amplier 23
4 Operational Amplier
4.1 Ideal Characteristics
Operational amplier (OP-AMP) is represented by the symbol shown in Fig-
ure 17. In this circuit, the + terminal is called the non-inverting input termi-
nal and the terminal is called the inverting input terminal. We also denote
the open loop gain of the OP-AMP by A, it is called open loop since there
are no external components connected to the OP-AMP, the typical values
for A is in the order of 10
5
. The output v
o
is given by
-
+
v
o
v
2
v
1
Figure 17: Ideal Operational Amplier (OP-AMP)
v
o
= A(v
1
v
2
) (13)
The OP-AMP output is limited by the supply voltage v
cc
used for biasing,
that is, when the output voltage supposed to exceed the supply voltage it is
limited (clipped or saturated) to the supply voltage, or precisely by v
cc
3,
this due to the non-ideal characteristics of the OP-AMP (discussed in the
next section).
Using the relation given by equation (13), we have two cases
1. v
1
> v
2
v
o
= A v, Possibly larger than the v
cc
This large value will be clipped to the saturation voltage, v
sat
= v
cc
3.
2. v
1
< v
2
v
o
= A v, Possibly smaller than the v
cc
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4.2 Ideal Inverting Amplier 24
This small value will be clipped to the negative saturation voltage,
v
sat
= (v
cc
3).
4.2 Ideal Inverting Amplier
Usually, open loop amplier is unstable because of large open loop amplica-
tion, A, this also causes a DC drift of the operating point with temperature.
To solve the problem, feedback resistors are used, Figure 18 shows an op-amp
with input restack R
1
and feedback resistance R
2
, this conguration is called
inverting op-amp circuit.
-
+
v
o
V
in
R
2
R
1
I
2
v
2
I
1
v
1
Figure 18: Ideal Inverting Operational Amplier (OP-AMP)
Important Notes:
1. The op-amp is assumed to be ideal, I
1
= I
2
= 0, current ows in both
terminals are zero.
2. The op-amp is assumed to be ideal, v
2
= v
1
, voltage dierence between
the inverting and non inverting terminals is zero.
Since v
1
= v
2
and v
1
= 0 then v
2
= 0. Writing the node equation at
terminal 2,
0 v
in
R
1
+
0 v
o
R
2
+ I
2
= 0
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4.3 Non-Inverting Conguration 25
Since I
2
= 0, the Gain of the amplier is the ratio
v
o
v
in
is obtained as
v
o
v
in
=
R
2
R
1
(14)
From this equation we note the 180
o
phase dierence between v
in
and v
o
,
thats why this conguration is called inverting conguration. The input
impedance of this circuit is
R
in
= R
1
For a certain application, R
1
is set to satisfy the impedance matching issue,
and R
2
is set to satisfy the required gain, accordingly.
Example 4.1 In the circuit shown in Figure 18, R
1
= 1.2 K and R
2
=
150 K. What is the gain of the amplier. What is the output voltage if the
input signal is 3.5 mV.
Gain =
R
2
R
1
=
150
1.2
= 125
v
o
= 3.5mv 125 = 437.5 mV
4.3 Non-Inverting Conguration
The non-inverting op-amp circuit is shown in Figure 19. In this circuit, since
v
1
= v
2
and v
1
= v
in
, then v
2
= v
in
, nodal equation can be written at node
2, assume negligible input currents (I
1
= I
2
= 0)
v
in
0
R
1
+
v
in
v
o
R
2
= 0
This gives amplier gain
v
o
v
in
= 1 +
R
2
R
1
(15)
The input impedance is
R
in
= r
in
where r
in
is the output impedance of the op-amp itself, which is very large.
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4.4 Voltage Follower 26
-
+
v
o
V
in
R
2
R
1
Figure 19: Ideal Non-Inverting Operational Amplier (OP-AMP)
4.4 Voltage Follower
An impedance matching op-amp is called a buer amplier. Such ampli-
ers have feedback to give unity voltage gain, high input impedance (many
megaohms), and low output impedance (< 20), such an amplier is shown
in Figure 20.
Figure 20: Buer Operational Amplier (OP-AMP)
Example 4.2 Consider the divider circuit shown in Figure 21. Obtain the
unloaded and loaded divider voltage. Use the buer circuit to reduce the
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4.4 Voltage Follower 27
Figure 21: Buer Operational Amplier for example 4.2
loading eect, assume buer input impedance 2 M and output impedance
15 .
For unloaded circuit R
L
=
v
div.
=
12
8 + 4
8 = 8 V
For loaded circuit (R
L
= 2 K)
v
div.
=
12
8||2 + 4
8||2 = 3.43 V
A reduction of 57.5% of the 8 V
The buer can be used to match the output impedance of the divider circuit
to the load as shown in Figure 22. The load is 2 M, so the divider voltage
at the input of the buer is
v
div.
=
12
8||2000 + 4
8||2000 = 7.99 V
The output impedance of the buer is in series with the 2 K load,
v
o
=
7.99
2000 + 15
2000 = 7.93 V
A reduction of 0.07 V or 0.9% of the 8 V compared to 57.5% in direct loading
without buer.
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5 Summing Amplier 28
Figure 22: Impedance matching Buer for example 4.2
5 Summing Amplier
It is an inverting OP-AMP, with several input voltages, the output is the
sum of all these voltages with 180
0
phase shift between the input and output.
Figure 23 shows a summing amplier with two inputs v
1
and v
2
, the output
voltage v
o
is
v
o
=
_
R
F
R
1
v
1
+
R
F
R
2
v
2
_
(16)
+
-
v
o
R
F
R
1
R
2
v
1
v
2
Figure 23: Summing amplier with two inputs
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6 Dierential and Instrumentation Amplier 29
Example 5.1 Design an OP-AMP circuit to provide the relation
v
o
= 3.4v
in
+ 5
The circuit can be implemented using the summing amplier with proper
selection for the resistors. Using equation (16) and compare the terms in v
x
and v
o
given by the relation.
If we neglect the minus sign for now, and we can compensate it later using
an inverting amplier with gain 1. We have
R
F
R
1
v
1
= 3.4v
in
and
R
F
R
2
v
2
= 5
The easiest way to satisfy both relations to select
R
F
R
1
= 3.4, v
1
= v
in
and
R
F
R
2
= 1, v
2
= 5
select R
1
= 10 K gives R
F
= 3.4 10 K = 34 K and R
2
= R
F
= 34 K
The designed circuit can be compensated the minus sign using inverting am-
plier with gain 1, the overall design is shown in Figure 24.
Figure 24: Circuit for example 5.1
6 Dierential and Instrumentation Amplier
6.1 Dierential Amplier
In several cases, voltage dierence needs to be amplied, e.g. Wheatstone
bridge. In this case, Dierential or Instrumentation Amplier is used. A
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6.1 Dierential Amplier 30
dierential amplier is a dual input amplier that amplies the dierence
between two signals, such that the output is the gain multiplied by the mag-
nitude of the dierence between the two signals. One signal is fed to the
negative input of the op-amp and the other signal is fed to the positive in-
put of the op-amp. Hence the signals are subtracted before being amplied.
Figure 25 shows a typical dierential amplier.
Figure 25: Dierential Amplier Circuit
The output of this circuit is given by
v
o
=
R
2
R
1
(v
2
v
1
)
The above discussion assumes perfect resistance matching and ideal op-
amp. In general, the output of the dierential amplier is written as
v
o
= A
d
(v
1
v
2
) + A
cm
_
v
1
+ v
2
2
_
= A
d
v
d
+ A
cm
v
cm
A
d
is the dierential gain, v
d
is the dierential (dierence) voltage applied
to the two terminals, A
cm
is the common mode voltage (amplier gain when
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6.2 Instrumentation Amplier 31
same voltage is applied to the two terminals, e.g. Noise) and v
cm
is the aver-
age of the common mode voltage. When the amplier circuit discussed above
is ideal, A
cm
is equal zero, and the output is determined by the dierential
components, which attenuates all noise and disturbance signal that aect
the circuit. When the amplier is non ideal A
cm
will not be zero and the
common mode amplied component will appear at the output.
Circuit performance can be assessed by the ratio of the A
d
and A
cm
and
dened by the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) (the ability of the
amplier to attenuate signals applied commonly to both input terminals)
CMRR =
A
d
A
cm
If the circuit is ideal this quantity will be innity, if it is not it would be
nite. The CMRR can be expressed in dB and is called CMR
CMR = 20 log
10
CMRR
Typical value for a good dierential amplier will be in the range of 60
100 dB.
Important Notes:
The op-amp can have dierent input impedances at the two inputs.
The input impedances can be relatively low and tend to load the sensor
output.
Can have dierent gains at the inverting and non-inverting inputs, and
common mode noise can be a problem.
For these reasons instrumentation amplier can be used, which is a combi-
nation of the dierential amplier and buer circuits.
6.2 Instrumentation Amplier
Instrumentation amplier gives the required CMRR by amplifying the dier-
ence voltage applied to its two input terminals and gives perfect impedance
matching for the two input terminals. High impedance matching can be
provided using buer ampliers which reduce loading on the sensor output.
Typical instrumentation amplier circuit is shown in Figure 26.
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6.2 Instrumentation Amplier 32
Figure 26: Instrumentation Dierential Amplier Circuit
Example 6.1 A sensor outputs a range of 20.0 to 250 mV as a variable
varies over its range. Develop signal conditioning so that this becomes 0 to
5 V. The circuit must have very high input impedance.
From the specs. given its clear that we can use the circuit shown in Figure
26. To obtain a relation between the input voltage (20.0 to 250 mV) and the
output voltage of the amplier circuit ( 0 to 5 V), we assume linear relation
v
o
= av
in
+b
a and b are variables that can be determined as
0 = a(0.02) + b
5 = a(0.25) + b
solving the linear system, we have
a = 21.7 and b = 0.434
That is
v
o
= 21.7v
in
0.434
= 21.7 (v
in
0.02)
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6.2 Instrumentation Amplier 33
If this relation is compared to the instrumentation amplier output relation
R
2
R
1
= 21.7
select R
1
= 10 K then R
2
= 217 K
v
2
= v
in
and v
1
= 0.02 V. 0.02 V is a small value and needs to be
stabilized against power supply voltage ripple, this can be achieved using a
simple voltage regulator, typically a zener diode as shown in Figure 27.
680
6.8 V
30.9 K
100
10 K
10 K
217 K
217 K
Figure 27: Instrumentation Dierential Amplier circuit for example 27
To reduce the dependance of the circuit performance on the components,
the circuit in Figure 28 is usually used. In this circuit, the gain is set by the
variable resistor R
G
, the CMRR does not depend on matching of R

1
s, but it
depends on the R
2
and R
3
only. For any zero signal oset R
3
can be varied
to eliminate that oset. The output voltage v
o
of the circuit is
v
o
=
_
1 +
2R
1
R
G
__
R
3
R
2
_
(v
2
v
1
) (17)
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6.2 Instrumentation Amplier 34
v
2
v
1
R
G
R
1
R
1
R
2
R
2
R
3
R
3
Figure 28: Practical Instrumentation Dierential Amplier circuit
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7 Design Guidelines 35
Example 6.2 Figure 7 shows a bridge circuit for which R
4
varies from
100 to 102 , the resitors in the bridge R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= 100 . Show how
the instrumentation amplier shown in Figure 28 could be used to provide an
output of 0 to 2.5 V. Assume in Figure 28, R
2
= R
3
= 1 , R
1
= 100 K
and V = 5 V.
From the question and using equation (3) the bridge is nulled when R
4
=
R
2
R
3
R
1
=
100100
100
= 100
Voltage dierence is obtained using equation (2)
V = 5
_
100
100 + 100

102
102 + 100
_
= 24.75 mV
When R
4
= 100 , V = 0 and v
o
= 0 as required in the question.
While, when R
4
= 102 , v
o
= 2.5 V Substitute in equation (17)
2.5 =
_
1 +
2 100 10
3
R
G
__
1000
1000
_
(24.75 10
3
)
Solving for R
G
R
G
= 2000
Since the voltage dierence in the bridge is negative, V
a
in the bridge must
be connected to V
1
in the amplier and V
b
in the bridge must be connected to
V
2
in the amplier
7 Design Guidelines
A process control is usually consists of, physical process, sensor, signal con-
ditioning as shown in Figure ??. In the design, each stage has its own
specications and hence design.
1. Dene the measurement objective
a. Parameter: nature of the measured variable, e.g. temperature,
pressure, etc.
b. Range: the range of the input parameter c
min
and c
max
, e.g. 20
40
o
C, 10 60 psi.
c. Accuracy: the accuracy of the measured variable in terms of the
nominal value, e.g. 3% reading.
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7 Design Guidelines 36
Process
c
max
c
min
Sensor
Signal
Conditioning
y
max
y
min
b
max
b
min
Figure 29: Process control stages
d. Linearity: linearity of the measured variable with respect to the
physical variable.
e. Noise: noise level in the measured variable, noise level will decide
the signal conditioning used later.
2. Select a sensor
a. Parameter: what is the nature of the sensor output, e.g. resis-
tance, voltage, etc.
b. Transfer function: the relation between measured variable (input
of the sensor) and output of the sensor.
c. Time response: what is the time response of the sensor, e.g. rst
order time constant, second order damping, and frequency.
d. Power: what is the power specs. of the sensor, power dissipation
and maximum current.
3. Signal conditioning
a. Parameter: nature of the output, voltage is the most common,
but conversion to current is also possible.
b. Range: desired range of the output parameter.
c. Input impedance and output impedance to ensure impedance match-
ing.
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7 Design Guidelines 37
Example 7.1 A sensor outputs a voltage from 2.4 V to 1.1 V. For inter-
face to an ADC, this needs to be 0 V to 2.5 V. Develop a signal conditioning.
The scenario presented here is the last block in Figure 29, therefore, y and
b are the given voltages and the signal conditioning must convert the voltage
y to the voltage b. For simplicity, assume linear signal conditioning
b = ay + b
0
where a and b
0
are constants need to be determined as
b
max
= ay
max
+ b
0
2.5 = 1.1a +b
0
(18)
similarly,
b
min
= ay
min
+b
0
0 = 2.4a + b
0
(19)
Solving the linear system in equations (18) and (19)
a = 1.9231 and b
0
= 4.6154
This gives
b = 1.9231y + 4.6154
= 1.9231(y + 2.4)
From this relation, we can use a summing amplier to add the signals y and
2.4, then an inverting amplier with gain 1.9231 can be used to provide the
required gain and the minus sign developed by the summing amplier. To
prevent loading the sensor output, a voltage follower can be used which has a
high input impedance. The input impedance of the ADC is much larger than
the op-amp output impedance, therefore no loading on the ADC is guaranteed.
The voltage signal 2.4 V can be supplied using a divider circuit with R
2
=
100 , in this way, there will be no loading from the summing amplier
input impedance. A variable resistor can be used to adjust for 2.4 V such
that loading from the summing amplier and the ripple in the power supply
can be adjusted. The complete design is shown in Figure 30.
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7 Design Guidelines 38
10 K
10 K
525
100
10 K
10 K
19.23 K
1.923(y+2.4)
(y+2.4)
Figure 30: Signal conditioning for example 7.1
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7 Design Guidelines 39
Example 7.2 Temperature is to be measured in the range of 250
o
C to 450
o
C
with an accuracy of 2
o
C. The sensor is a resistance that varies linearly from
280 to 1060 for this temperature range. Power dissipated in the sensor
must be kept below 5 mW. Develop analog signal conditioning that provides a
voltage varying linearly from 5 to +5 volts for this temperature range. The
load is a high impedance recorder.
Since the resistance and voltage change is linear, linear relationship be-
tween resistance and voltage can be assumed. At the sensor side, the power
dissipation P
d
produce by the current I that ows in the resistance (sensor).
The value of the current will be higher for smaller resistance, to prevent the
sensor from overheating, we design according to the highest resistance.
P
d
= I
2
max
R
max
5 mW = I
2
max
1060
Solving for I
max
I
max
= 2.20 mA
The current I
max
is maximum from the design point of view, but its minimum
for the resistance range. The accuracy of the design is 2
o
C over the whole
temperature range, the overall accuracy
T =
2
450 250
= 0.01
In this case the measured temperature in this range will have 3 signicant
gures, thus, the obtained design values must be approximated using 3 signif-
icant gures.
We develop the linear relation between the output of the sensor (resistance,
R
x
) and the output of the signal conditioning (voltage, v
o
)
v
o
= aR
x
+ b
a and b will be determined using the given values for R
x
and v
o
as follows
v
omax
= aR
xmax
+ b
5 = 1060a + b (20)
similarly,
v
omin
= aR
xmin
+ b
5 = 280a + b (21)
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7 Design Guidelines 40
Solving the linear system in equations (20) and (21)
a = 0.0128 and b = 8.58
This gives
v
o
= 0.0128R
x
8.58
The rst term of v
o
can be implemented using a simple inverting OP-AMP
circuit with feedback resistance R
x
and input 1 V. It should be noted here that
the current ows in the senors resistance will also ow in the input resistance
R
1
of the inverting OP-AMP. If I
max
is selected to be 1 mA, then
R
1
=
1 V
1 mA
= 1 K
The output of the rst stage is shown in Figure 31. In this circuit, we also
supplied 1 V from the +15 V supply via divider circuit with R
2
= 100 to
prevent loading from the OP-AMP input impedance (1 K). Now the output
100
1400
1.0 K
R
x
Figure 31: First stage of the signal conditioning for example 7.2
of the rst stage is
v
FS
= 10
3
R
x
To add the other term in v
o
and change the sign of v
FS
we use a summing
amplier, the 8.58 V will be supplied by a divider circuit as shown in Figure
32.
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8 Thermal Sensor 41
Figure 32: Second stage of the signal conditioning for example 7.2
8 Thermal Sensor
8.1 Introduction
Similar to our every day needs of temperature control for comfort, almost
all industrial processes need accurately controlled temperatures. Physical
parameters and chemical reactions are temperature dependent, and therefore
temperature control is of major importance. Temperature is without doubt
the most measured variable, and for accurate temperature control its precise
measurement is required. This chapter discusses the various temperature
scales used, their relation to each other, methods of measuring temperature,
and the relationship between temperature and heat.
8.2 Temperature denitions
Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy in a body, which is the
relative hotness or coldness of a medium and is normally measured in degrees
using one of the following scales; Fahrenheit (F), Celsius or Centigrade (C),
Rankine (R), or Kelvin (K). Absolute zero is the temperature at which all
molecular motion ceases or the energy of the molecule is zero.
Fahrenheit scale was the rst temperature scale to gain acceptance. It
was proposed in the early 1700s by Fahrenheit (Dutch). The two points of
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8.2 Temperature denitions 42
reference chosen for 0

and 100

were the freezing point of a concentrated salt


solution (at sea level) and the internal temperature of oxen (which was found
to be very consistent between animals). This eventually led to the acceptance
of 32 and 212 (180 range) as the freezing and boiling point, respectively of
pure water at 1 atm (14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa) for the Fahrenheit scale. The
temperature of the freezing point and boiling point of water changes with
pressure.
Celsius or centigrade scale (C) was proposed in mid 1700s by Celsius
(Sweden), who proposed the temperature readings of 0

and 100

(giving a
100

scale) for the freezing and boiling points of pure water at 1 atm.
Rankine scale (R) was proposed in the mid 1800s by Rankine. It is a tem-
perature scale referenced to absolute zero that was based on the Fahrenheit
scale, i.e., a change of 1

F = a change of 1

R. The freezing and boiling point


of pure water are 491.6

R and 671.6

R , respectively at 1 atm, see Figure 33.


Kelvin scale (K) named after Lord Kelvin was proposed in the late 1800s. It
is referenced to absolute zero but based on the Celsius scale, i.e., a change
of 1

C = a change of 1 K. The freezing and boiling point of pure water are


273.15 K and 373.15 K, respectively, at 1 atm, see Figure 33. The degree
symbol can be dropped when using the Kelvin scale.
Figure 33: Comparison of temperature scales
The relation between dierent temperature measures can be summarized
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8.3 Metal Resistance Versus Temperature Devices 43
by the following relations
T(

C) = T(K) 273.15 (22)


T(

F) = T(

R) 459.6 (23)
T(

F) =
9
5
T(

C) + 32 (24)
8.3 Metal Resistance Versus Temperature Devices
Usually temperature is measured by placing a temperature sensor in the
environment where the temperature needs to be measured. The resistance
of the sensor changes with temperature. By measuring the resistance of the
senors, temperature can be determined. A typical thermal-metallic resistance
sensor is called Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD).
Metallic materials have their valence and conduction electrons moving
through the material. When heat energy is present, the motion of the elec-
trons increases which causes collision of the atoms and molecules in the mate-
rials. This collision tends to increase the resistivity and hence the resistance
of the material (it inhibits the motion of the electrons). Therefore, for metal-
lic sensors, as the temperature increases the resistance of the sensor increases.
The relation is almost linear with a certain slope for a certain metal.
The resistance of metal as a function of temperature can be expressed as
R(T)
R(25

)
=
(T)/A
(25

)/A
=
(T)
(25

)
(25)
where R(T) is the resistance of the metal at temperature T. (T) is the
resistivity of the metal at temperature T. is the length of the metal and A
is the cross-sectional area of the metal.
8.4 Resistance - Temperature (R-T) Approximation
When the temperature range of interest is small, linear relation can be as-
sumed. While for larger range, an approximate relation should be deduced.
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8.4 Resistance - Temperature (R-T) Approximation 44
8.4.1 Linear Approximation
In this case, the relation (R-T) is approximated linearly. Consider a temper-
ature range T [T
1
T
2
] and the midpoint T
0
= T
1
+
T
2
T
1
2
, the relation can
be expressed as
R(T) = R(T
0
) [1 +
0
T] , T
1
< T < T
2
where
0
is the scaled slope of the line in the range [T
1
T
2
] and is given by

0
=
1
R(T
0
)
slope at T
0
=
1
R(T
0
)
_
R
2
R
1
T
2
T
1
_
R(T) is the resistance at temperature T [T
1
T
2
]. R(T
0
) is the resistance at
temperature T
0
.
8.4.2 Quadratic Approximation
If a quadratic approximation about some temperature T
0
in the range of
[T
1
T
2
], the relation R T can be expressed as
R(T) = R(T
0
)
_
1 +
1
T +
2
(T)
2

the coecients of approximation alpha


1
and
2
can be determined by forming
two linear equations using the given data values.
Example 8.1 A sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the fol-
lowing measured values.
T(

F) R()
60 106.0
65 107.6
70 109.1
75 110.2
80 111.1
85 111.7
90 112.2
The midpoint is T
0
= 75

, R(75

) = 110.2.

0
=
1
110.2
_
112.2 106.0
90 60
_
= 0.001875
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8.4 Resistance - Temperature (R-T) Approximation 45
Thus the linear approximation gives
R(T) = 110.2 [1 + 0.001875(T 75)]
A simple Matlab script can be used to nd the approximation
>> T=[60:5:90];
>> R=[106.0 107.6 109.1 110.2 111.1 111.7 112.2];
>> P=polyfit(T,R,1);
>>P= [0.2057 94.2714]
The values in the vector P are the coecients of the approximation, that is
R(T) = P(1)T + P(2)
in this case
R(T) = 0.2057T + 94.2714
The actual relation and the approximated relation can be plotted on the same
plot as follows
>> RT=P(1)*T+P(2);
>> plot(T,R,T,RT,r--)
the output is shown in Figure 34.
Example 8.2 Find the quadratic approximation for the R T relation for
the data in the previous example.
T
0
= 75

F, R(T
0
) = 110.2. To determine the coecients
1
and
2
, we
form the quadratic relation between T
1
= 60

F and T
2
= 90

F
112.2 = 110.2
_
1 +
1
(90 75) +
2
(90 75)
2

106.0 = 110.2
_
1 +
1
(60 75) +
2
(60 75)
2

which gives
_
15 225
15 225
__

1

2
_
=
_
0.0181
0.0363
_
solving the above two equations

1
= 1.873 10
3

1
= 4.444 10
5
Thus the quadratic approximation is
R(T) = 110.2
_
1 + 1.873 10
3
(T 75) 4.444 10
5
(T 75)
2

A Matlab script to solve the quadratic approximation


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8.4 Resistance - Temperature (R-T) Approximation 46
60 65 70 75 80 85 90
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
T (
o
F)
R
(

)


Actual
Approximate
Figure 34: R-T actual and approximated linear relation
>> R=[106.0 107.6 109.1 110.2 111.1 111.7 112.2];
>> T=[60:5:90];
>> P=polyfit(T,R,2)
P =[ -0.004952380952381 0.948571428571433 66.909523809523591]
The quadratic approximation is
R(T) = 0.004952380952381T
2
+0.948571428571433T+66.909523809523591
the plot of actual relation and quadratic approximation is shown in Figure
35. It is obvious that the quadratic approximation is better than the linear
approximation.
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8.4 Resistance - Temperature (R-T) Approximation 47
60 65 70 75 80 85 90
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
T (
o
F)
R
(

)


Actual
Quadratic Approx.
Figure 35: R-T actual and approximated quadratic relation
c PSUT, First Semester 2008-2009 c PSUT, First Semester 2008-2009 c PSUT, First Semester 2008-2009

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