Name Anant jain Roll no.

1 Section B

Q1. When sampling is good and when census is good? Under what condition sampling should be done & under what condition census should be done?
Ans. Sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Researchers rarely survey the entire population because the cost of a census is too high. The three main advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower, data collection is faster, and since the data set is smaller it is possible to ensure homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of the data. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses. In the latter cases the elements of the 'population' are farms, businesses, and so forth, rather than people. The census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population, sometimes as an Intercensal estimate. Census data is commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning, as well as a baseline for sampling surveys. Although the census provides a useful way of obtaining statistical information about a population, such information can sometimes lead to abuses, political or otherwise, made possible by the linking of individuals' identities to anonymous census data

Q2. Why do we need to draw only one sample to infer about the population? Ans. we need to draw only one sample to infer about the population because
of the homogeneous. All population is homogeneous in nature with the same features & characteristics.

Q3. What are the sampling strategies? What is the process of sampling?
Ans. The sampling strategy are :1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample ('SRS') of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimises bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results.
2. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is a strategy whereby only two factors determine membership in the sample - chance and "the system." The system is simply a way of facilitating the random selection process. For example, instead of using a table of random numbers to select a sample of 100 individuals from a list o 1,000 names, a researcher might randomly select number between 1 and 10, start with the name that corresponds to that number, and then take every 10th name on the list thereafter. The resulting sample is essentially the same as a random sample, unless there is a systematic bias in the way the names appear on the list.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling is a strategy whereby members of a sample are selected in such a way as to guarantee appropriate numbers of subjects for subsequent subdivisions and groupings during the analysis of data. For stratified sampling to be most effective, the respondents within each stratum should be selected at random. Such random stratified sampling is mistakenly thought by many novice researchers to be the ideal sampling technique. This is not quite the case. In general, simple random sampling is the easiest and most desirable procedure. Stratified sampling is useful only when you plan to subdivide the subjects for subsequent analysis to make various comparisons and decisions or when you have too large a population to be able to assign each subject a number in advance. Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. There are several potential benefits to stratified sampling.
4. Cluster sampling

Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select respondents in groups ('clusters'). Sampling is often clustered by geography, or by time periods. (Nearly all samples are in some sense 'clustered' in time although this is rarely taken into account in the analysis.) For instance, if surveying households within a city, we might choose to select 100 city blocks and then interview every household within the selected blocks. Clustering can reduce travel and administrative costs. In the example above, an interviewer can make a single trip to visit several households in one block, rather than having to drive to a different block for each household. It also means that one does not need a sampling frame listing all elements in the target population. Instead, clusters can be chosen from a cluster-level frame, with an element-level frame created only for the selected clusters. In the example above, the sample only requires a block-level city map for initial selections, and then a household-level map of the 100 selected blocks, rather than a household-level map of the whole city.

Cluster sampling generally increases the variability of sample estimates above that of simple random sampling, depending on how the clusters differ between themselves, as compared with the within-cluster variation.
5. Quota sampling

Quota sampling provides a way to give respectability to a nonrandom sample. If done well, quota sampling can lead to strong inferences. When using this strategy, researchers identify important characteristics that they already know the target population possesses, and then they select the nonrandom (and therefore biased) sample in such a way as to make it correspond to the population with regard to these known characteristics. We might get a quota sample of American teenagers in a city by consulting census information and discovering what percentage of teenagers in that city is of each gender, what percentage belongs to each of the various races, and what percentage lives in each of several different neighborhoods. Based on this information, we would set quotas even before we set out to conduct our survey, determining that we would get a certain number of males, a certain number of females, a certain number of whites, of blacks, and so forth. When conducting the survey, would use these quotas to set the limit on how many persons possessing each characteristic we would include in our survey. In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then a judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60. It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling. In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random. For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter of controversy for many years.

6. Panel sampling

Panel sampling is the method of first selecting a group of participants through a random sampling method and then asking that group for the same information again several times over a period of time. Therefore, each participant is given the same survey or interview at two or more time points; each period of data collection is called a "wave". This longitudinal samplingmethod allows estimates of changes in the population, for example with regard to chronic illness to job stress to weekly food expenditures. Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about within-person health changes due to age or to help explain changes in continuous dependent variables such as spousal interaction. There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel data, includingMANOVA, growth curves, and structural equation modeling with lagged effects.

Sampling process :
The sampling process comprises several stages:

Defining the population of concern Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame Determining the sample size Implementing the sampling plan Sampling and data collecting