PRODUCTIVITY

GENERAL ASPECTS OF PRODUCTIVITY:

The productivity is used to denote a relationship between output and the associated input used in the production process. The simplest definition of productivity is the ratio of outputs of goods and / or services to inputs of basic resources, e.g., labor, capital, technology, materials and / or energy. The expression of productivity is calculated by using the following equation: Productivity = Output / Input It is apparent from this mathematical formula that increasing output under the same amount of inputs or decreasing inputs, while keeping the original volume of outputs, can increase productivity. In the construction industry, the reduction of man-hours in the completion of a unit of work is an example of increasing productivity by decreasing inputs. Productivity of a construction operation is defined as the output of the system per unit of time. The production rate of a construction operation is constrained not only by the applied technology capacities, that are subject to physical job conditions such as work dimensions and environment factors, but also by its utilization rate or operating efficiency that is influenced by management conditions,

SEVERAL APPROACHES OF TOTAL PRODUCTIVITY:

Productivity is based on several approaches in the following forms: 1 Economic aspect:
Total Output

Total Factor Productivity (TFP) =

Equipment + Labor + Material + Energy + Capital

Dollars of output Total factor productivity (TFP) = Dollars of input TFP is really an economic model measured in terms of dollars, since dollars are the only common measure to both inputs and outputs. 2 Project specific aspect: A more accurate definition, that can be used by governmental agencies for specific program planning and by the private sector for conceptual estimates on individual project, is Output Productivity = Labor + Equipment + Materials

3 Activity oriented aspect: Productivity is expressed as units of output per dollar or per work hour. At the project site, contractors are often interested in productivity. It can be defined in one of the following ways: Output Labor productivity = Work-hour Actual unit rate Productivity = Estimated unit rate Other terms, such as efficiency, are often used synonymously with productivity. However, irrespective of the measure chosen, the principal variant of interest to the contractor is the number of work hours.

THE PRODUCTIVITY CYCLES:

This cycle involves four stages or phases: productivity measurement, productivity evaluation, productivity planning, and productivity improvement. The Productivity cycle concept shows us that productivity improvement must be proceeded by measurement, evaluation, and planning. The productivity cycle can be divided into two main stages: The study stage and the implementation stage. The study stage is subdivided into: 1. Identification of the problems. 2. Data collection. 3. Data analysis and planning change. The implementation stage is subdivided into: 1. Planning and implementation of the change. 2. Assessment and measurement of the results. The following section will display the productivity measurement techniques, which are the core of the first phase in the productivity cycle. Productivity Measurement Productivity Improvement Productivity Planning Productivity Evaluation

DIFFICULTIES IN MEASURING PRODUCTIVITY:

1. Measuring outputs whose characteristics may change over time. 2. Changes in general level of prices. 3. Changes in supply, demand equilibrium for given resource. 4. Changes in the quality of the output.

THE PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES:

There are various techniques to measure construction productivity. The most commonly used techniques are: A) Activity Sampling Technique: Activity sampling refers to any measurement technique for which observations are not continuous. Thus, the observations represent a sampling of the total activity. 1 Work Sampling: The process of work sampling involves a person walking through a construction project at random times on random routs observing workers and categorizing what he sees each worker is doing into a predetermined set of categories. The activities of a craftsman may be divided into three categories: 1. Direct work: The actual process of adding a unit being constructed. 2. Essential contributory work: Work not directly adding to the work, but essential to finishing the work unit. 3. Ineffective work: Doing nothing or doing something that is not necessary to complete the end product. These categories are further subdivided, into more narrowly defined categories of activities, 1. Direct work. 2. Transporting. 3. Obtaining tools and Materials. 4. Receive / give instruction 5. Traveling empty. 6. Waiting and idle. 7. Late starts and early quits. Advantages of Work Sampling: 1. The technique is relatively simple, inexpensive, and easily understood. 2. It is an effective managing tool for identifying productivity and cost related problems, 3. It is an accepted objective measuring system.

Disadvantages of Work Sampling: 1. Work sampling does not provide the basic information necessary for productivity or methods of improvement, 2. Work sampling is a subjective measure and is prone to many sources of error in addition to any statistical sampling error. The sources of error are: 1. Human limitations. 2. Variation between observers. 3. Procedural deficiencies. 4. Observer fatigue. 5. Defining the population. 6. Abnormal worker behavior. 3. Work sampling studies show how busy the craftsmen are; and the results cannot be used to predict labor productivity or to quantify inefficient work hours. 2 Five Minute Rating Technique: A second type of the three activity sampling technique is the five-minute rating. This technique involves collecting samples; however the reliability of the technique is not governed by the same statistical principal as work sampling. Five-minute ratings do permit a single observer to make general work evaluations rather quickly. The technique is valuable in creating awareness of magnitude of delays affecting the job and in providing a measure of the effectiveness of a crew. The technique derives its name from the rule of thumb; it is the time in which a crew should be observed; it is equal to the number of men in the crew, but it is never less than five minutes. After the duration of the study is determined, the study period is divided into observation intervals ranging in length from 30 sec to several minutes. During each observation interval, the performance of individual crew members is evaluated. Advantages of Five - Minute Rating: 1. It is used as a quick estimate of the magnitude of delays. 2. It is simple and easy for application. Disadvantages of Five - Minute Rating: 1. The reliability of the five-minute rating is not as good as that of work sampling. 2. It is more subjective than the work sampling. 3 Group Timing Technique: The group timing technique involves the observation of craftsmen at a fixed time interval (rather than random) where the categories of observation are elements of the work cycle.

Group Timing Technique is particularly adaptable to the study of short cycle, and highly repetitive group operations where the objective is to measure element and cycle times. At the instant of observation, the activity of each member is classified and recorded, determining fixed sampling intervals. There are three conditions to recognize which pertain to the relationship between the magnitude of element times and the interval between sampling observations. Advantages of Group Timing Technique: 1. Group Timing Technique can be effectively used to provide information about such aspects as crew size and work sequences. 2. The Group Timing Technique can be used to validate estimated data regarding cycle times. B) Foreman Delay Survey: Delay surveys reveal time lost solely as a result of such delays. The objective in a delay survey is to identify the reasons for and extent of delays. Foremen are asked to report any delays greater than a specified time that are experienced during the day. Often the most frequent causes of work delay are printed on the form with space left for the foreman to add additional items. By correlating the reported lost time with the causes of delays, the project manager can take action to resolve problems and to eliminate the delays. Advantages of Foreman Delay Survey: 1. The survey is widely used because it takes little time. 2. By tabulating the results of the survey, the manager can find the major sources of delays on the job. 3. Foreman Delay survey provides a mechanism for two way communications between project management and foremen. Disadvantages of Foreman Delay Survey: 1. A potential weakness is found in the survey reliance on gross estimates by foremen of how much time they actually lose. 2. Unless the manager acts quickly, foremen may start to discount the value of the delay survey. C) Craftsman Questionnaire Sampling: Craftsman questionnaire sampling (CQS) was recently developed for performance measurements and productivity improvement at construction sites. The main idea of CQS is to use questionnaires as a mean of data collection. CQS provides information regarding the sources of delay, the amount of work performed again, as well as creating a participatory atmosphere on site. In performing the CQS, the administrator of CQS walks around the field randomly selecting craftsmen to answer the questionnaires.

Because of the manner of random selection and the determination of the activities, the craftsmen are involved in the immediate post. After the questionnaires are filled out by both craftsmen and foremen, the administrator repeats the cycle until he gets an adequate sample size. Advantages of CQS: 1. It saves a great deal of time and it is more reliable. 2. CQS takes advantage of foremen's knowledge. 3. CQS may be a more useful monitoring tool. 4. CQS creates a participatory atmosphere, which may bring job satisfaction and motivation to the craftsmen. Disadvantages of CQS: 1. CQS creates considerable interruption of ongoing activities. 2. The information provided by the craftsmen can be influenced by the administrators' introductions. D) Recording Methods: 1 Stopwatch Studies: A detailed record of the current method must show exactly how the work is being done. This recording can be done in several ways. The most common method used is the stopwatch or interval timer. The study consists of recording the times for different tasks or fractions of a task that a man or a machine performs. When observing activities of short duration with a stopwatch, appreciable error is accumulated if the watch is stopped, read, and started each time. This error can be eliminated if the timer runs continuously. Advantages of Stopwatch Studies: This technique is the cheapest and the fastest way to record a specified activity. Disadvantages of Stopwatch Studies: 1. These studies cannot give a general picture of a job. 2. It is difficult for a single observer to accurately record any operation that involves many components; such a large sized operation requires another method of recording. 3. The results of studies are limited by the proficiency and training of the operator. 4. The stopwatch information would not be too helpful in evaluating the reasons of any variation.

2 Time-Lapse Motion Pictures: A second method of recording the activities of a crew is time-lapse photography. This method consists of taking single pictures at an interval of one, two, three or four seconds for long periods of time. Exposure is made at precise intervals so that elapsed times can be computed accurately as a product of the number of pictures and the photographic time intervals. The time-lapse camera has proved an excellent means of collecting information and data for work improvement studies. Advantages of Time-Lapse Photography: 1. The time-lapse has the ability to record the activities of a large number of components at one time. 2. It has the ability to record interrelationships among the components. 3. The films have been effective as means for recording effective techniques for use in other projects. Disadvantages of Time-Lapse Photography: 1. An operation may take several hours, which will lead to expensive cost. 2. The results of the studies are limited by the proficiency and training of the photographers. 3 Camcorders: The camcorder technique offers a means to identify productivity problems and provides a systematic procedure to resolve them. A video camera, being a more accurate and superior data collection method, can take the place of several observers because it captures all concurrent activities. The camcorder technique involves several steps: Collection of video equipment, preplanning for the taping process, conducting brainstorming sessions, analyzing recorded data, and developing final recommendations. Advantages of Camcorder: 1. Providing clear communication and simple reporting system at craft level. 2. Obtaining fast feedback. 3. Reducing the data collection efforts to the minimum and making a more effective use of management time. 4. It is an effective technique for improving the site operation procedures. Disadvantages of Camcorder: 1. The high initial cost of the equipment. 2. The high cost of recording tapes.

THE PRACTICE OF WORK MEASUREMENT:

The practice of work measurement, which can be depicted as follows: 1. The job is broken into its elements. 2. For the elements of human work, the records of the time required for carrying out these elements at the standard rate of working is consulted. These are termed the basic time. 3. Those elements for which there is no basic time already available, the basic time is determined by the appropriate work measurement techniques. 4. The values determined for any of the elements, which could conceivably recur in another job, are added to the records of basic times. 5. The proportion of rest required is assessed and added to the basic time, to arrive at the time for doing the work at the standard rate of working and for recovering from the effort, i.e. the work content. 6. The addition of the relaxation allowance may be made element by element, or the basic times for the elements may be summed and the relaxation allowance added job wise again to give the work content. 7. The necessary technical data are collected for any machines involved in the job.

THE CONCEPT OF STANDARD PERFORMANCE:

The actual time, taken to do a job, depends on the rate at which the work is done. In practice, variations in this rate result from a variety of different causes. Work measurement values are always related to what is termed standard performance. Standard performance means the average effectiveness at which a qualified worker will normally work on a job when he knows and adheres to a specific method and is suitably motivated. Due allowance is made for the necessary time required for rest. A qualified worker is the one who is physically and mentally suited to the job he is given, and has acquired the necessary skill and knowledge to carry out that work to satisfactory standards of safety, quantity and quality.

PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS AND WORK SAMPLING:

Many factors can affect both labor productivity and direct work percentage. These can be categorized in two groups: project characteristics and work sampling study procedures. 1 Project Characteristics: There are many factors that affect productivity; however the major factors appear to be as follows: 1. Type, Scope, Layout and Complexity.

2. Time Frame. 3. Construction Methods. 4. Weather. 5. Skill of the workforce. 6. Work practices. 7. Length of workday. 2 Work Sampling Study Procedures: The procedures used in work sampling studies will affect the results. The pertinent aspects are recommended as follows: 1. Activity Categories. 2. Activity Definitions. 3. Preference and Biases. 4. Crafts. 5. Site Areas. 6. Shifts. 7. Time of year. 8. Study windows. 9. Foreman. 10. Study Duration.

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT:
One set of construction operations has equipment working on natural material, putting it in a loose or fluid condition and moving it. This allows the grouping of equipment as presented it to be as follows: 1. Compressors and pumps to work on air and fluids. 2. Excavators and earth working equipment to work on and move earth material. 3. Trenchers, dredgers and tunnelers working in special ways on natural material of the earth. 4. Conveying and hauling equipment to move the natural or processed material in loose conditions. The other set of operations calls for equipment to process and install material for a final construction product. Therefore, the equipment, in this, set will be grouped as follows: 1. Aggregating production equipment to process and grade natural materials.

2. Concreting equipment to process, move and place concrete material. 3. Asphalt production and paving equipment to process and place paving materials. 4. Material handling equipment to receive and move finished material for construction products. 5. Foundation and erection equipment to take processed material and install it in the ground or in space for a finished construction product.

GENERAL FACTORS AFFECTING EQUIPMENT PRODUCTIVITY:

It is assumed that the Factors affecting construction equipment productivity could be classified into three main groups: Job conditions factors, management efficiency factors, and equipment factors. 1 Job conditions factors: It classified into the following categories: 1. Site topography and working conditions including working space available distance and grades. 2. Surface and climate conditions (drainage of surface and ground water.) 3. Geology of the area affecting the nature of soil and methods of construction. 4. Specification of the work including the sequence of construction and testing procedures. 5. All manufacturers providing data to estimate the effect of job conditions on the hourly production rate. 2 Management factors: 1. Personnel who operate the equipment, their honesty, diligence and skill, and also the incentive plans of management. 2. Selection of equipment and its operation. 3. Job planning, including plant layout, supervision and maintenance of equipment, roads, communications etc. 3 Equipment factors: 1. The owner of the equipment whether he is a public or a private owner. 2. The age of the piece of equipment. 3. Actual productive time per hour. 4. Systems of work the equipment is involved in.