SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Mechanical Design B
Cam mechanisms
Learning pack - Version 1.1

Recommended text: You particularly are directed to: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms by J E Shigley and J J Uicker, McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition, 1995. This text book covers all the main points on the topic and provides a considerable amount of detail (also good for linkages and gears). Throughout these notes cross references will be made to sections or pages of this book, and it will be referred to as TMM. If designing a cam system, complete design guidance is available in the ESDU Mechanisms notes volumes 3a to 3d. These cover all the course materials plus detailed considerations covering comprehensive design. Many of the figures are taken from Fundamentals of Applied Kinematics by D C Tao, Adison-Wesley, 1967. You may find this and other standard theory of machines texts useful.

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

These notes are regularly interspersed with questions to illustrate the points made and to increase understanding. These are highlighted in italics for clarity. INTRODUCTION The cam is a mechanical component of a machine that is used to transmit motion to another component, the follower, through a prescribed motion programme by direct contact. The cam mechanism consists of three elements the cam, the follower and the frame. They are versatile and can produce any type of motion in the follower. In addition they can convert rotary motion to linear and vice-versa. The follower as the driven member may respond through: versa. member - Non-uniform motion - Intermittent motion - Reversing motion Uses of the cam mechanism include: - Valve timing in internal combustion (IC) engines - Textile and sewing machines - Computers - Printers - Paper handling devices (photo-copiers and automatic telling machines) (photo - Machine tools Figure 1 shows four different configurations of cams used for IC engine valve timing. Try and answer the following: What kind of cams are these? What sort of follower is employed? How is contact maintained between the cam and follower? How would you expect the contact force to vary as the engine goes through its cycle? What are the main advantages of cams in this application?

Figure 1 Cam shaft configurations in IC engines

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

NOMENCLATURE Cams may be categorised by: (1) The shape of the cam (2) The shape of the follower (3) The motion of the follower (4) The position of the follower relative to the cam (5) The means by which the follower is held in contact with the cam.
Table 1 Comparison between cams and linkages

Cams Easily designed to coordinate large number of input-output motion requirements Can be made small and compact Dynamic response is sensitive to the manufacturing accuracy of the cam contour Expensive to produce Easy to obtain dynamic balance Subject to surface wear

Linkages Satisfy limited number of input-output motion output requirements Occupy more space Slight manufacturing inaccuracy has little effect on output response Less expensive Difficult and complicated analysis involved in ed dynamic balancing Joint wear is non-critical and quieter in operation critical

Figure 2 Cam nomenclature

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 2 shows the layout of the most common type of cam a disc cam. In this configuration, the cam rotates on a fixed centre and the follower bears on the edge. What follower configurations exist (at least 5 types)? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different followers? What should be considered when selecting a follower? See TMM pp 203-204, make f 203 your own notes. In each case indicate how contact is maintained between follower and cam, (in some cases external means must be used, in others contact is maintained by the geometry). Indicate on the diagram: conjugate cams, yoke cams, translating cams and cylindrical cams. What is a face cam? ams, Figure 3 shows a number of different cam and follower types. Note that the follower may be in in-line with the centre of rotation (i.e. radial) or offset from it, the follower may also oscillate or be translating. also

In-line cam followers

Offset cam followers

Pivoted arm followers

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Cylindrical cam

Translating cam

Positive-acting cams Figure 3 Common cam configurations

CAM KINEMATICS As with previous studies with gears, it is convenient initially to separate the study of kinematics of the system from its dynamics. Generally, the output from a cam system is the motion of the follower. When specifying a cam system, the design engineer will have in mind the requirements of the follower motion and will seek an optimum cam nd configuration and profile to achieve this. It is logical, therefore, that a study of cam kinematics should start with a study of follower motion. The following discussion will be illustrated with examples largely featuring disc cams and reciprocating strated followers. However, the principles may be readily extended to oscillating followers, where the output is an angle of rotation rather than a linear displacement, and to other cam types where the input may be where rotation or a translation.

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

The input to the system is the cam movement (usually an angle of rotation, ) and the output is the ) follower movement (usually a displacement or oscillation angle, y) Consider a disc cam. During 1 revolution a follower is said to move in three possible ways: ion Rise Return Dwell i.e. move away from the cam centre i.e. move toward the cam centre i.e. maintain a constant distance from the cam centre

What shape of disc cam would result in a permanent dwell? The simple way that cam followers may be made to dwell is one of their main advantages. Commonly the relationship between cam rotation and follower response is sketched on a displacement diagram as shown in figure 4. This figure shows a typical follower curve. Follower responses fall into three follower common categories (although there is an unlimited number of more complicated RRR Rise Return Rise DRR Dwell Rise Return DRD Dwell Rise Dwell

Indicate below 4b figure the category of response shown, and then sketch the other two show

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 4 Follower Displacement Diagrams

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

y (min)

(rad)

y (min/rad)

(rad)

y (min/rad2)

(rad)
Figure 5 Linear Displacement Function

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Mechanical Design B

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

STANDARD DISPLACEMENT CURVES Assuming the basic follower response is known (periods of dwell, the lift, the time for rise and return); the next step in cam design is to decide on the exact relationship between input and output. Consider the common case of the response DRD illustrated in figure 5. Here, the simplest possible relationship between input and output for the rise and return is shown i.e. the follower displacement is directly proportional to cam rotation. In practice this relationship is never used. To understand why, it is necessary to consider the velocities and accelerations that would be imposed on the follower. Consider a cam that rotates at constant speed, then the cam angle is directly proportional to time. The derivative of displacement with respect to the angle is proportional to the velocity, and the second derivative is proportional to the acceleration. In other words:

t,

dy

dy

dt

and

d2y d 2

d2y

dt 2

Sketch, in the space below figure 5, the first and second derivatives of the displacement curve ) takes constant values for the rise and return, and that (used to Note that y (used to denote denote ) is zero except at the instantaneous transition between rise and dwell, where is becomes infinite. These transitions are manifest on the cam as sharp discontinuities and would result in unsteady motion, large contact forces and rapid wear. What is required is a smooth rise without sharp variations in acceleration and hence contact force. Standard solutions to this problem follow. PARABOLIC MOTION The simplest approach to solving discontinuity posed by a simple linear relationship is to employ a second order parabolic relationship between input and output. The resulting curve is a blend of two parabolas, usually with a point of inflexion at the half way point. In the following analysis, the total lift during a parabolic rise is denoted by h and the lift takes place during a cam rotation angle of . Let:

Hence: y = C1 + 2C2 y = 2C2 Consider the first half of the rise for 0< < /2: Applying initial conditions when, = 0, y = 0, y = 0 Then
Issue 1.1 Page 9 of 28 Mechanical Design B

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

C1 = 0 C0 = 0 Applying mid-point conditions when, = /2, y = h/2 C2 = Thus for: 0< < /2:

2h

y=

2h

Now derive the relationship between y and for the interval /2 < < (Remember by definition: when = , y = h and y = 0) (Also remember the curve should be continuous at the halfway point, so the first derivative of the function must be the same as the first derivative of the previous function for = /2) For the period: /2 < <

y = h +

4h

2h

Try question 1 on the tutorial sheet to simplify this expression TMM pp 213-215 Given in figure 6 is the displacement, first and second derivatives of cam motion. Note that the second derivative (acceleration) is first constant during the first half rise, then changes sign at the point of inflexion and is constant again during the second half rise. When the inflexion point is at the half way point, the acceleration is the same magnitude as the deceleration, therefore parabolic motion is sometimes referred to as constant acceleration. Question 2 of the tutorial deals with the case of unequal magnitudes of acceleration and deceleration Sketch on figure 6(c) a graph of the third derivative, y, a quantity proportional to jerk for constant speed cams. You should note that the jerk becomes infinite at transition points and that the curve is only continuous for the first derivative. The figure also demonstrates a method of graphical construction for the displacement diagram. This will be covered in the tutorial session Tutorial question 4a covers this technique Discontinuity in the kinematic derivatives can affect the smooth running of machinery. The remaining functions described in these notes have been specially chosen to relieve some of the problems whilst retaining low values of acceleration.
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Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 6 Parabolic (or constant acceleration) motion of a cam follower follo

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION You will be familiar with simple harmonic motion, SHM, (consider a pendulum bob that has zero velocity and maximum acceleration at the two extremes of its travel and zero acceleration at the midpoint of its travel). The characteristics of SHM can apply to cam followers. Figure 7 shows displacement, velocity and teristics acceleration for this case, and shows how to construct an SHM curve graphically. Note that the acceleration curve is continuous at inflexion. To practice this, try the first part of tutorial question 5a The follower displacement may be described by the relationship:

y=

h 1 cos 2

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

In the space below, write expressions for y and y. Check these against the amplitudes of velocity and acceleration shown in the figure. Also see TMM. igure.

y' = y' ' =

Figure 7 Simple harmonic motion of a cam follower

CYCLOIDAL MOTION A cycloid is the shape traced by a point, P, on the circumference of a cylinder rolling on a flat plane, as , shown in figure 8. As the cylinder rotates about its centre, so the central axis translates relative to the plane.

Figure 8 A cycloidal curve

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

If the cylinder has a radius, r, then the horizontal distance moved by P for an angle of rotation (0 2), is given by OM NM (the line ON ). Since the cylinder rolls without slip, OM = r Whilst by considering the triangle POQ, NM = r sin Hence, y = r r sin If the rise takes place over a cam rotation of , then when = 0, = 0 and when = , = 2, or:

= 2
If the cylinder is of radius, r, and h, is the horizontal distance covered by point P in one complete cycle, then: h = 2r Therefore, y in terms of is obtained combining these expressions, thus:

1 2 y = h 2 sin
Write the expressions for y and y in the space below and check against figure 9 (also see TMM).

y' =

y' ' =
The displacement, velocity and acceleration profiles for cycloidal motion are shown in figure 9. Note that all the curves are continuous and the acceleration curve has zero values at the start and end of the motion. Also illustrated is instruction on how to construct a cycloid graphically. Practice this technique in tutorial question 5. Slightly modify the procedure because you are sketching a return rather than rise. Make sure that you draw the circle used for construction to the right scale to work correctly you must draw a circle of radius h/2.

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Mechanical Design B

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 9 Cycloidal follower motion

MODIFIED TRAPEZOID MOTION We have seen that SHM and cycloidal motions have the advantages of continuous derivatives during the rise. However, parabolic motion has the advantage of comparatively low accelerations in fact for a given rise parabolic motion will yield the lowest possible acceleration and hence the lowest possible contact forces.

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

It would be useful therefore, to modify the parabolic function such that the derivatives are made continuous while keeping the acceleration low. One of the mot common means of achieving this is called modified trapezoidal motion (after the shape of the acceleration curve) The displacement curves are illustrated in figure 10, further details are given in the recommended texts. tex Figure 11 is a comparison of the displacement, velocity and acceleration functions for SHM, cycloidal and trapezoidal motions. Note that very large differences in acceleration are manifested as relatively small differences in the displacement curve. What does this imply about cam manufacture and follower design?

Figure 10 The modified-trapezoid motion curve

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 11 Comparison of basic curves

POLYNOMIAL With the advent of computer methods for design and analysis, the use of high order polynomials is design becoming the most common and convenient way to describe a followers motion. Using polynomials of an order greater than 2 allows for the higher kinematic derivatives to be continuous and smooth, and the values of these derivatives can be fixed at zero at the extremes of motion or matched with other functions. Typically, polynomial expressions of order 5 to 11 are used. CAM PROFILE SKETCHING The following pages give illustrated instructions for the graphical construction of cam profiles. Use these techniques to answer tutorial questions 4, 5 and 6. If required, you will find more detailed instructions in the supporting texts. In-line roller follower graphical construction procedure line

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 12 In-line roller follower graphical construction

1. Draw the base circle. This is the circle of minimum cam radius 2. Draw the cam follower at its lowest position, tangent to the base circle 3. Draw the reference circle passing through the follower centre. fo 4. Draw radial lines from the centre of the cam, spaced at equal angular intervals (those used on the follower displacement diagram) 5. Measure the follower displacements corresponding to each angular interval and transfer them to the appropriate radial line (this gives the location of the follower centres). 6. Draw the circles representing the follower at each location 7. Draw a SMOOTH curve tangent to these circles

Remember that for periods of dwell, the cam profile is that of an arc. Offset roller follower graphical construction procedure ollower

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 13 Offset roller follower graphical construction

1. Draw the base circle 2. Draw the follower at its lowest position, tangent to the base circle 3. Draw the reference circle through the c centre of the follower 4. Draw a circle with its centre at the centre of the cams rotation and tangent to the follower axis 5. Divide this circle into a number of divisions on the follower displacement diagram 6. Draw tangents to the circle at each of these divisions divi 7. Lay off the displacements along the appropriate tangent line, measuring from the reference circle 8. Draw circles representing the follower at these positions 9. Draw a SMOOTH curve tangent to the followers circles. Flat faced follower and swinging arm follower Figures 14 and 15 show similar procedure for the construction of cam profiles with flat faced and swinging followers

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 14 In-line flat faced follower graphical construction In

Figure 15 Swing arm roller follower graphical construction Sw

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

NOTE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

AND

Derivatives of follower displacement with respect to the cam rotation angle (y, y etc.) are referred to as kinematic derivatives. As mentioned previously, they are closely related to the derivative with respect to time i.e. velocity, acceleration and jerk (dy/dt, d2y/dt2, d3y/dt3) Given that and that

dy dy d = dt d dt
And

d 2 y dy d 2 d d 2 y = + d dt 2 dt d 2 dt 2

Let

d 2 d = and 2 = dt dt
Then

dy = y ' dt

And

d2y = y ' + y ' ' 2 dt 2

In many machines the cam is designed to run at constant speed and therefore = 0. In this case the acceleration term simplifies to:

d2y = y ' ' 2 dt 2

Beware: During the start-up of all machinery, this condition does not apply and care must be taken to calculate the correct acceleration to ensure adequate estimation of forces and proper design for strength and stiffness.

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Mechanical Design B

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

SIZE LIMITATIONS One of the principle advantages of cam systems is their relative compactness. Generally, the smaller the cam the better a smaller cam will have lower sliding speeds and can show reduced vibration. However there are limitations and any application will have a minimum size dedicated by kinematic considerations. In addition there are practical considerations such as cam shaft size, hub size, bearing size and follower shaft design which will also impose design constraints. Flat faced follower considerations Try to construct the cam profile in tutorial question 6 with a minimum cam radius of 75mm. To save time, only construct the final return from 330 to 360. You should find that the common tangent is difficult if not inal impossible to draw. Figure 16 shows a similar graphical construction. The common tangent to the followers positions described a loop, and the cam is said to be undercut clearly a manufacturing impossibility. Undercutting un may be avoided by increasing the cam radius, increasing the angle over which the rise takes place, or decreasing the lift. In many cases, the lift and the associated angle of rotation are fixed by the application, and the only recourse is to increase the base circle radius.

Figure 16 Undercutting of a flat-faced follower flat

The key to avoiding undercutting is to consider the curvature of the cam. So long as the cam remains convex there will not be a problem. Consider the system shown in figure 17. C, marks the centre of curvature of the cam profile at the point of contact. Clearly, the centre of curvature must lie somewhere on a line normal to the follower. The cam is shown at some arbitrary position sometime after the follower has started to raise, such that the cam has rotated through an angle and the follower has risen to the position y above the base circle, radius Ro. The follower is mounted with an eccentricity , whilst the . horizontal distance from the centre of rotation to the point of contract is denoted by s, the radius of curvature of the cam at the instant shown is denoted by and the position of C, the centre of curvature is f , shown at a radius r, and angle in a coordinate system that rotates with the cam.

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 17 Flat-faced follower to determine radius of curvature faced

Show that:

r cos( + ) = s (1)
and

r cos( + ) + = Ro + y (2)
Differentiating (1) yields:

r sin ( + ) =

ds (3) d

(Making the approximation the dr/d, d/d and d/d are zero over a small range of cam rotation) , Similarly differentiate (2) to get:

r cos( + ) = y ' (4)

Differentiate again to show

r sin ( + ) = y ' ' (5)

Combining (2) and (5)

y ' '+ = Ro + y
Or

Ro = y y ' '

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

We know that must always be positive and, in practice, we generally want to ensure that the radius of curvature is larger than some specified minimum value min. We can thus use the inequality: ture

Ro min y y ' '

Although this is a differential equation, in practical cases it is not necessary to solve it rigorously. What is required is the largest value of the inequality to assign a minimum value to Ro. Note that min and y are f . always positive. The largest value will, therefore, occur at an angle where y takes its largest negative value. In other words you must identify the angle at which the largest follower deceleration occurs, and calculate the value of displacement and pseudo-acceleration at this angle. pseudo Note also from equations (1) and (4) that: s = y In other words, the horizontal distance of the point of contact from the centre of the cam is gi given by a direct function of rotation angle. For a given cam it is possible to predict the maximum (positive) and minimum (negative) values of this function and thus the face width of the cam is given by: Width = ymax ymin Now attempt tutorial question 6. You should find that Ro min must be greater than 90 mm to give a minimum radius of curvature of 2.5 mm 0r 87.5 mm to just avoid undercutting (Your sketch will not fit on a sheet of A4 graph paper. Try sticking two sheets together). Translating roller follower The design of systems with roller followers requires similar considerations. In this case, not only must undercutting be avoided, but the question of pressure angle must be addressed. Figure 18 shows a cam and roller follower mounted in a frame. r

Figure 18 Forces exerted on a roller follower

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

N is the normal force exerted by the cam on the follower, R1 and R2 are the reactions between the follower stem and the frame, F is the sum of the external loads on the follower (comprising spring loads, inertia loads and external machine loads). The sleeve in which the follower is supported is given a length, b, and the follower is shown in a position with a follower overhang length, a. The follower stem has a diameter d. Consider the external forces in the x-direction and the y-direction.

F F
M
y

= R1 R2 N sin = 0

= F + ( R1 + R2 ) N cos = 0

Taking moments about point A (shown in figure 19)

Fd Nd + R2 d + aN sin cos R2b = 0 2 2

Eliminate R1 and R2 (and show that)

N b = F b cos 2 a + b 2 d sin

Thus N and F are related purely by the geometry of the system and the pressure angle, which is itself purely a function of the size and displacement characteristics of the cam. Notice that it is possible for the denominator to take a zero of negative valve. Should it become zero, N/F = , and the follower will jam. Thus to avoid jamming,

b cos 2 a + b 2 d sin
And since 2d is small,

tan =
Generally this requires to be less than about 30

b (2a + b )

Relationship between pressure angle and displacement curve Figure 19 shows the pitch circle of a roller follower in contact with a disc cam. The follower has an offset from the centre of rotation of the cam and at the instant shown the pressure angle is . The instantaneous centre of velocity of the cam and follower is shown at point P. If the cam rotates at , then the velocity of the cam centre relative to P is R. As this is the instantaneous centre of velocity of the follower to point P must be the same. Thus:

Dividing both sides by gives this expression in terms of

dy

dt = dy = R d
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Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 19 Construction to derive pressure angle for roller follower

By inspection of the figure

R = + ( y + a ) tan
Similarly,

a=
Thus, it can be shown that

(Ro

tan = y+
(See TMM p 237 for a full development)

y '

(Ro

The point of this proof is to show that pressure angle depends on y(), y(), Ro and . For a given y(), the designer has control over Ro and . What is the effect of increasing ? Is it the same when the velocity is positive (the rise) and negative (the velocity return)? What happens if you increase Ro? In practice a designer would use a computational method to select Ro and to ensure that the pressure angle remains in bounds. This may also be done using the nomo nomogram in figure 20.

Undercutting and minimum roller diameter As with flat faced followers the minimum cam radius is a function of follower motion. However it is also affected by the roller diameter. Figure 21a shows two rollers following the same pitch curve. Note how the curve.

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

smaller roller describes an acceptable cam shape, but the large describes a loop. Figure 21b describes a limiting case, where the roller path would require a cam profile with a sharp point a feature that may well be prone to exaggerated wear. A similar argument to that covered in the previous section can be used to ne produce a relationship between the geometric parameters and the follower motion to avoid undercutting. Again the end result is complex and in practice would be solved with computational methods, or the use of design charts such as those shown in figure 22. This shows families of curves relating minimum cam radius, radius of curvature, lift, angle and roller radius for a simple harmonic motion rise. Use the nomogram to choose a minimum cam radius for the cam in question 5a. Then use the charts in figure 22 to select suitable roller diameter for the first part of the motion. motion

Figure 20 Nomogram for selection of a suitable minimum cam radius for a given maximum pressure angle for maximum various displacement functions

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 21 Examples of undercutting and roller size limitations

Cam mechanisms Dr K D Dearn

School of Mechanical Engineering The University of Birmingham

Figure 22 Charts for the sizing of disc cams and radial roller followers where the follower moves with simple harmonic motion