1. Where is an evaporative condenser used in practice? Answer: In those cases where the shortage of cooling water is acute. 2.

What should be the basic criteria for an efficient steam condenser? Answers: 1. Maximum amount of steam condensed per unit area of available heat transfer surface. 2. Minimum quantity of circulating coolant required. 3. Minimum heat transfer surface required per kW capacity 4. Minimum power drawn by the auxiliaries. 3. Why must a vacuum be maintained in the steam condenser? Answers: 1. By maintaining a vacuum in the steam condenser, the efficiency of the steam-power plant can be increased as greater the vacuum in the system, greater will be the enthalpy drop of steam. Therefore, more work will be available per kg of steam condensing. 2. Secondly, the non-condensate (air) can be removed from the condensate-steam circuit by pulling and maintaining a vacuum in the steam side. Therefore, the condensate can be used as boiler feed. 4. What are the limitations of a surface condenser? Answers: 1. It is very bulky and as such requires more floor space. 2. Its manufacturing, running and maintenance costs are high. 5. What should be the requirements of an ideal surface condenser used for steam power plants? Answers: Uniform distribution of exhaust steam throughout the heat transfer surface of the condenser. Absence of condensate sub cooling. There should not be any leakage of air into the condenser. There should not be any tube leakage. The heat transfer surface in contact with cooling water must be free from any deposit as scaling reduces the efficiency of heat exchangers. 6. What do you mean by vacuum? Answer: Vacuum means any pressure below atmospheric pressure. 7. How is vacuum in a condenser usually measured? Answer: It is measured by means of a Bourdon pressure gauge, which is calibrated to read the pressure in mm of mercury below atmospheric pressure. 8. On what factors does the degree of vacuum in a condenser depend? Answers: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

It depends on the partial pressure of steam and the partial pressure of air in the condenser. 9. What is the vacuum efficiency of a condenser? Answers: It is the ratio of the actual vacuum at the steam inlet to the maximum obtainable vacuum in a perfect condensing plant, i.e., it is the ratio of actual vacuum to ideal vacuum. 10. What are the effects of air leakage in the condenser? Answers: 1. It increases the back pressure on the turbine with the effect that there is less heat drop and low thermal efficiency of the plant 2. The pressure of air in the condenser lowers the partial pressure of steam, which means steam, will condense at a lower temperature and that will require greater amount of cooling water. 3. It reduces the rate of condensation of steam, because air having poor thermal conductivity impairs the overall heat transfer from the steam-air mixture. 11. What is a steam condenser? Answers: 1. It is a heat exchanger wherein steam is condensed either in direct contact with cooling water or indirect contact with cooling water through a heat transfer medium separating them. 2. That is, a steam condenser is either a direct contact or indirect contact heat exchanger. 12. How many types of steam condensers are known? Answers: 1. Jet Condensers - direct contact heat exchanger. 2. Surface Condensers - indirect contact heat exchanger. 13. What is a surface condenser? Answer: It is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger in which steam is condensed on the shell-side while cooling water flows through the tubes. The condensate and cooling water leave the system separately. 14. How does the down-flow type surface condenser act? Answer: Exhaust steam is admitted to the top of the condenser, which is a tube-and-shell type crossflow heat exchanger. Cooling water flows through the tubes and extracts heat from the steam, which is on the shell-side. Mter having been condensed on the surface of the water tubes, steam is converted into condensate which is discharged from the condenser bottom. 15. How does the central flow type surface condenser work? Answer: It is also a shell-and-tube type crossflow heat exchanger at the center of which is located the suction of an air extraction pump, so that the entire steam moves radially inward and comes in better contact with the outer surface of the nest of tubes through which the cooling water flows. The steam condensate is extracted from the bottom by the condensate-extraction pump.

16. How does the inverted type surface condenser work? Answer: In this type of condenser, steam is admitted at the bottom and flows upwards in cross-flow with the cooling water flowing in the tubes. The air extraction pump draws its suction from the top of the condenser, maintaining a steady upward current of steam, which after having been condensed on the outer surface of water tubes is removed by the condensate extraction pump. 17. How does the evaporative condenser function? Answer: Exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed inside the finned tubes as cooling water rains down from the top through the nozzles. A part of the cooling water in contact with the tube surface evaporates by drawing enthalpy from the steam, which upon losing its latent heat condenses and discharges out as condensate. 18. What are the primary functions of a condenser? Answers: There are two important functions of a condenser: 1. It reduces the back pressure upon the turbine by a considerable degree and therefore, the work done per lb of steam during expansion is increased 2. The exhaust steam condensate can be recycled as boiler feedwater 19. Why else is steam from an HRSG used? Answer: For steam injection into the gas turbine for NOx control. 20. What gas is used in the SCR method of controlling NOx? Answer: Air-diluted ammonia vapor is injected into the flue gas stream before it enters the catalyst units consisting of honeycomb-shaped ceramic material. These cells, with the ammonia vapor, convert nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and water vapor for discharge into the atmosphere. 21. What is a steam condenser? Answers: 1. It is a heat exchanger wherein steam is condensed either in direct contact with cooling water or indirect contact with cooling water through a heat transfer medium separating them. 2. That is, a steam condenser is either a direct contact or indirect contact heat exchanger. 22. How many types of steam condenser are known? Answers: 1. Jet Condensers - direct contact heat exchanger. 2. Surface Condensers - indirect contact heat exchanger using water. 3. Air Condensers - direct contact heat exchangers using air. 23. What is a jet condenser?

Answers: 1. It is a direct contact heat exchanger in which steam to be condensed comes into direct contact with the cooling water (cold condensate) which is usually introduced in the form of a spray from a jet. (Fig. 30.1) 2. Upon contact with the cooling water, the steam gives up its enthalpy and gets cooled and ultimately settles as condensate. 24. What is a surface condenser? Answer: It is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger in which steam is condensed on the shell-side while cooling water flows through the tubes. The condensate and cooling water leave the system separately. 25. How many types of jet condensers are known? Answers: 1. Parallel flow jet type condenser - It is a kind of jet condenser in which both exhaust steam and cooling water enter the condenser at the top, both flow downward and the steam condensate discharges out from the bottom of the condenser. (Fig. 30.2) 2. Contra flow type jet condenser - The cooling fluid (cold condensate) and exhaust steam flow in a counter-current direction - steam goes up and cold condensate rains down.

3. Ejector type jet condenser - It is one kind of jet condenser in which the mixing of cooling water and steam takes place in a series of combining cones and the kinetic energy of the steam is expended to drain off the condensate and cooling water from the condenser. Cooling water is forced through a series of cones and gets mixed with steam coming through ports. As the cooling water flows through the series of nozzles, it suffers more and more pressure drop and at the same time its velocity gradually increases. Due to this pressure drop, more and more steam is drawn through the ports, gets intimately mixed with the cooling water jet and condenses thereafter. 26. What is the principle of operation of a high-level-parallel-flow jet condenser? Answer: This condenser, also called barometric condenser, works as follows - The condenser is mounted on a long pipe (at least 10.34 m) called barometric leg which acts in a way identical to a barometer. Now if water is used in a barometer then the barometric height would be 10.34 m. If some vacuum exists in the condenser, the height of water column (h) will be less than 10.34 in. Now it is possible, by using this condenser leg, to drain away the condensate from the condenser. 27. How many types of surface condensers are known? Answers: 1. Down flow type - Exhaust steam is admitted to the top of the condenser, which is a tube-andshell type cross flow heat exchanger. Cooling water flows through the tubes and extracts heat from the steam which is on the shell-side. After having been condensed on the surface of the water tubes, steam is converted into condensate, which is discharged from the condenser bottom. (Fig. 30.7) 2. Central flow type - It is also a shell-and-tube type cross flow heat exchanger at the center of which is located the suction of an air extraction pump so that the entire steam moves radially inward and comes in better contact with the outer surface of the nest of tubes through which the

cooling water flows. The steam condensate is extracted from the bottom by the condensateextraction pump. 3. Inverted flow type - In this type of condenser, steam is admitted at the bottom and flows upwards in cross-flow with the cooling water flowing in the tubes. The air extraction pump draws its suction from the top of the condenser, maintaining a steady upward current of steam, which after having been condensed on the outer surface of water tubes is removed by the condensate extraction pump. 4. Evaporative condenser type - Exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed inside the finned tubes as cooling water rains down from the top through the nozzles. A part of the cooling water in contact with the tube surface evaporates by drawing enthalpy from the steam, which upon losing its latent heat condenses and discharges out as condensate. 28. Where is the evaporative condenser used in practice? Answers: In those cases where the shortage of cooling water is acute. 29. What are the two prime functions of a condenser? Answers: 1. It reduces the backpressure upon the turbine by a considerable degree and therefore, the work done per kg of steam during expansion is increased. 2. The exhaust steam condensate can be recycled as boiler feedwater. 30. What are the auxiliary equipment required for operating a steam condenser? Answers: 1. Cooling water (which may be cold condensate) circulation pump. Generally, it is a centrifugal one. 2. Arrangement for cooling the condensate (i.e., a heat exchanger) in case the condensate is recycled to extract heat from the exhaust steam. 3. An air pump or steam ejector to remove air and other non-condensing gases from the condenser. 4. An extraction pump (usually centrifugal) to remove the condensate from the condenser. 31. What should be the basic criteria for an efficient steam condenser? Answer: 1. Maximum amount of steam condensed per unit area of available heat transfer surface. 2. Minimum quantity of circulating coolant required. 3. Minimum heat transfer surface required per kW capacity. 4. Minimum power drawn by the auxiliaries. 32. Why is vacuum maintained in the steam condenser? Answers: 1. By maintaining a vacuum in the steam condenser, the efficiency of the steam-power plant can be increased as greater the vacuum in the system, greater will be the enthalpy drop of steam. Therefore, more work will be available per kg of steam condensing. 2. Secondly, the non-condensate (air) can be removed from the condensate-steam circuit by pulling and maintaining a vacuum in the steam side. Therefore, the condensate can be used as boiler feed. 33. What are the advantages of a jet condenser over a surface condenser? Answers: 1. Simplicity in design.

2. Lower in manufacturing cost. 3. Lower maintenance cost. 4. Occupies lesser floor space. 5. Requires lesser amount of cooling water. 34. What are the advantages of a surface condenser over a jet condenser? Answers: 1. It imparts to power generation plant a higher thermal efficiency. 2. The condensate can be reused as boiler feedwater. 3. Auxiliary power requirement is less than that of a jet condenser. 4. Less amount of air is carried to the boiler. 35. What are the limitations of a surface condenser? Answers: 1. It is very bulky and as such requires more floor space. 2. Its manufacturing, running and maintenance costs are high. 36. What should be the requirements of an ideal surface condenser used for steam power plants? Answers: Uniform distribution of exhaust steam throughout the heat transfer surface of the condenser. Absence of condensate subcooling. There should not be any leakage of air into the condenser. There should not be any tube leakage. The heat transfer surface in contact with cooling water must be free from any deposit as scaling reduces the efficiency of heat exchangers. 37. What do you mean by vacuum? Answer: Vacuum means any pressure below atmospheric pressure. 38. How is vacuum in a condenser usually measured? Answers: It is measured by means of a Bourdon pressure gauge, which is calibrated to read the pressure in mm of mercury below atmospheric pressure. 39. If the gauge pressure of a condenser is 630 mm of Hg, what will be the absolute pressure in the condenser? Answer: It means the pressure in the condenser is 630 mm below atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of Hg, the absolute pressure in the condenser. 40. On what factors does the degree of vacuum in a condenser depend? Answer: It depends on the partial pressure of steam and the partial pressure of air in the condenser. 41. How could air enter the condenser? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Answers: 1. With the boiler feedwater as dissolved gases. 2. Flange leakage. 3. Cooling water (for jet condenser) containing a certain amount of dissolved air in it. 42. What are the effects of air leakage in the condenser? Answers: 1. It increases the backpressure on the turbine with the effect that there is less heat drop and low thermal efficiency of the plant. 2. The pressure of air in the condenser lowers the partial pressure of steam, which means steam, will condense at a lower temperature and that will require greater amount of cooling water. 3. It reduces the rate of condensation of steam, because air having poor thermal conductivity impairs the overall heat transfer from the steam-air mixture. 43. What basic governor troubles are apt to occur? Answers: 1. Hunting-alternate speeding and slowing of the engine, which means that the governor is too sensitive to load changes. 2. Sticking-failure to control speed, allowing the engine to run away or slow down-which means that the governor is not sensitive to load changes or parts are binding or worn. 44. What is a governor safety stop? Answers: On throttling-type governors, the safety stop is a weighted arm that needs the support of a governor belt. If the belt breaks, the idler arm drops and shuts the steam supply valve to the engine. On Corliss units, the flyballs fall to the lowest position and knock off the safety cams; the cams disengage the catch blocks on the steam intake valves so that no steam is admitted to the engine. 45. Why is condensation or excessive carryover dangerous to reciprocating engines? Answer: Because water is non-compressible. If an excessive amount of water gets into the cylinder, it will wreck the engine. 46. Why should a steam or moisture separator be installed in the steam line next to a steam turbine? Answer: All multistage turbines, low-pressure turbines, and turbines operating at high pressure with saturated steam should have a moisture separator in order to prevent rapid blade wear from water erosion. 47. Under what conditions may a relief valve not be required on the exhaust end of a turbine? Answer: If the manufacturer has provided that the turbine shells are constructed for full-inlet steam pressure for the entire length of the shell. It is absolutely essential to have a relief valve to protect the shell in the event an exhaust valve is closed and high-pressure steam is admitted to the shell on the front end of the machine. Explosions have occurred when this happened. 48. What are some conditions that may prevent a turbine from developing full power?

Answers: 1. The machine is overloaded. 2. The initial steam pressure and temperature are not up to design conditions. 3. The exhaust pressure is too high. 4. The governor is set too low. 5. The steam strainer is clogged. 6. Turbine nozzles are clogged with deposits. 7. Internal wear on nozzles and blades. 49. Why is it necessary to open casing drains and drains on the steam line going to the turbine when a turbine is to be started?. Answers: To avoid slugging nozzles and blades inside the turbine with condensate on start-up; this can break these components from impact. The blades were designed to handle steam, not water. 50. What three methods are used to restore casing surfaces that are excessively eroded? Answers: 1. Metal-spraying. 2. Welding. 3. Insertion of filler strips or patch plates. The manufacturer should be consulted on the metallurgy involved so that the best method can be selected. 51. What is steam rate as applied to turbo-generators? Answer: The steam rate is the pounds of steam that must be supplied per kilowatt-hour of generator output at the steam turbine inlet. 52. What is the most prevalent source of water induction into a steam turbo-generator? Answer: Leaking water tubes in feedwater heaters, which have steam on the shell side supplied from turbine extraction lines. The water at higher pressure can flow back into the turbine because the extraction steam is at a lower pressure. Check valves are needed on the steam extraction line to prevent the backflow of water into the turbine. 53. What is a regenerative cycle? Answer: In the regenerative cycle, feedwater is passed through a series of feed-water heaters and is heated by steam extracted from stages of a steam turbine. This raises the feedwater to near the temperature of boiler water, thus increasing the thermal efficiency of the cycle. 54. What is the re-heating cycle? Answer: In the re-heating cycle, superheated steam is expanded in a high-pressure turbine and then returned to the boiler's re-heater to raise the temperature of the steam to the inlet temperature, usually to around 537C; it is then returned to the turbine to be expanded through intermediate-pressure turbines. In some

cases, the steam is again returned for re-heating in the boiler and then expanded in the lower-pressure sections of the turbine. The main purpose of re-heating the steam on large turbo-generators is to avoid condensation in the lower-pressure sections of the turbine, which can rapidly cause blade erosion problems from wet steam. 55. What does the Willans line show? Answer: The Willians line is a plot of throttle flow versus the load, usually expressed in kilowatts; generally it is a straight line except for low and high loads. The Willians line is used to show steam rates at different loads on the turbine. 56. What are the two basic types of turbines? Answer: 1. Impulse type. 2. Reaction type. 57. What is the operating principle of an impulse turbine? Answer: The basic idea of an impulse turbine is that a jet of steam from a fixed nozzle pushes against the rotor blades and impels them forward. The velocity of the steam is about twice as fast as the velocity of the blades. Only turbines utilizing fixed nozzles are classified as impulse turbines. 58. What is the operating principle of a reaction turbine? Answer: A reaction turbine utilizes a jet of steam that flows from a nozzle on the rotor. Actually, the steam is directed into the moving blades by fixed blades designed to expand the steam. The result is a small increase in velocity over that of the moving blades. These blades form a wall of moving nozzles that further expand the steam. The steam flow is partially reversed by the moving blades, producing a reaction on the blades. Since the pressure drop is small across each row of nozzles (blades), the speed is comparatively low. Therefore, more rows of moving blades are needed than in an impulse turbine. 59. What are topping and superposed turbines? Answer: Topping and superposed turbines arc high-pressure, non-condensing units that can be added to an older, moderate-pressure plant. Topping turbines receive high-pressure steam from new high-pressure boilers. The exhaust steam of the new turbine has the same pressure as the old boilers and is used to supply the old turbines. 60. What is an extraction turbine? Answer: In an extraction turbine, steam is withdrawn from one or more stages, at one or more pressures, for heating, plant process, or feedwater heater needs. They are often called "bleeder turbines." 61. What is a radial-flow turbine?

Answer: In a radial-flow turbine, steam flows outward from the shaft to the casing. The unit is usually a reaction unit, having both fixed and moving blades. They are used for special jobs and are more common to European manufacturers, such as Sta-Laval (now ABB). 62. What is a stage in a steam turbine? Answer: In an impulse turbine, the stage is a set of moving blades behind the nozzle. In a reaction turbine, each row of blades is called a "stage." A single Curtis stage may consist of two or more rows of moving blades. 63. What is a diaphragm? Answer: Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's casing are called diaphragms. They hold the vaneshaped nozzles and seals between the stages. Usually labyrinth-type seals are used. One-half of the diaphragm is fitted into the top of the casing, the other half into the bottom. 64. What are four types of turbine seals? Answers: 1. Carbon rings fitted in segments around the shaft and held together by garter or retainer springs. 2. Labyrinth mated with shaft serrations or shaft seal strips. 3. Water seals where a shaft runner acts as a pump to create a ring of water around the shaft. Use only treated water to avoid shaft pitting. 4. Stuffing box using woven or soft packing rings that are compressed with a gland to prevent leakage along the shaft. 65. In which turbine is tip leakage a problem? Answer: Tip leakage is a problem in reaction turbines. Here, each vane forms a nozzle; steam must flow through the moving nozzle to the fixed nozzle. Steam escaping across the tips of the blades represents a loss of work. Therefore, tip seals are used prevent this. 66. What are two types of clearance in a turbine? Answer: 1. Radial - clearance at the tips of the rotor and casing. 2. Axial - the fore-and-aft clearance, at the sides of the rotor and the casing. 67. What are four types of thrust hearings? Answer: 1. Babbitt-faced collar bearings. 2. Tilting pivotal pads. 3. Tapered land bearings. 4. Rolling-contact (roller or ball) bearings. 68. What is the function of a thrust bearing?

Answer: Thrust bearings keep the rotor in its correct axial position. 69. What is a balance piston? Answer: Reaction turbines have axial thrust because pressure on the entering side is greater than pressure on the leaving side of each stage. To counteract this force, steam is admitted to a dummy (balance) piston chamber at the low-pressure end of the rotor. Some designers also use a balance piston on impulse turbines that have a high thrust. Instead of piston, seal strips are also used to duplicate a piston's counter force. 70. What is a combination thrust and radial bearing? Answer: This unit has the ends of the babbitt bearing extended radially over the end of the shell. Collars on the rotor face these thrust pads, and the journal is supported in the bearing between the thrust collars. 71. What is a tapered-land thrust bearing? Answer: The babbitt face of a tapered-land thrust bearing has a series of fixed pads divided by radial slots. The leading edge of each sector is tapered, allowing an oil wedge to build up and carry the thrust between the collar and pad. 72. What is important to remember about radial bearings? Answer: A turbine rotor is supported by two radial bearings, one on each end of the steam cylinder. These bearings must be accurately aligned to maintain the close clearance between the shaft and the shaft seals, and between the rotor and the casing. If excessive bearing wear lowers the he rotor, great harm can be done to the turbine. 73. What is gland-sealing steam? Answer: It is the low-pressure steam that is led to a sealing gland. The steam seals the gland, which may be either a carbon ring or labyrinth type against air at the vacuum end of the shaft. 74. What is the function of a gland drain? Answer: The function of a gland drain is to draw of water from sealing-gland cavities created by the condensation of sealing steam. 75. What is an air ejector? Answer:

An air ejector is a steam siphon that removes non-condensable gases from the condenser. 76. How many governors are needed for safe turbine operation? Why? Answer: Two independent governors are needed for safe turbine operation. One is an overspeed or emergency trip that shuts off the steam at 10 percent above running speed (maximum speed). The second, or main governor, usually controls speed at a constant rate; however, many applications have variable speed control. 77. How is a flyball governor used with a hydraulic control? Answer: As the turbine speeds up, the weights are moved outward by centrifugal force, causing linkage to open a pilot valve that admits and releases oil on either side of a piston or on one side of a spring-loaded piston. The movement of the piston controls the steam valves. 78. What is a multi-port governor valve? Why is it used? Answer: In large turbines, a valve controls steam flow to groups of nozzles. The number of open valves controls the number of nozzles in use according to the load. A bar-lift or cam arrangement operated by the governor opens and closes these valves in sequence. Such a device is a multi-port valve. Using nozzles at full steam pressure is more efficient than throttling the steam. 79. What is meant by critical speed? Answer: It is the speed at which the machine vibrates most violently. It is due to many causes, such as imbalance or harmonic vibrations set up by the entire machine. To minimize damage, the turbine should be hurried through the known critical speed as rapidly as possible. (Caution, be sure the vibration is caused by critical speed and not by some other trouble). 80. How is oil pressure maintained when starting or stopping a medium-sized turbine? Answer: An auxiliary pump is provided to maintain oil pressure. Some auxiliary pumps are turned by a hand crank; others are motor-driven. This pump is used when the integral pump is running too slowly to provide pressure, as when starting or securing a medium-sized turbine. 81. Why is it poor practice to allow turbine oil to become too cool? Answer: If a turbine oil is allowed to become too cold, condensation of atmospheric moisture takes place in the oil and starts rust on the polished surfaces of the journal bearings. Condensed moisture my interfere with lubrication. 82. Steam blowing from a turbine gland is wasteful. Why else should it be avoided? Answer:

It should be avoided because the steam usually blows into the bearing, destroying the lubrication oil in the main bearing. Steam blowing from a turbine gland also creates condensate, causing undue moisture in plant equipment. 83. Besides lubrication, which are two functions of lubricating oil in some turbines? Answer: In large units, lube oil cools the bearings by carrying off heat to the oil coolers. Lube oil in some turbines also acts as a hydraulic fluid to operate the governor speed-control system. 84. What is meant by the water rite of a turbine? Answer: 85. It is the amount of water (steam) used by the turbine in pounds per horsepower per hour or kilowatts per hour. 86. What are five types of condensers? Answer: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Surface (shell-and-tube). Jet condenser. Barometric condenser. Air-cooled condenser. Evaporative condenser.

87. Why is there a relief valve on a turbine casing? Answer: The turbine casing is fitted with spring-loaded relief valves to prevent damage by excessive steam pressure at the low-pressure end if the exhaust valve is closed accidentally. Some casings on smaller turbines are fitted with a sentinel valve, which serves only to warn the operator of over-pressure of the exhaust end. A spring-loaded relic valve is needed to relieve high pressure. 88. Why must steam turbines be warmed up gradually? Answer: Although it is probable that a turbine can, if its shaft is straight, be started from a cold condition without warming up, such operation does not contribute to continued successful operation of the unit. The temperature strains set up in the casings and rotors by such rapid heating have a harmful effect. The turbine, in larger units especially should be warmed slowly by recommended warm-up ramp rates because of close clearances. 89. What should you lost vacuum while operating a condensing turbine plant? Answer: If vacuum is lost shut down immediately. The condenser cannot stand steam pressure, the condenser tubes may leak from excessive temperature. Excessive pressure will also damage the shell, the exhaust and the low-pressure parts of the turbine.

90. What are the main causes of turbine vibration? Answers: 1. Unbalanced parts. 2. Poor alignment of parts. 3. Loose parts. 4. Rubbing parts. 5. Lubrication troubles. 6. steam troubles. 7. Foundation troubles. 8. Cracked or excessively worn parts. 91. What is the purpose of a turning gear? Answer: Heat must be prevented from warping the rotors of large turbines or high-temperature turbines of 400C or more. When the turbine is being shut down, a motor-driven turning gear is engaged to the turbine to rotate the spindle and allow uniform cooling. 92. What does he term "ramp" rate mean? Answer: Ramp rate is used in bringing a turbine up to operating temperature and is the degrees Celsius rise per hour that metal surfaces are exposed to when bringing a machine to rated conditions. Manufacturers specify ramp rates or their machines in order to avoid thermal stresses. Thermocouples are used in measuring metal temperatures. 93. What is the difference between partial and full arc admission? Answer: In multi-valve turbine inlets, partial arc ad mission allows the steam to enter per valve opening in a sequential manner, so as load is increased, more valves open to admit steam. This can cause uneven heating on the high-pressure annulus as the valves are individually opened with load increase. In full-arc admission, all regulating valves open but only at a percentage of their full opening. With load increase, they all open more fully. This provides more uniform heating around the high-pressure part of the turbine. Most modern controls start with full-arc and switch to partial arc to reduce throttling losses through the valves. 94. What are some common troubles in surface-condenser operation? Answer: The greatest headache to the operator is loss of vacuum caused by air leaking into the surface condenser through the joints or packing glands. Another trouble spot is cooling water leaking into the steam space through the ends of the tubes or through tiny holes in the tubes. The tubes may also become plugged with mud, shells, debris, slime or algae, thus cutting down on the cooling water supply. Corrosion may be uniform, or it may occur in small holes or pits. 95. Where would you look for a fault if the air ejector didn't raise enough vacuum? Answers: 1. In this case, the trouble is usually in the nozzle. You will probably find that the nozzle is eroded.

2. The strainer protecting the nozzle is clogged. 3. The steam pressure to the nozzle is too low. 96. How would you stop air from leaking into a condenser? Answer: First find the leak by passing a flame over the suspected part while the condenser is under vacuum. Leaks in the flange joints or porous castings can be stopped with asphalt paint or shellac. 97. Do you stop cooling water flow through a steam condenser as soon as the turbine is stopped? Answer: You should keep the cooling water circulating for about 15 minutes (also see the manufacturers recommendation) or more so that the condenser has a chance to cool down gradually and evenly. Be sure to have cooling water flowing through the condenser before starting up in order to prevent steam from entering the condenser unless it is cooled. Overheating cause severe leaks and other headaches. 98. How would you stop a leaky tube in a condenser that was contaminating the feed water? Answer: To stop leaky tube from contaminating the feedwater, shut down, remove the water-box covers, and fill the steam space with water. By observing tube ends, you can find the leaky tube. An alternate method is to pressurize (30 kPa) the steam space with air. Then flood the water boxes to the top inspection plate and observe any air bubbles. Once you have found the leaky tube or tubes, drive a tape bronze plug (well-coated with white lead) into each end of the tube to cut it out service. This allows you to use the condenser since the tubes need not be renewed until about 10 percent of the tubes are plugged. 99. Why must condensate be subjected to salinity tests where brackish cooling water used? Answer: Condensate may leak from the cooling-water side to the steam side of condenser and contaminate the feedwater, thus causing scale to form in the boilers, brackish cooling water may leak into the steam space from cracked or porous tubes or ruin around the joints at the end of the tube ends, etc. By taking salinity readings of the condensate, leaks may be found before they can do any harm.

STEAM POWER CYCLE

Power plants generate electrical power by using fuels like coal, oil or natural gas. A simple power plant consists of a boiler, turbine,

condenser and a pump. Fuel, burned in the boiler and superheater, heats the water to generate steam. The steam is then heated to a superheated state in the superheater. This steam is used to rotate the turbine which powers the generator. Electrical energy is generated when the generator windings rotate in a strong magnetic field. After the steam leaves the turbine it is cooled to its liquid state in the condenser. The liquid is pressurized by the pump prior to going back to the boiler A simple power plant is described by a Rankine Cycle.

RANKINE CYCLE
Saturated or superheated steam enters the turbine at state 1, where it expands isentropically to the exit pressure at state 2. The steam is then condensed at constant pressure and temperature to a saturated liquid, state 3. The heat removed from the steam in the condenser is typically transferred to the cooling water. The saturated liquid then flows through the pump which increases the pressure to the boiler pressure (state 4), where the water is first heated to the saturation temperature, boiled and typically superheated to state 1. Then the whole cycle is repeated.

TYPICAL MODIFICATIONS REHEAT

When steam leaves the turbine, it is typically wet. The presense of water causes erosion of the turbine blades. To prevent this, steam is extracted from high pressure turbine (state 2), and then it is reheated in the boiler (state 2') and sent back to the low pressure turbine.

REGENERATION
Regeneration helps improve the Rankine cycle efficiency by preheating the feedwater into the boiler. Regeneration can be achieved by open feedwater heaters or closed feedwater heaters. In open feedwater heaters, a fraction of the steam exiting a high pressure turbine is mixed with the feedwater at the same pressure. In closed system, the steam bled from the turbine is not directly mixed with the feedwater, and therefore, the two streams can be at different pressures.

PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND WATER INTRODUCTION

The process by which we convert water into steam and use the steam to turn a propulsion shaft encompasses the generation and expansion phases of the steam cycle. A study of the properties of water and steam at these critical phases is necessary to understand the steam cycle. This lesson defines terms associated with these properties and processes, and explains the use of steam tables to calculate the work and efficiency created by steam.

REFERENCES

(a) (b) (c)

Elements of Applied Thermodynamics, Robert M. Johnson, et al. Principles of Naval Engineering NAVPERS 10788 series Introduction to Naval Engineering, Edward F. Gritzen.

INFORMATION A. 1. Basic Thermodynamic Terms Enthalpy (h), measured in British thermal units per pound (mass), or BTU/lbm, represents the total energy content of steam. It expresses the internal energy and flow work, or the total potential energy and kinetic energy contained within a substance. The advantage of enthalpy is that we can express in one term all of the energy in a substance which is due to its pressure and temperature. Enthalpy values are used to represent the energy level of steam entering a turbine, a value useful for determining turbine efficiency. By superheating steam, we can add enthalpy to steam without raising the pressure of the steam. For example, steam at 620 psig and 850F can do more work in a turbine than steam that is 620 psig and 650F. Entropy (s), measured in BTU/lbm-R, represents the unavailability of energy (R=Rankine temperature scale where 0R = absolute zero and 460R = 0F). The second law of thermodynamics states that when heat is transferred from high temperature to low temperature regions, some of the heat will be rejected and not converted into mechanical work. Entropy is a measure of how much heat must be rejected to a lower temperature receiver at a given pressure and temperature. A complex explanation of the mathematical significance of the definition of entropy is unnecessary. It is a term which attempts to describe the universes tendency to evenly distribute all mass and energy throughout space. Processes which produce entropy are possible and those which destroy entropy are impossible. Bodies with a high temperature will, when brought in contact with a body of a lower temperature, always cause heat to transfer from the hot body to the cold body. This will lower the internal energy of the hot body and raise the internal energy of the cold body. This is the principle that guides the design and operation of all naval heat exchangers. For example, a main engine lube oil cooler directs hot lube oil over cool seawater piping, so that the hot lube oil will transfer some of its heat to the cooler seawater. If left together indefinitely, the property of entropy would cause the heat from the lube oil to be equally distributed between the oil and the water, so that both would have the same temperature. Entropy would not be important except for the fact that the purpose of any engine is to collect, transfer, and use energy. Thus, in a steam plant for example, it is not possible to add energy to water, boil it and transmit the resulting high energy steam across the relatively cooler engineroom without some of that energy being lost. Some of this energy will always be lost through system conditions such as ineffective pipe lagging, piping leaks, and dirty or fouled tubes which retard heat transfer. Operators must constantly attempt to minimize the effects of these conditions to maximize plant efficiency and reduce fuel and water costs. A working fluid is a substance which receives, transfers and transmits energy in a thermodynamic system. In most systems, the working substance is a fluid (liquid, vapor or gas). In a steam system, water is the working fluid. Density (r), measured in lbm/ft, represents the mass of a substance per unit volume, or how tightly packed the molecules are. The more molecules packed in a given space, the more dense the material. The density of water in a given location of the boiler is critical to the steam generation process because relatively dense feedwater will naturally push a less dense steam/water mixture through the boiler generating tubes. Specific volume (vSP), measured in ft3/lbm, represents the space occupied per unit mass of a substance. It is the mathematical inverse of density. Most engineering equipment is designed for size and strength taking into consideration the specific volume of the intended working fluid. Specific weight (g), measured in lbf/ft3, represents the weight of a substance per unit volume. This is the density of a substance acted upon by gravity. The pressure of a fluid at the bottom of a storage tank is a direct function of the height of the fluid in the tank and the specific weight of the feedwater. This resultant pressure is an important shipboard consideration with respect to providing a minimum suction pressure for a pump below the tank to move the fluid through a system.

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7. The state of a working fluid refers to the physical properties it possesses at a particular pressure, temperature and volume. If each of these are known with respect to a substance, the state of the substance is known. The substance can be a subcooled, saturated, or superheated solid, liquid, or gas. Many systems operate the working fluid with very specific temperature/pressure relationships. Water is subcooled in the condensate and feed phases of the steam cycle to allow it to be pumped, saturated in portions of the generation and feed phases for natural flow or for maintaining proper chemistry, and superheated in the expansion phase to extract maximum work from the steam to turn a propulsion turbine. 8. A thermodynamic process is any process which changes the state of the working fluid. These processes can be classified by the nature of the state change that takes place. Common types of thermodynamic processes include the following: A reversible process is an ideal process where the working fluid returns to its original state by conducting the original process in the reverse direction. For a process to be reversible, it must be able to occur in precisely the reverse order. All energy that was transformed or distributed during the original process must be capable of being returned to its exact original form, amount and location. Reversible processes do not occur in real life. An irreversible process is any process which is not reversible. All real life processes, such as the basic steam cycle, are irreversible. An adiabatic process is a state change where there is no transfer of heat to or from the system during the process. Because heat transfer is relatively slow, any rapidly performed process can approach being adiabatic. Compression and expansion of working fluids are frequently achieved adiabatically with pumps and turbines. An isothermal process is a state change in which no temperature change occurs. Note that heat transfer can occur without causing a change in temperature of the working fluid. In the DFT, auxiliary exhaust heats incoming condensate, then condenses to liquid and falls to the bottom of the tank. Throughout this process, the temperature of the auxiliary exhaust remains constant at 246-249F. An isobaric process is a state change in which the pressure of the working fluid is constant throughout the change. An isobaric state change occurs in the boiler superheater, as the heat of the exiting steam is increased without increasing its associated pressure. A thermodynamic cycle is a recurring series of thermodynamic processes through which an effect is produced by the transformation or redistribution of energy. In other words, it is a series of processes repeated over and over again in the same order. Thermodynamic cycles contain five basic elements: (1) a working fluid, (2) an engine, (3) a heat source, (4) a heat receiver, and (5) a pump. All thermodynamic cycles may be classified as being open cycles or closed cycles. A closed cycle is one in which the working fluid is reused. Steam plants and refrigeration cycles are closed cycles. In a steam plant, the water undergoes a series of processes that change the state of the water. Eventually the water returns to its original state and is ready to begin the cycle again. An open cycle is one in which the working fluid is not reused. Open cycles typically use the atmosphere as a working fluid. An internal combustion engine represents a typical open cycle. Air is drawn into the engine, combusted in the cylinders, and exhausted back to the atmosphere. Fresh air is drawn into the engine to begin the cycle again. Heat Addition and Temperature When heat is added to a material, one of two things will occur: the material will change temperature or the material will change state. When a substance is below the temperature at a given pressure required to change state, the addition of sensible heat will raise the temperature of the substance. Sensible heat applied to a pot of water will raise its temperature until it boils. Once the substance reaches the necessary temperature at a given pressure to change state, the addition of latent heat causes the substance to change state. Adding latent heat to the boiling water does not get the water any hotter, but changes the liquid (water) into a gas (steam).

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One can state that a certain amount of heat is required to raise the temperature of a substance 1F. This energy is called the specific heat capacity. The specific heat capacity of a substance depends upon the volume and pressure of the material. For water, the specific heat capacity is 1 BTU/lbm-F and remains constant. This means that if we add 1 BTU of heat to 1 lbm of water, the temperature will rise 1F. Introduction to Steam Tables When a teapot of water is placed on a hot burner, sensible heat begins to heat the water. The energy added to the water raises its internal energy and its temperature. When the water reaches 212F, the temperature no longer rises as latent heat begins to change the water from a liquid to a vapor. The mass inside the teapot is slowly changing from a 100% water / 0% steam mixture into a 0% water / 100% steam mixture. If we add only half the necessary latent heat, then only half the water will boil into steam. The result would be a 50% water / 50% steam mixture at 212F. If we add all the latent heat necessary, then the water at 212F changes completely into steam at 212F. Continuing to add heat to the 212F steam results in a temperature increase (superheating), and we are again raising the temperature by adding sensible heat. Refer to figure 3.2-1 (sensible/latent heat and enthalpy). While the properties of water at atmospheric pressure are commonly known, water under different pressures will exhibit different properties. When water is boiled at pressures higher than atmospheric, the same events occur as described above with two exceptions. First, the boiling temperature will be higher than 212F. Second, less latent heat is required to be added to change the water completely into steam. If water were to be boiled at a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure, then we would find that the boiling temperature would be less than 212F and a larger amount of latent heat would be required to change the water completely into steam. Refer to figure 3.2-2 (temperature vs. latent heat). When water is below the boiling point, the addition of heat is seen as sensible heat. This water is said to be a subcooled liquid. When enough sensible heat is added so that the temperature of the water approaches saturation temperature but no steam has yet been formed, the water is said to be a saturated liquid. As the water is transformed from a saturated liquid to saturated steam, boiling is occurring. As latent heat is added, the temperature of the water remains the same but the saturated liquid is being changed into a saturated vapor. During this period the water is referred to as a liquid/vapor mixture. When enough latent heat is added so that all of the liquid is converted into vapor, the water becomes a saturated vapor. Note that the saturated vapor is 100% vapor and exists at the same temperature as the saturated liquid. Above the saturated steam point, vapor exists at a temperature higher than saturation temperature. This is the superheated vapor region. Steam tables are a useful tool for determining the properties of steam and water at various temperatures and pressures. The steam tables are broken into three tables.

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Mollier Diagram The Mollier diagram is a small portion of data from the steam tables graphed onto enthalpy-entropy coordinates. It presents the region that is commonly found in propulsion plant steam systems. Examine the last section of the steam tables for a representation of a Mollier diagram. Locating information off the Mollier diagram is done as follows: The horizontal axis is entropy (s) in BTU/lbm-R. The vertical axis is enthalpy (h) in BTU/lbm. The dark line across the middle of the chart is called a steam dome because of its shape. Above this line, the data is for superheated steam. Below this line, the data is for a steamwater mixture. The data directly on the line is for saturated steam. To find data in the steam-water mixture region of the chart, enter the chart using the absolute pressure and %moisture (y). Once you find the intersection of these two parameters, read off the number directly across from the intersection point for enthalpy. Read off the number directly below the intersection point for entropy.

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To find data in the superheated region of the chart, enter the chart using the measured temperature and pressure of the steam. Again, find the intersection point of these two parameters and read off the values for entropy and enthalpy. Notice that moisture does not plot in the superheat region. This is because moisture is a parameter which only exists in saturated conditions.

How Gas Turbine Work

A Little Background
There are many different kinds of turbines:

You have probably heard of a steam turbine. Most power plants use coal, natural gas, oil or a nuclear reactor to create steam. The steam runs through a huge and very carefully designed multi-stage turbine to spin an output shaft that drives the plant's generator. Hydroelectric dams use water turbines in the same way to generate power. The turbines used in a hydroelectric plant look completely different from a steam turbine because water is so much denser (and slower moving) than steam, but it is the same principle. Wind turbines, also known as wind mills, use the wind as their motive force. A wind turbine looks nothing like a steam turbine or a water turbine because wind is slow moving and very light, but again the principle is the same.

A gas turbine is an extension on the same concept. In a gas turbine a pressurized gas spins the turbine. In all modern gas turbine engines the engine produces its own pressurized gas, and it does this by burning something like propane, natural gas, kerosene or jet fuel. The heat that comes from burning the fuel expands air, and the high-speed rush of this hot air spins the turbine.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Engines

So why does the M-1 tank use a 1,500 horsepower gas turbine engine instead of a diesel engine? It turns out that there are two big advantages: 1. Gas turbine engines have a great power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines. That is, the amount of power you get out of the engine compared to the weight of the engine itself is very good. 2. Gas turbine engines are also smaller than their reciprocating counterparts of the same power. The main disadvantage of gas turbines is that, compared to a reciprocating engine of the same size, they are expensive. Because they spin at such high speeds and because of the high operating temperatures, designing and manufacturing gas turbines is a tough problem from both the engineering and materials standpoint. Gas turbines also tend to use more fuel when they are idling and they prefer a constant load rather than a fluctuating load. That makes gas turbines great for things like trans-continental jet aircraft and power plants, but explains why you don't have one under the hood of your car.

How Gas Turbine Engines Work

Gas turbine engines are, theoretically, extremely simple. They have 3 parts:

A compressor to compress the incoming air to high pressure. A combustion area to burn the fuel and produce high pressure, high velocity gas. A turbine to extract the energy from the high pressure, high velocity gas flowing from the combustion chamber.

The following figure shows the general layout of an axial-flow gas turbine - the sort of engine you would find driving the rotor of a helicopter, for example:

In this engine air is sucked in from the right by the compressor. The compressor is basically a cone-shaped cylinder with small fan blades attached in rows (8 rows of blades are represented here). Assuming the light blue represents air at normal air pressure, then as the air is forced through the compression stage its pressure and velocity rise significantly. In some engines the pressure of the air can rise by a factor of 30. The highpressure air produced by the compressor is shown in dark blue. This high-pressure air then enters the combustion area, where a ring of fuel injectors injects a steady stream of fuel. The fuel is generally kerosene, jet fuel, propane, or natural gas. If you think about how easy it is to blow a candle out, then you can see the design problem in the combustion area - entering this area is high-pressure air moving at hundreds of miles per hour. You want to keep a flame burning continuously in that environment. The piece that solves this problem is called a "flame holder", or sometimes a "can". The can is a hollow, perforated piece of heavy metal (shown here is half of the can in cross-section):

The injectors are at the right. Compressed air enters through the perforations. Exhaust gases exit at the left. You can see in the previous figure that a second set of cylinders wraps around the inside and the outside of this perforated can, guiding the compressed intake air into the perforations. At the left of the engine is the turbine section. In this figure there are two sets of turbines. The first set directly drives the compressor. The turbines, the shaft and the compressor all turn as a single unit:

At the far left is a final turbine stage, shown here with a single set of vanes. It drives the output shaft. This final turbine stage and the output shaft are a completely stand-alone, freewheeling unit. They spin freely without any connection to the rest of the engine. And that is the amazing part about a gas turbine engine - there is enough energy in the hot gases blowing through the blades of that final output turbine to generate 1,500 horsepower and drive a 63 ton M-1 Tank! A gas turbine engine really is that simple. In the case of the turbine used in a tank or a power plant, there really is nothing to do with the exhaust gases but vent them through an exhaust pipe, as shown. Sometimes the exhaust will run through some sort of heat exchanger either to extract the heat for some other purpose or to preheat air before it enters the combustion chamber. The discussion here is obviously simplified a bit. For example, we have not discussed the areas of bearings, oiling systems, internal support structures of the engine, stator vanes and so on. All of these areas become major engineering problems because of the tremendous temperatures, pressures and spin rates inside the engine. But the basic principles described here govern all gas turbine engines and help you to understand the basic layout and operation of the engine.

Other variations
Large jetliners use what are known as turbofan engines, which are nothing more than gas turbines combined with a large fan at the front of the engine. Here's the basic (highly simplified) layout of a turbofan engine:

You can see that the core of a turbofan is a normal gas turbine engine like the one described in the previous section. The difference is that the final turbine stage drives a shaft that makes it's way back to the front of the engine to power the fan (shown in red in this picture). This multiple concentric shaft approach, by the way, is extremely common in gas turbines. In many larger turbofans, in fact, there may be two completely separate compression stages driven by separate turbines, along with the fan turbine as shown above. All three shafts ride within one another concentrically. The purpose of the fan is to dramatically increase the amount of air moving through the engine, and therefore increase the engine's thrust. When you look into the engine of a commercial jet at the airport, what you see is this fan at the front of the engine. It is huge (on the order of 10 feet in diameter on big jets), so it can move a lot of air. The air that the fan moves is called "bypass air" (shown in purple above) because it bypasses the turbine portion of the engine and moves straight through to the back of the nacelle at high speed to provide thrust. A turboprop engine is similar to a turbofan, but instead of a fan there is a conventional propeller at the front of the engine. The output shaft connects to a gearbox to reduce the speed, and the output of the gearbox turns the propeller.

A simple gas turbine is comprised of three main sections a compressor, a combustor, and a power turbine. The gas-turbine operates on the principle of the Brayton cycle, where compressed air is mixed with fuel, and burned under constant pressure conditions. The resulting hot gas is allowed to expand through a turbine to perform work. In a 33% efficient gas-turbine approximately two / thirds of this work is spent compressing the air, the rest is available for other work ie.( mechanical drive, electrical generation)

However there are variations... One variation of this basic cycle is the addition of a regenerator. A gas-turbine with a regenerator (heat exchanger) recaptures some of the energy in the exhaust gas, pre-heating the air entering the combustor. This cycle is typically used on low pressure ratio turbines.

Turbines using this cycle are: Solar Centaur / 3500 horsepower class up to the General Electric Frame 5

Gas-turbines with high pressure ratios can use an intercooler to cool the air between stages of compression, allowing you to burn more fuel and generate more power. Remember, the limiting factor on fuel input is the temperature of the hot gas created, because of the metallurgy of the first stage nozzle and turbine blades. With the advances in materials technology this physical limit is always climbing.

One turbine using this cycle is: General Electric LM1600 / Marine version A gas-turbine employing reheat.

An Intercooled & Recuperated Turbine

GAS-TURBINE HISTORY
The history of the gas turbine begins with a quest for jet propulsion. The earliest example of jet propulsion can be traced as far back as 150 BC to an Egyptian named Hero. Hero invented a toy that rotated on top of a boiling pot due to the reaction effect of hot air or steam exiting several nozzles arranged radially around a wheel. He called this invention an aeolipile. In 1232 the Chinese used rockets to frighten enemy soldiers.

Around 1500 A.D. Leonardo da Vinci drew a sketch of a device that rotated due to the effect of hot gasses flowing up a chimney. The device was intended to be used to rotate meat being roasted. In 1629 another Italian named Giovanni Branca actually developed a device that used jets of steam to rotate a turbine that in turn was used to operate machinery. This was the first practical application of a steam turbine.

Ferdinand Verbiest a Jesuit in China built a model carriage that used a steam jet for power in 1678. The first patent for a turbine engine was granted in 1791 to an Englishman named John Barber. It incorporated many of the same elements of a modern gas turbine but used a reciprocating compressor. There are many more early examples of turbine engines designed by various inventors, but none were considered to be true gas turbines because they incorporated steam at some point in the process.

In 1872 a man by the name of Stolze designed the first true gas turbine. His engine incorporated a multistage turbine section and a multi stage axial flow compressor. He tested working models in the early 1900's. Charles Curtis the inventor of the Curtis steam engine filed the first patent application in the U.S. for a gas turbine engine. His patent was granted in 1914 but not without some controversy. The General Electric company started their gas turbine division in 1903. An engineer named Stanford Moss lead most of the projects. His most outstanding development was the General Electric turbosupercharger during world war 1. ( Although credit for the concept is given to Rateau of France.) It used hot exhaust gasses from a reciprocating engine to drive a turbine wheel that in turn drove a centrifugal compressor used for supercharging. The evolutionary process of turbosupercharger design and construction made it possible to construct the first reliable gas turbine engines. Sir Frank Whittle of Great Britain patented a design for a jet aircraft engine in 1930.He first proposed using the gas turbine engine for propulsion in 1928 while a student at the Royal Air Force College in Cramwell, England. In 1941 an engine designed by Whittle was the first successful turbojet airplane flown in Great Britain. Concurrently with Whittle's development efforts, Hans von Ohain and Max Hahn, two students at Gottingen in Germany developed and patented their own engine design in 1936 these ideas were adapted by The Ernst Heinkel Aircraft company. The German Heinkel aircraft company is credited with the first flight of a gas turbine powered jet propelled aircraft on August 27th 1939.The HE178 was the first jet airplane to fly. The Heinkel HeS-3b developed 1100 lbs. of thrust and flew over 400 mph, later came the ME262, a 500 mph fighter, more than 1600 of these were built by the end of WWII. These engines were more advaced than the British planes and had such features as blade cooling and a variable area exhaust nozzles.

In 1941Frank Whittle began flight tests of a turbojet engine of his own design in England. Eventually The General Electric company manufactured engines in the U.S. based on Whittle's design.