Motivation

Using relevant theories and examples, explain how motivation can affect employees' commitment and performance at work Motivation derives from the Latin, movere, meaning ''to move' (webwizrd.com). However its origins can relate to a much more primal background. The Meat for Sex Hypothesis was a study conducted on monkeys that showed males who had returned with meat from hunting, offered some in return for sexual gratification from females; they would regularly oblige (M. Plank, 2009). Today, our ancestors mannerisms are similar to our own, as this scenario can be applied to that of Amsterdam's Red Light district. In the workplace and in society, the ability to motivate is much more of a necessity than a desire. Many firms understand its effectiveness in satisfying and motivating employees, and its application has lead firms like Microsoft and Google into the fortune500(money.cnn.com). Failure, however, so could lead to a deterioration in work, and to a disaster like Enron. In 400BC Plato's scribes regarding the importance of leadership were regarded as the pinnacle of motivational theories (business.rediff.com). In the centuries to come, as economies changed, the theories did likewise to accommodate them. Late 19th century saw Fredrick Taylor's school of scientific management setting the notion of there being one best way to get the most out of an employee. Considered the peak of the motivational movement in the industrial revolution, his assumption that individuals were solely motivated by money was seen as a management revolution. As such, when performance-related and commission-based pay came into effect, management were delighted with the results. Many, however, saw issues with the scientific school, tarnishing it the workers enemy, including Elton Mayo who was at the forefront of the school of human relations. In this school of thought the general consensus was that people are the core of a company, the driving force of a firm; and that for this they should be appreciated, understood and motivated accordingly. (Clegg, S. et al, 2008) The schools have both been highly influential on today s motivational cultures, although following similar ideological views, theories to date differ greatly. There are now countless theories, studies, journals and practices regarding motivation which are used by any of over 4.8million private sector enterprises in the UK (2009)(stats.berr.gov.uk), to motivate the employed 70.6% of the UK s population(2010). Over the last quarter, an additional 35,000 people have become unemployed (http://statistics.gov.uk). With the country's economy being scrutinised greatly over past years, motivation is therefore key not only for the successful firm, but also for the successful country. Human beings too, do not change their state of affairs unless a force is applied onto them. People do not take initiative or an action until they are compelled to do so (Sir I. Newton). Motivation is the psychological processes that drive behavior towards the attainment or avoidance of some object (Clegg, S. et al, 2008). It is divided into two concepts. Intrinsic motivation is believed to be internal, where the individual is motivated by interest or enjoyment of the task (C. Bainbridge). Surrounding this are 3 main principles. Self-efficacy, which is the extent to which the individual has the ability to achieve. Individuals with higher self-efficacy are believed to show more effort than those with lower, but those with higher risk becoming overconfident in tasks, whereas those with lower self-efficacy may put more effort into learning (A. Bandura, 1997). The self-determination theory, where motivation is spurred from an interest in the topic, interpersonal relationships and self-control (L. Deci & M. Ryan, 1985); and the attribution theory. Put forward to suggest that an individual will be motivated better if they can relate their actions to consequences (F, Heider, 1958). Co variation theory determines how people decide if attribution will be situational or dispositional.

Situational relates to uncontrollable external factors such as traffic, whereas dispositional relates to internal factors like effort (H. Kelly, 1972) Extrinsic motivation is believed to be external, like promotions, competition, celebrity or threat of redundancy. Research indicates that those expecting extrinsic rewards are more likely to do work than those not expecting, this is known as over justification (R. Lepper et al, 1973). Herzberg devised a theory from extrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Named the two-factor theory. He labelled intrinsic motivators, motivators, and extrinsic motivators, hygiene factors. Herzberg proposed that some factors lead to job satisfaction, but if they are missing then it could lead to no satisfaction. Motivators would always motivate, but hygiene factors do not, but they will demotivate if they are absent (F. Herzberg, 1960) Theories in motivation are split into content and process theories. Where content focuses on what motivates, process theories focus on why we are motivated. The scientific and human relations schools are both content theories. Taylor enforced a performance-related-pay package that gave a set amount for set levels of output under the idea that individuals were solely motivated extrinsically by money, alongside a standardized scientific design for any task that must be followed. The theory developed aspects of business that are still used today, such as the concept of specialism used on BMW's production line, and the scientific selection of employees which enforced the idea of experience and knowledge, such as those employed in the Ralph Lauren design department who would be expected to have strong knowledge and qualifications relating to the fashion industry. The theory fell under great criticism for not being flexible enough to gain great profits without economies of scale, for treating the workforce inhumanely, and the notion of systematic soldiering where the workforce collectively reduce the productivity. Mayo saw these issues and devised a more humane approach to motivational management. Seeing the workplace as a society made from independent individuals who were motivated more by intrinsically (Clegg, S. et al, 2008). The Hawthorne studies carried out on 29,000 Western Electricity employees saw unpredictable results. Changing factors like lighting and pay, the groups of individuals observed were predicted to reduce productivity. However, when the findings were drawn, they found that productivity had constantly increased. The term Hawthorne effect was coined for showing how a strong group dynamic increases the ability to adjust and produce. Supportive supervision was also found to aid increased productivity (H. Landsberger, 1950). Mayo's approach eradicates many of Taylor's issues and highlights the importance of a more sensitive managerial role alongside the importance of teamwork and supervision but it still does not come without its flaws. Despite being expensive to establish, another study observing male employees in a bank saw that male the group systematically restricted output, and all those exceeding these levels were punished by expulsion from the group. Here, group pressure was strong and focused on the individuals needs over the organizations. Both schools have been highly influential in the development of new theories. McClelland's theory of needs reinforced Mayo's, suggesting that workers aren t just extrinsically motivated, and that it could in-fact shadow intrinsic motivation. He believed that all employees should have a job that suits their needs, and those with high achievement needs should be placed into activities where they can be creative, while also highlighting the importance of feedback. McClelland's consulting firm, McBer & Co. lead by example with the motto, "To make everyone productive, happy, and free" (D. McClelland, 1955). In 1960 McGregor's put forward his X and Y theory. Where X workers are believed to be lazy, want direction, and are motivated by pay, an Authoritarian management style is effective; following a Tayloristic view of extrinsic reward. Y workers embrace challenge and seek opportunity, and are motivated by acknowledgement and learning, adopting a softer management style following Mayo's views (D. McGregor, 1960). Both types are viewed to be hard to find in

the workplace as these seem to be extremes of the theory (Clegg et. al., 2008). Ouchi proposed another theory based around the culture of Japanese management. Theory Z places strong emphasis on trust, teamwork and loyalty which leads to the workforces improved attitude and performance (W. Ouchi, 1981) which is similar to that of Toyota who encourage teamwork and innovation in the workplace. Maslow follows similar principles to McGregor. Although originally attributed to human development, his work has been applied to a number of fields. The hierarchy of needs follows the idea that there are 5 levels; physical, relating to basic needs like money and having the sufficient tools to complete their task; safety, relating to job security; social, ability to socialize and be accepted; self-esteem, the desire to be acknowledged and finally, self-actualization, realizing their full potential, in ascending order. In order for a level to be reached, the previous level must be satisfied. Both worker X and those at the lower ends of the hierarchy see money as a key motivator, but as they reach higher levels of the hierarchy, they become worker Y, where appraisal, interest and recognition become more influential (Clegg et. al., 2008). Sweat shop workers for Primark and TNS Knitwear are considered theory X and at lower levels of the hierarchy of needs (BBC News, 2009). They are motivated by money in order to survive, however, the little amount of money they do receive alongside the strict regime of management mean that they cannot satisfy the psychical level and can therefore not progress to the next. Google workers would be considered worker Y, and at a higher level of the hierarchy. The culture management within Google encourages innovation and a positive workforce. The firm give many of their employees the benefit from working at home and at convenient hours to them (CNN, 2007). Alerter expansion to Maslow's works, the ERG theory, was an acronym for existence, relatedness and growth, all said to be core needs. Existence comprises of the physical and safety needs, and relates to achieving basic material wants. Relatedness refers to a sense of belonging and comprises of the social needs. Growth, referring to the progression of the individual, comprising of self-esteem and self-actualization. (C. Alderfer, 1969) The content theories have been criticized for exaggerating the importance of intrinsic factors, as well as not accounting for individual differences and assuming that once the motivator has been identified, it can be applied. Process theories consider why motivation takes place, with a core idea that effort and performance are directly related, that performance is related to achievement, and that the individual makes rational decisions (Clegg, S. et al, 2008). The process theories too suffer from the same criticism as content, in that most of the theories that reside within each were originally proposed for social psychological research and have been applied to the field of business. Intrinsic motivation such as the self-determination theory and self-efficacy relate well to process theories. The expectancy theory proposed by Vroom assumes that we act according to what we believe the value of a potential reward is, and that the action we carry out will enable us to acquire the reward. The equation Motivation = Valance Expectancy(Instrumentality) was believed by Vroom to be a psychological process to avoid negativity. Valance is the values of an employee, expectancy refers to the confidence levels of what the individual believe they can achieve, and instrumentality is if the employee actually expects to get the reward. In order to keep motivation high therefore, management must keep promises, keep morale high and use training to allow for a more confident workforce as well as understanding the individual vales of the employee (V. Vroom, 1964). Adams equity theory furthers this, being seen as a set of scales which are comparable to the workplace norm. The employee wishes to achieve inputs, such as loyalty, effort and time, equal to outcomes, such as pay, praise and responsibility. If the individual feels that the level of input is not equal to the outcome, then the employee conveys negative emotions, becoming demotivated. They will then try to balance the factors by reducing input or seeking better outcome (Adams, 1963). Equity theory doesn t assume rationality as motives are often subconscious (Clegg, S. et al, 2008). These theories enforce the idea that firms should create a clear establishment between reward and performance where the rewards are positively valued by employees, like a promotion or company car. By establishment of notion that certain behavior will lead to rewards, and letting employees know how to achieve them, motivation will improve. Organization s must consult with

employees on valued rewards, and make them flexible. For instance, an employee motivated by money and demotivated by stress from the workload would most likely not want a promotion; a better pay wage isn't valued highly in respect to the extra work. Lewin believed that nature or nurture alone would not shape the behavior of an individual, but combined they do. His force field analysis looks at factors that induce situations. It was used to decide the balance of power, who is effected by an issue and the best way to target a group. It sees two forces; driving forces are those that allow progression towards the goal, whereas hindering forces are those that obstruct. Lewin derived an equation to show that behaviour is a function of the person and environment, B= (P,E). (K. Lewin, 1951) As the findings contradicted the idea that behaviour was a function of the present rather than the past, the theory became very controversial. Locke and Latham focused more heavily on the concept of individuals being motivated by goals. Their goal theory suggested that goals are set to be a reasonable difficulty so that an individual can feel both challenged and successful. The goal efficiency is effected by difficulty, proximity and specificity. Difficulty refers to the level of effort required, proximity to the time before the goal is achieved, and specificity to the objective of the goal in relation to them. It is assumed that where a smaller amount of action is needed to achieve the end goal, the more likely the individual is to pursue this. (Locke & Latham, 1990) Demotivation is a very possible outcome from trying to motivate. At least a third of British workers claim to be bored at work for most of the day (Sandi Mann, 2007). With unemployment rates rising from 7.8% to 7.9% in the 3months to October 2010, and in the same period 158,000 redundancies (statistics.gov.uk) , demotivation is a very serious issue. Demotivation can be expressed in a number of ways, boredom at work, laziness and complaints. This could inevitably lead to poor productivity and a lack of respect for the firm. It was highlighted as one of Taylor's biggest weaknesses as the repetitiveness may have lead to specialism, but also to employees boredom and essentially, a loss in productivity. There are believed to be many different causes for demotivation; 18% of the workforce believe it is due to an unreasonable workload, the same percentage are demotivated by their pay and 17% believe it is because there is a lack of career path. Other causes include poor management, lack of appreciation, lack of challenge or double demotivation due to being under or overpaid. (P. Sealy et al, 2010) There are techniques to avoid such circumstances, one being job enlargement. This is the process of increasing the responsibilities of the employee on a horizontal level. Firms may put this approach in place by making an individual responsible for more that just one part of an assembly line, however, employee's will need to be retrained for these skills. Where job enlargement has issues such as the employee eventually finding their new responsibilities boring and the work load becoming overwhelming; job enrichment utilises a range of their employee's abilities. Here, the workload is increased vertically where they have a range of tasks which differ in difficulty and receive feedback and appraisal. (F. Herzberg, 1960) Both work against the Tayloristic principles of specialisation and division of labour, but can lead to a much better productivity. Other techniques that improve the employees satisfaction and increase loyalty include that of training. All employee's understand that improving their skill set is beneficial (Armstrong, 1993). It is regarded as a non-financial motivator, and therefore intrinsic along with improving communication. This can be done by increasing the number of regular meetings, using emails and suggestion boxes. This could lead to an improvement in the overall satisfaction of the workers Ranking 14th in the UK's best businesses, Morgan Stanley have employees that value the firm highly. Employee satisfaction looks to be remarkably high with 79% of their workforce happy to say they are proud to be part of Morgan Stanley, and 68% who would not change jobs if the opportunity was there. Nearly 70% of Morgan Stanley staff make over 45,000, and associates can earn almost 53,000. A Tayloristic

methodology has also been enforced with the performance-based bonus, encouraging those of the work force that are still heavily motivated by money at this stage, and even those that would appreciate financial reward. A method that in practice is logical as it accounts for the individuals changing circumstances and wants financial. For instance, if an employee is going to have a child then they are going to be more motivated to get enough financial gain to support the child, this follows the principles of Locke's goal theory. It seems that the employees of Morgan Stanley UK value other motivators than pay, as Maslow would have suggested. Vroom's suggestion to satisfy the expectancy stage of his expectancy theory is used, with 2,000 invested on training for each employee. Including various courses applicable to many fields, the workforce can see they are being valued and management allow opportunity for self-growth. With 75% of employees believing they are gaining valuable experience for the future, this development can lead to the employee gaining higher self-efficacy levels and in turn show more effort. Applying various theories of motivation, including Maslow's self-esteem and selfactualization levels, and McGregor's theory Y workers; employees have been acknowledged for there positive actions and have managed to progress through the firm in terms of promotion. 77% find the firm good for personal development, and this fact is reinforced by the way the firm recognise talent internally, with over 730 senior managers internally promoted. This adds to another factor of motivation, as in accordance to Vroom's expectancy theory, the attribution theory and equity theory, employees in this firm can recognise that strong performance can lead to valued rewards. It seems that acknowledgement is a key part of the firms design. Feedback, suggestions and regular updates on the company s position make workers feel as if they are positively contributing to the firm; a key element of the self-determination theory, as well as a strong motivational factor is accordance to Alderfer's Growth stage Employees believe that the firms good career prospects, strong leadership and acceptance of social responsibility add to company being ranked 14th . The strong motivational techniques put in place seem to be effective, with many employees believing that they spend too much time working, reflecting the loyalty of Morgan Stanley employees. (Sunday Times Big Companies, 2010) Motivation is one of the most widely studied topics to date, and its application is effective in achieving a motivated workforce to reach corporate aims and objectives, while also upholding the firms corporate social responsibilities to its employee's. Although there is no definite motivational technique due to the employee's individual and cultural differences, and may of the theories are ambiguous; it is still clear that workers in all organisations need some form of motivation to keep them productive which should be embedded into the job design. At more basic levels of employment, money is a key motivator, but as the individual develops, extrinsic motivators are not be enough to keep the employee satisfied. Understanding the employees needs is the first stage in improving an employees commitment and performance. Once money is not an effective motivator, the individual will want to develop themselves more, and gain recognition for their achievements, they are more intrinsically motivated. Teamwork is effective in combating poor productivity but could lead to other problems likewise. Friendly management styles have been found key in motivating staff and increasing productivity. Management characteristics define the impact of motivational strategies. Effective management need to understand how to manage all of their employees and their individual needs to maximize their potential. They must enhance employee development by giving them responsibility which creates a challenge for them but is not unobtainable, as a clear positive establishment between performance and rewards which are valued by the employee. Feedback and appraisal are crucial. Good management will enforce either a soft cell personality type, which conveys more feminine traits of emotional appeals and appraisal; or hard cell, which conveys masculine traits of dominance and pressure, in accordance to their workforce.

There is a strong correlation between employee satisfaction and motivation so it is important to develop a firm which can be respected by its employee's. Employee satisfaction can stem from a number of aspects like strong leadership, good internal communication, interesting workload and training. The more valued an employee feels, the more likely they are to try and achieve more. Recognition can occur by simply acting on employee feedback, or advancements in the workplace, which are crucial to a committed workforce. Many companies have already taken this into account and managed to become very reputable in their HRM departments. People are motivated by their desire to achieve both conscious and subconscious goals. If they are given the chance to achieve, and believe they can with good management, they are likely to do so. Good training helps as the better this factor is, the more the individual can achieve, helping motivation. Demotivation is an issue that must be dealt with swiftly in order to keep company performance strong. Making the employee feel valued in the firm while keeping them occupied at a reasonable difficultly will usually avoid demotivation. Job enrichment, training courses, and good vertical communication being good ways to deal with the issue. Stress is an issue in the workplace that can be caused by overworking or ambitious goals. It is therefore managements job to be sure that an employees workload is achievable, whilst being sure that the work does not become tedious. Management should understand that an employee can always be motivated and demotivated, despite changes in the economic climate. Management who make cutbacks to the motivators in a firm are likely to see a deterioration in productivity, leaving them in a worse situation then they started in. Bibliography http://webwizrd.com (2011) http://www.webwzrd.com/motivation/movere.htm Max Planck I. (08/04/2009) institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany http://esciencenews.com (08/04/2009) http://esciencenews.com/articles/2009/04/08/meat.sex.wild.chimpanzees http://money.cnn.com (2010) http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2010/employers/ http://business.rediff.com (04/06/2009) http://business.rediff.com/slide-show/2009/jun/04/slide-show-1-top10-bankrupt-companies.htm http://academon.com (2011) http://academon.com/Book-Review-Socrates-Plato's-Republic-andLeadership/91968 Clegg, S. et al. (2008). Managing & Organizations: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. http://stats.berr.gov.uk (2009) http://stats.berr.gov.uk/ed/sme/Stats_Press_Release_2009.pdf http://statistics.gov.uk (2010) http://statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=12 http://slideshare.net (2011) http://slideshare.net/vivekmehrotra/why-my-horse-doesnt-drink-2591096 Bainbridge, C. "Intrinsic Motivation". Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Heider, F. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Lepper, R. et al. (1973) Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic rewards: A test of the overjustification hypothesis. Graham, H.T. Bennett, R. (1993). Human Resources Management. . McGregor, D. (1960). the human side to enterprise Ouchi, W. (1981). Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge Alderfer, C. (1969). An Empirical test of a New Theory of Human Need.

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