A map projection is any method of representing the surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane.

Map projections are necessary for creating maps. All map projections distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections.
Contents
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1 Background 2 Metric properties of maps

2.1 Which Map is Best?

3 Construction of a map projection 4 Choosing a projection surface 5 Aspects of the projection 6 Scale 7 Choosing a model for the shape of the Earth 8 Classification 9 Projections by surface

9.1 Cylindrical 9.2 Pseudocylindrical 9.3 Hybrid 9.4 Conical 9.5 Pseudoconical 9.6 Azimuthal (projections onto a plane)

10 Projections by preservation of a metric property

10.1 Conformal 10.2 Equal-area 10.3 Equidistant

10.4 Gnomonic 10.5 Retroazimuthal 10.6 Compromise projections

11 See also 12 References 13 External links

[edit]Background For simplicity, this article usually assumes that the surface to be mapped is the surface of a sphere. However, the Earth and other sufficiently large celestial bodies are generally better modeled asoblate spheroids, and small objects such as asteroids may have irregular shapes. These other surfaces can be mapped as well. Therefore, more generally, a map projection is any method of "flattening" into a plane a continuous surface having curvature in all three spatial dimensions. Projection as used here is not limited to perspective projections, such as those resulting from casting a shadow on a screen. Rather, any mathematical function transforming coordinates from the curved surface to the plane is a projection. Carl Friedrich Gauss's Theorema Egregium proved that a sphere cannot be represented on a plane without distortion. Since any method of representing a sphere's surface on a plane is a map projection, all map projections distort. Every distinct map projection distorts in a distinct way. The study of map projections is the characterization of these distortions. A map of the earth is a representation of a curved surface on a plane. Therefore a map projection must have been used to create the map, and, conversely, maps could not exist without map projections. Maps can be more useful than globes in many situations: they are more compact and easier to store; they readily accommodate an enormous range of scales; they are viewed easily on computer displays; they can facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being mapped; they can show larger portions of the Earth's surface at once; and they are cheaper to produce and transport. These useful traits of maps motivate the development of map projections. [edit]Metric

properties of maps

An Albers projection shows areas accurately, but distorts shapes.

Many properties can be measured on the Earth's surface independently of its geography. Some of these properties are:

Area Shape Direction Bearing Distance Scale

Map projections can be constructed to preserve one or more of these properties, though not all of them simultaneously. Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric properties in different ways. The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map. Because many purposes exist for maps, many projections have been created to suit those purposes. Another major concern that drives the choice of a projection is the compatibility of data sets. Data sets are geographic information. As such, their collection depends on the chosen model of the Earth. Different models assign slightly different coordinates to the same location, so it is important that the model be known and that the chosen projection be compatible with that model. On small areas (large scale) data compatibility issues are more important since metric distortions are minimal at this level. In very large areas (small scale), on the other hand, distortion is a more important factor to consider. [edit]Which

Map is Best?

Cartographers have long despaired over publishers' inapt use of the Mercator.[1][2][3][4] As a 1943 New York Times editorial states, "...The time has come to discard [the Mercator] for something that represents the continents and directions less deceptively... Although its usage... has diminished... it is still highly popular

as a wall map apparently in part because, as a rectangular map, it fills a rectangular wall space with more map, and clearly because its familiarity breeds more popularity."[5] The Peters map controversy motivated the American Cartographic Association (now Cartography and Geographic Information Society) to produce a series of booklets (including Which Map is Best[6]) designed to educate the public about map projections and distortion in maps. In 1989 and 1990, after some internal debate, seven North American geographic organizations adopted the following resolution,[4][7] which rejected all rectangular world maps, a category that includes both the Mercator and the GallPeters projections:
WHEREAS, the earth is round with a coordinate system composed entirely of circles, and WHEREAS, flat world maps are more useful than globe maps, but flattening the globe surface necessarily greatly changes the appearance of Earth's features and coordinate systems, and WHEREAS, world maps have a powerful and lasting effect on people's impressions of the shapes and sizes of lands and seas, their arrangement, and the nature of the coordinate system, and WHEREAS, frequently seeing a greatly distorted map tends to make it "look right," THEREFORE, we strongly urge book and map publishers, the media and government agencies to cease using rectangular world maps for general purposes or artistic displays. Such maps promote serious, erroneous conceptions by severely distorting large sections of the world, by showing the round Earth as having straight edges and sharp corners, by representing most distances and direct routes incorrectly, and by portraying the circular coordinate system as a squared grid. The most widely displayed rectangular world map is the Mercator (in fact a navigational diagram devised for nautical charts), but other rectangular world maps proposed as replacements for the Mercator also display a greatly distorted image of the spherical Earth.

[edit]Construction

of a map projection

The creation of a map projection involves three steps:

1. Selection of a model for the shape of the Earth or planetary body (usually choosing between
a sphere or ellipsoid). Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.

2. Transformation of geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to Cartesian (x,y)

or polar plane coordinates. Cartesian coordinates normally have a simple relation to eastings and northingsdefined on a grid superimposed on the projection. Some of the simplest map projections are literally projections, as obtained by placing a light source at some definite point relative to the globe and projecting its features onto a specified surface. This isnot the

case for most projections which are defined only in terms of mathematical formulae that have no direct physical interpretation. [edit]Choosing

a projection surface

A Miller cylindrical projection maps the globe onto a cylinder.

A surface that can be unfolded or unrolled into a plane or sheet without stretching, tearing or shrinking is called a developable surface. The cylinder, cone and of course the plane are all developable surfaces. The sphere and ellipsoid are not developable surfaces. As noted in the introduction, any projection of a sphere (or an ellipsoid) onto a plane will have to distort the image. (To compare, one cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing or warping it.) One way of describing a projection is first to project from the Earth's surface to a developable surface such as a cylinder or cone, and then to unroll the surface into a plane. While the first step inevitably distorts some properties of the globe, the developable surface can then be unfolded without further distortion. [edit]Aspects

of the projection

This transverse Mercator projection is mathematically the same as a standard Mercator, but oriented around a different axis.

Once a choice is made between projecting onto a cylinder, cone, or plane, the aspect of the shape must be specified. The aspect describes how the developable surface is placed relative to the globe: it may be normal (such that the surface's axis of symmetry coincides with the Earth's axis), transverse (at right angles to the Earth's axis) or oblique (any angle in between). The developable surface may also be either tangent or secant to the sphere or ellipsoid. Tangent means the surface touches but does not slice through the globe; secant means the surface does slice through the globe. Insofar as preserving metric properties goes, it is never advantageous to move the developable surface away from contact with the globe, so that possibility is not discussed here. [edit]Scale A globe is the only way to represent the earth with constant scale throughout the entire map in all directions. A map cannot achieve that property for any area, no matter how small. It can, however, achieve constant scale along specific lines. Some possible properties are:

The scale depends on location, but not on direction. This is equivalent to preservation of angles, the defining characteristic of a conformal map.

Scale is constant along any parallel in the direction of the parallel. This applies for any cylindrical or pseudocylindrical projection in normal aspect.

Combination of the above: the scale depends on latitude only, not on longitude or direction. This applies for the Mercator projection in normal aspect.

Scale is constant along all straight lines radiating from a particular geographic location. This is the defining characteristic of an equidistant projection such as the Azimuthal equidistant projection. There are also projections (Maurer, Close) where true distances from two points are preserved.[8][9]

[edit]Choosing

a model for the shape of the Earth

Projection construction is also affected by how the shape of the Earth is approximated. In the following discussion on projection categories, a sphere is assumed. However, the Earth is not exactly spherical but is closer in shape to an oblate ellipsoid, a shape which bulges around the equator. Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid. Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the more complicated ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large and medium scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.

A third model of the shape of the Earth is called a geoid, which is a complex and more or less accurate representation of the global mean sea level surface that is obtained through a combination of terrestrial and satellite gravity measurements. This model is not used for mapping due to its complexity but is instead used for control purposes in the construction of geographic datums. (In geodesy, plural of "datum" is "datums" rather than "data".) A geoid is used to construct a datum by adding irregularities to the ellipsoid in order to better match the Earth's actual shape (it takes into account the large scale features in the Earth's gravity field associated with mantle convection patterns, as well as the gravity signatures of very large geomorphic features such as mountain ranges, plateaus and plains). Historically, datums have been based on ellipsoids that best represent the geoid within the region the datum is intended to map. Each ellipsoid has a distinct major and minor axis. Different controls (modifications) are added to the ellipsoid in order to construct the datum, which is specialized for a specific geographic regions (such as the North American Datum). A few modern datums, such as WGS84 (the one used in the Global Positioning System GPS), are optimized to represent the entire earth as well as possible with a single ellipsoid, at the expense of some accuracy in smaller regions. [edit]Classification A fundamental projection classification is based on the type of projection surface onto which the globe is conceptually projected. The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the earth, followed by an implied scaling operation. These surfaces are cylindrical (e.g. Mercator), conic (e.g., Albers), or azimuthal or plane (e.g. stereographic). Many mathematical projections, however, do not neatly fit into any of these three conceptual projection methods. Hence other peer categories have been described in the literature, such as pseudoconic, pseudocylindrical, pseudoazimuthal, retroazimuthal, and polyconic. Another way to classify projections is according to properties of the model they preserve. Some of the more common categories are:

Preserving direction (azimuthal), a trait possible only from one or two points to every other point Preserving shape locally (conformal or orthomorphic) Preserving area (equal-area or equiareal or equivalent or authalic) Preserving distance (equidistant), a trait possible only between one or two points and every other point

Preserving shortest route, a trait preserved only by the gnomonic projection

NOTE: Because the sphere is not a developable surface, it is impossible to construct a map projection that is both equal-area and conformal.

[edit]Projections [edit]Cylindrical

by surface

The Mercator projection shows courses of constant bearing as straight lines.

The term "normal cylindrical projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are mapped to equally spaced vertical lines and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to horizontal lines. The mapping of meridians to vertical lines can be visualized by imagining a cylinder (of which the axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation) wrapped around the Earth and then projecting onto the cylinder, and subsequently unfolding the cylinder. By the geometry of their construction, cylindrical projections stretch distances east-west. The amount of stretch is the same at any chosen latitude on all cylindrical projections, and is given by the secant of the latitude as a multiple of the equator's scale. The various cylindrical projections are distinguished from each other solely by their north-south stretching (where latitude is given by ):

North-south stretching is equal to the east-west stretching (secant ): The east-west scale matches the north-south scale: conformal cylindrical or Mercator; this distorts areas excessively in high latitudes (see also transverse Mercator).

North-south stretching growing rapidly with latitude, even faster than east-west stretching (secant : The cylindric perspective (= central cylindrical) projection; unsuitable because distortion is even worse than in the Mercator projection.

North-south stretching grows with latitude, but less quickly than the east-west stretching: such as the Miller cylindrical projection (secant[4/5]).

North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equidistant cylindrical or plate carre. North-south compression precisely the reciprocal of east-west stretching (cosine ): equal-area cylindrical (with many named specializations such as GallPeters or Gall orthographic, Behrmann,

and Lambert cylindrical equal-area). This divides north-south distances by a factor equal to the secant of the latitude, preserving area but heavily distorting shapes. In the first case (Mercator), the east-west scale always equals the north-south scale. In the second case (central cylindrical), the north-south scale exceeds the east-west scale everywhere away from the equator. Each remaining case has a pair of identical latitudes of opposite sign (or else the equator) at which the east-west scale matches the north-south-scale. Normal cylindrical projections map the whole Earth as a finite rectangle, except in the first two cases, where the rectangle stretches infinitely tall while retaining constant width. [edit]Pseudocylindrical

A sinusoidal projection shows relative sizes accurately, but grossly distorts shapes. Distortion can be reduced by "interrupting" the map.

Pseudocylindrical projections represent the central meridian and each parallel as a single straight line segment, but not the other meridians. Each pseudocylindrical projection represents a point on the Earth along the straight line representing its parallel, at a distance which is a function of its difference in longitude from the central meridian.

Sinusoidal: the north-south scale and the east-west scale are the same throughout the map, creating an equal-area map. On the map, as in reality, the length of each parallel is proportional to the cosine of the latitude. Thus the shape of the map for the whole earth is the region between two symmetric rotated cosine curves.[10]

The true distance between two points on the same meridian corresponds to the distance on the map between the two parallels, which is smaller than the distance between the two points on the map. The true distance between two points on the same parallel and the true area of shapes on the map are not distorted. The meridians drawn on the map help the user to realize the shape distortion and mentally compensate for it.

Collignon projection, which in its most common forms represents each meridian as 2 straight line segments, one from each pole to the equator.

Mollweide Goode homolosine Eckert IV

Eckert VI

Kavrayskiy VII Tobler hyperelliptical

[edit]Hybrid The HEALPix projection combines an equal-area cylindrical projection in equatorial regions with the Collignon projection in polar areas. [edit]Conical

Equidistant conic Lambert conformal conic Albers conic

[edit]Pseudoconical

Bonne Werner cordiform designates a pole and a meridian; distances from the pole are preserved, as are distances from the meridian (which is straight) along the parallels

Continuous American polyconic

[edit]Azimuthal

(projections onto a plane)

An azimuthal projection shows distances and directions accurately from the center point, but distorts shapes and sizes elsewhere.

Azimuthal projections have the property that directions from a central point are preserved (and hence, great circles through the central point are represented by straight lines on the map). Usually these projections also have radial symmetry in the scales and hence in the distortions: map distances from the central point are computed by a function r(d) of the true distance d, independent of the angle; correspondingly, circles with the central point as center are mapped into circles which have as center the central point on the map. The mapping of radial lines can be visualized by imagining a plane tangent to the Earth, with the central point as tangent point. The radial scale is r'(d) and the transverse scale r(d)/(R sin(d/R)) where R is the radius of the Earth. Some azimuthal projections are true perspective projections; that is, they can be constructed mechanically, projecting the surface of the Earth by extending lines from a point of perspective (along an infinite line through the tangent point and the tangent point's antipode) onto the plane:

The gnomonic projection displays great circles as straight lines. Can be constructed by using a point of perspective at the center of the Earth. r(d) = c tan(d/R); a hemisphere already requires an infinite map,[11][12]

The General Perspective Projection can be constructed by using a point of perspective outside the earth. Photographs of Earth (such as those from the International Space Station) give this perspective.

The orthographic projection maps each point on the earth to the closest point on the plane. Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) =c sin(d/R).[13] Can display up to a hemisphere on a finite circle. Photographs of Earth from far enough away, such as the Moon, give this perspective.

The azimuthal conformal projection, also known as the stereographic projection, can be constructed by using the tangent point's antipode as the point of perspective. r(d) = c tan(d/2R); the scale isc/(2R cos(d/2R)).[14] Can display nearly the entire sphere on a finite circle. The full sphere requires an infinite map.

Other azimuthal projections are not true perspective projections:

Azimuthal equidistant: r(d) = cd; it is used by amateur radio operators to know the direction to point their antennas toward a point and see the distance to it. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to surface distance on the earth (;[15] for the case where the tangent point is the North Pole, see the flag of the United Nations)

Lambert azimuthal equal-area. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to straight-line distance through the earth: r(d) = c sin(d/2R)[16]

Logarithmic azimuthal is constructed so that each point's distance from the center of the map is the logarithm of its distance from the tangent point on the Earth. Works well with cognitive maps[citation needed]. r(d) = c ln(d/d0); locations closer than at a distance equal to the constant d0 are not shown (,[17] figure 6-5)

[edit]Projections

by preservation of a metric property

A stereographic projection is conformal and perspective but not equal area or equidistant.

[edit]Conformal Conformal map projections preserve angles locally:

Mercator - rhumb lines are represented by straight segments Stereographic - shape of circles is conserved Roussilhe Lambert conformal conic Quincuncial map

Adams hemisphere-in-a-square projection Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection

[edit]Equal-area

The equal-area Mollweide projection

These projections preserve area:

Gall orthographic (also known as GallPeters, or Peters, projection) Albers conic Lambert azimuthal equal-area Lambert cylindrical equal-area Mollweide Hammer Briesemeister Sinusoidal Werner Bonne Bottomley Goode's homolosine Hobo-Dyer Collignon Tobler hyperelliptical

[edit]Equidistant

A two-point equidistant projection of Asia

These preserve distance from some standard point or line:

Equirectangular - distances along meridians are conserved Plate carre - an Equirectangular projection centered at the equator Azimuthal equidistant - distances along great circles radiating from centre are conserved Equidistant conic Sinusoidal - distances along parallels are conserved Werner cordiform distances from the North Pole are correct as are the curved distance on parallels

Soldner Two-point equidistant: two "control points" are arbitrarily chosen by the map maker. Distance from any point on the map to each control point is proportional to surface

distance on the earth. [edit]Gnomonic

The Gnomonic projection is thought to be the oldest map projection, developed by Thales in the 6th century BC

Great circles are displayed as straight lines:

Gnomonic projection

[edit]Retroazimuthal Direction to a fixed location B (the bearing at the starting location A of the shortest route) corresponds to the direction on the map from A to B:

Littrow - the only conformal retroazimuthal projection Hammer retroazimuthal - also preserves distance from the central point Craig retroazimuthal aka Mecca or Qibla - also has vertical meridians

[edit]Compromise

projections

The Robinson projection was adopted by National Geographic Magazine in 1988 but abandoned by them in about 1997 for the Winkel Tripel.

Compromise projections give up the idea of perfectly preserving metric properties, seeking instead to strike a balance between distortions, or to simply make things "look right". Most of these types of projections distort shape in the polar regions more than at the equator:

Robinson van der Grinten Miller cylindrical Winkel Tripel Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion B.J.S. Cahill's Butterfly Map Steve Waterman's Butterfly Map Kavrayskiy VII Wagner VI

Chamberlin trimetric Oronce Fine's cordiform

4.0 Introduction

Maps are one of the worlds oldest types of document. For quite some time it was thought that our planet was flat, and duri

miniature representation of a part of the world. Now that we know that the Earths surface is curved in a specific way, we kn

representation of some part of the planet. The field of map projections concerns itself with the ways of translating the curve

4.1 What is a map projection?

A map projection is a mathematically described technique of how to represent the Earths curved surface on a flat map. T

Earth on a flat paper map or on a computer screen, the curved horizontal reference surface must be mapped onto the 2D m

large-scale mapping is usually an oblate ellipsoid, and for small-scale mapping, a sphere. Mapping onto a 2D mapping plan reference surface with geographic coordinates ( , ) to a set of Cartesian coordinates (x,y) representing positions on the

Example of a map projection where the reference surface with geographic coordinates ( , ) is projected onto the 2D mapping p

The actual mapping cannot usually be visualized as a true geometric projection, directly onto the mapping plane as illustrat achieved through mapping equations. A forward mapping equation transforms the geographic coordinates ( , ) of a p set of planar Cartesian coordinates (x,y), representing the position of the same point on the map plane:

(x, y) = f ( , )
coordinates (

The corresponding inverse mapping equation transforms mathematically the planar Cartesian coordinates (x,y) of a poin

, ) on the curved reference surface:

( , ) = f (x, y)
Following are two examples of mapping equations for the sphere (equations for the ellipsoid are generally more complex).

I.

The first example are the mapping equations used for the Mercator projection:

The forward mapping equation is:

The inverse mapping equation is:

where R is the radius of the spherical reference surface; and are given in radians; natural logarithms, not the eccentricity.

is the central meridian of the p

Suppose a point, located at 60oN and 130oW, is projected on a map that uses the Mercator projection (where the reference 6371000 m. and the central meridian ( o) is 0o, equal to the Greenwich meridian). Using the forward mapping equation of for the Cartesian coordinates are for x = -14,455,340m and for y = 8,390,339m.

II. The second example is the mapping equations used for the north polar stereographic projection:
The forward mapping equation is:

The inverse mapping equation is:

where R is the radius of the spherical reference surface;

o is the longitude of the projection centre.

Suppose the same point, located at 60oN and 130oW, is projected on a map that uses the stereographic projection (where t

radius of 6371000 m., the centre of the projection is located on the North pole and the longitude of the centre ( o) is 0o). U

north polar stereographic projection, the values found for the Cartesian coordinates are for x = -2615435m and for y = 2194

Map projection equations have a significant role in projection change (section 5 on coordinate transformations). Interested

mapping equations with numerical examples in 'Map Projections - A Working manual' by J. P. Snyder. A number of equatio Mathematics and in the OGP Guidance note 7: Coordinate Conversions and Transformations including Formulas.

4.2 Classification of map projections

Map projections can be described in terms of their:

i.

class (cylindrical, conical or azimuthal),

ii. point of secancy (tangent or secant), iii. aspect (normal, transverse or oblique), and iv. distortion property (equivalent, equidistant or conformal).

i. The three classes of map projections are cylindrical, conical and azimuthal. The Earth's reference surface projected on

cylinder produces a cylindrical map projection. Projected on a map formed into a cone gives a conical map projection. Whe

plane it produces an azimuthal (or zenithal or planar) map projection. The figure below shows the surfaces involved in thes

The three classes of map projections: cylindrical, conical and azimuthal. The projection planes are respectively a c

ii. The planar, conical, and cylindrical surfaces in the figure above are all tangent surfaces; they touch the horizontal refere

a closed line (cone and cylinder) only. Another class of projections is obtained if the surfaces are chosen to be secant to (t

surface; illustrations are in the figure below. Then, the reference surface is intersected along one closed line (plane) or two

map surfaces are used to reduce or average scale errors because the line(s) of intersection are not distorted on the map (s

Three secant projection classes.

A method to calculate the lines of intersection in a normal conical or cylindrical projection (i.e. standard parallels) could be b degrees north to south and dividing this range by six. The one-sixth rule places the first standard parallel at one-sixth the

the second standard parallel minus one-sixth the range below the northern limit (figure below). There are other possible ap

A conical projection with a secant projection plane. The lines of intersection (standard parallels) are selected at one-sixth below a

iii. Projections can also be described in terms of the direction of the projection plane's orientation (whether cylinder, plane o

called the aspect of a map projection. The three possible apects are normal, transverse and oblique. In a normal projecti surface is parallel to the Earth's axis (as in the figures above for the cylinder and the cone). A transverse projection has its

Earth's axis. Oblique projections are all other, non-parallel and non-perpendicular, cases. The figure below provides two ex

A transverse and an oblique map projection.

The terms polar and equatorial are also used. In a polar azimuthal projection the projection surface is tangent or secant a equatorial cylindrical projection, the projection surface is tangent or secant at the equator.

iv. So far, we have not specified how the Earth's reference surface is projected onto the plane, cone or cylinder. How this is

properties the map will have compared to the original curved reference surface. The distortion properties of map are typica distorted on the map:

In a conformal (orthomorphic) map projection the angles between lines in the map are indentical to the angles bet reference surface. This means that angles (with short sides) and shapes (of small areas) are shown correctly on th

In an equal-area (equivalent) map projection the areas in the map are identical to the areas on the curved referenc scale), which means that areas are represented correctly on the map.

In an equidistant map projection the length of particular lines in the map are the same as the length of the original (taking into account the map scale).

A particular map projection can have any one of these three properties. No map projection can be both conformal and equa equidistant (true to scale) at certain places or in certain directions.

Another descriptor of a map projection might be the name of the inventor (or first publisher) of the projection, such as Merc

but these names are not very helpful because sometimes one person developed several projections, or several people hav

example J.H.Lambert described half a dozen projections. Any of these might be called 'Lambert's projection', but each nee

Based on these discussions, a particular map projection can be classified. An example would be the classification conform parallels having the meaning that the projection is a conformal map projection, that the intermediate surface is a cone, an sphere) along two parallels; i.e. the cone is secant and the cones symmetry axis is parallel to the rotation axis. This would above(conical projection with a secant projection plane). Other examples are:

Polar stereographic azimuthal projection with secant projection plane;

Lambert conformal conic projection with two standard parallels; Lambert cylindrical equal-area projection with equidistant equator; Transverse Mercator projection with secant projection plane.

4.3 Scale distortions on a map

A map projection without distortions would correctly represent shapes, angles, areas, distances and directions, everywhere

projection is associated with scale distortions. There is simply no way to flatten out a piece of ellipsoidal or spherical surfac

surface more than others (figure below). The amount and which kind of distortions a map will have depends largely - next t type of the map projection that has been selected.

Scale distortions after flattening a piece of the ellipsoidal or spherical reference surface.

Since there is no map projection that maintains correct scale all over the map, it may be important to know the extent to wh

map, the scale variations are evident where landmasses are wrongly sized or out of shape and the meridians and parallels

spaced uniformly. These maps may have a scale reduction diagram to indicate the map scale at different locations, helpi

the distortions. On maps at larger scales, maps of countries or even city maps, the distortions are not evident to the eye. H the distortions if he or she computes distances, areas or angles on the basis of measurements taken from these maps.

Scale distortions can be measured and shown on a map by ellipses of distortion. The ellipse of distortion, also known as

an infinite small circle with a fixed scale on the Earth as it appears when plotted on the map. Every circle is plotted as circle straight line. The size and shape of the ellipse shows how much the scale is changed and in what direction.

The indicatrices on the map in the figure below have a varying degrees of flattening, but the areas of the indicatrices everyw

means that areas are represented correctly on the map. The distortion property of the map projection is therefore equal-are

The ellipses of distortion plotted on the cylindrical equal-area projection. The flattening of the ellipses towards the polar regions shows polar regions.

When the indicatrices are circles everywhere on the map, the angles and consequently shapes (of small areas) are shown

property of the map projection is therefore conformal (e.g. the Mercator projection). A Java tool for the demonstration of ma Tissot's indicatrices is given through the following external link: Demonstration of different map projections (Instituto de matematica, Brasil)

Scale distortions on a map can also be shown by means of a scale factor (ratio of the scale at a given point to the true sca

where the scale factor is smaller or larger than 1. E.g. a scale factor at a given point on the map is equal to 0.99960 signifie surface of the Earth will actually measure 999.6 metres on the map. This is a contraction of 40 centimetre per kilometre.

The nominal map scale (given map scale) divided by the scale factor will give the actual scale. E.g. a scale factor of 0.999

nominal scale of 1:10,000 (one to ten thousand) will give a scale of 1:10,004 (10,000 divided by 0.99960) at the given point map scale. A scale factor of 2 at a given point on a map with a nominal scale of 1:10M (one to ten million) will give a scale given point. This is a larger scale than the nominal map scale.

Scale distortions for both, tangent and secant map surfaces, are illustrated in the figures below. Distortions increase as the plane) or closed line(s) of intersection increases.

Scale distortions on a tangent map surface. The central point is not distorted on the map.

Scale distortions on a secant map surface. Line(s) of intersection are not distorted on the map.

On a secant map projection - the application of a scale factor of less than 1.0000 to the central point or the central meridian

secant - the overall distortions are less than on one that uses a tangent map surface. Most countries have derived there ma with a secant map surface for this reason.

4.4 Choosing a map projection

Every map must begin, either consciously or unconsciously, with the choice of a map projection and its parameters. The ca

right type of projection is used for any particular map. A well chosen map projection takes care that scale distortions remain properties match to the purpose of the map.

Generally, normal cylindrical projections are typically used to map the world in its entirety (in particular areas near the equa

are often used to map the different continents (the mid-latitudes regions are shown well), while the polar azimuthal projectio

Transverse and oblique aspects of many projections can be used for most parts of the world, though they are usually more In theory, the selection of a map projection for a particular area can be made on the basis of:

i.

the shape of the area,

ii. the location (and orientation) of the area, and iii. the purpose of the map.

i.) Ideally, the general shape of the mapping area should match with the distortion pattern of a specific projection. If an area create a map that minimizes distortion for that area on the basis of an azimuthal projection. The cylindrical projection is bes projection for a triangular area (figure below).

The choice of the map projection class (cylindrical, conical or azimuthal) depends largely on the general shape

ii.) The choice of the aspect of a map projection depends largely on the location (and orientation) of the geographic area to

projection centre coincides with centre of the area, or when the projection plane is located along the main axis of the area t

An oblique Mercator projection is used for mapping the Alaska State (zone 5001). The cylindrical projection plane is located along the m H. Dana).

iii.) Once the class and aspect of the map projection have been selected, the distortion property of the map projection has t of distortion property for a map depends largely on the purpose for which it will be used.

Map projections with a conformal distortion property represent angles and local shapes correctly, but as the region beco

distortions. An example is the Mercator projection. Although Greenland is only one-eighth the size of South America, Green

Maps used for the measurement of angles (e.g. aeronautical charts, topographic maps) often make use of a conformal map

The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection with a conformal property. The area distortions are significant towards the polar r larger but is only one-eighth the size of South America.

Map projections with a equal-area distortion property on the other hand, represent areas correctly, but as the region bec

distortions of angles and consequently shapes (figure below). Maps which are to be used for measuring areas (e.g. distribu area map projection.

The cylindrical equal-area projection after Lambert is a cylindrical map projection with an equal-area property. The shape distortions

The equidistant distortion property is achievable only to a limited degree. That is, true distances can be shown only from the map or in certain directions. If a map is true to scale along the meridians (i.e. no distortion in North-South direction) we

meridians (e.g. the equidistant cylindrical projection in the figure below). If a map is true to scale along all parallels we say t

(i.e. no distortion in East-West direction). Maps which require correct distances measured from the centre of the map to an

maps) or maps which require reasonable area and angle distortions (several thematic maps) often make use of an equidist

The equidistant cylindrical projection (also called Plate Carre projection) is a cylindrical map projection with an equidistant property. Th meridians (in North-South direction). Both shape and area are reasonably well preserved with the exception o

In summary, the ideal map projection for any country would either be an azimuthal, cylindrical, or conic projection, depen secant projection plane located along the main axis of the country or the area of interest. The selected distortion property d map.

Some map projections have rather special properties. The Mercator projection was originally designed to display accurate straight line drawn on this projection represents an actual compass bearing. These true direction lines are rhumb lines (or constant direction between two locations is a always a straight line. For navigation, this is the easiest route to follow, but no below).

The rhumb lines (lines of constant direction) are shown as straight lines on the Mercator projection. The shortest distance between two curved line.

The gnomonic projection is a useful projection for defining routes of navigation for sea and air travel, because great circle a sphere - are shown as straight lines. Thus, the shortest route between any two locations is always a straight line. No othe combination with the Mercator map where all lines of constant direction are shown as straight lines it assist navigators and courses. Changes in direction for following the shortest route can be determined by plotting the shortest route (great circle onto the Mercator map (figure above).

All great circles - the shortest routes between points on a sphere - are shown as straight lines on the gnom

In the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, during the time of great transoceanic voyaging, there was a need for conformal naviga conformal cylindrical - met a real need, and is still in use today when a simple, straight course is needed for navigation. Bec correctly, they are suitable for sea, air, and meteorological charts. This is useful for displaying the flow of oceanic or atmosp

For topographic and large-scale maps, conformality and equidistance are important properties. The equidistant property, po can be improved by using secant projection planes. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is a conformal cylinder so it meets conformality and reasonable equidistance. Other projections currently used for topographic and large-s Mercator (the countries of Argentina, Colombia, Australia, Ghana, S-Africa, Egypt use it) and the Lambert Conformal Con Algeria). Also in use are thestereographic (the Netherlands) and even non-conformal projections such as Cassini or the P

Suitable equal-area projections for thematic and distribution maps include those developed by Lambert, whether azimutha however, have rather noticeable shape distortions. A better projection is the Albers equal-area conic projection with two s conformal. In the normal aspect, they are excellent for mid-latitude distribution maps and do not contain the noticeable disto

An equidistant map, in which the scale is correct along a certain direction, is seldom desired. However, an equidistant map

conformal and equal-area maps. Shape and area distortions are often reasonably well preserved. An example is the equid Plate Carre projection), where the meridians are true to scale map (i.e. no distortion in North-South direction).

The projection which best fits a given country is always the minimum-error projection of the selected class. The use of min exceptional. Their mathematical theory is difficult and the equidistant projections of the same class will provide a very simila

4.5 Map projections in common use

A variety of map projections have been developed, each with its own specfic qualities. Only a limited amount are frequently projections described and illustrated. They are grouped into cylindrical, conical and azimuthal projections.

4.5.1 Cylindrical projections

Probably one of the best known cylindrical projection is Mercator's cylindrical projection. The transverse case and occasio projection are used in several countries for topographic mapping purposes. The Transverse Mercator and Univeral Trans the best known examples. Two other well-known normal cylindrical projections are the equidistant cylindrical (or Plate C and Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection. Normal cylindrical projections are typically used to map the world in its e equator are shown well).

1.Mercator projection:

The Mercator projection is a normal cylindrical projection. The property of the projection is conformal. Parallels and meridia angles, a requirement for conformality. Meridians are equally spaced. The parallel spacing increases with distance from the

Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection with a conformal property. The loxodromes in black are straight lines. The great cir

The projection was originally designed to display accurate compass bearings for sea travel. Any straight line drawn on this

compass bearing or a true direction line (loxodrome or rhumb line). Sailing the shortest distance course along the great circ every moment. These changes in course direction can be deternined by plotting the great circle onto the Mercator projectio

The Mercator projection is sometimes inappropriately used in atlases for maps of the world, and for wall-maps as area disto

regions. The ellipses of distortion appear as circles (indicating conformality) but increase in size away from the equator (indi

of area as latitude increases makes Greenland appear to be as large as South America when, in fact, it is only one eight of

The oblique Mercator projection is sometimes used to align the cylindrical projection plane with a region that is oblique and

west axis. For example, this projection is used for mapping the Malaysian peninsula and the Alaska State, zone 5001 (figur

2.Tranverse Mercator projection:

The Transverse Mercator projection is a transverse cylindrical conformal projection. The projection is also known as the G Angles and shapes (of small areas) are shown correctly, as a result of conformality. The figure below shows a part of the w projection.

A part of the world mapped on a transverse cylinder in the Transverse Mercator projection

Versions of the Transverse Mercator (TM) projection are used in many countries as the local map coordinate system on wh

Ghana uses TM projection with the central meridian located at 1W of Greenwich. The projection is also used for aeronauti European Commission for conformal pan-European mapping at scales larger than 1:500,000.

3.Universal Tranverse Mercator (UTM) projection:

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection uses a transverse cylinder, secant to the reference surface (figure b

topographic mapping by the United Nations Cartography Committee in 1952. The UTM divides the world into 60 narrow lon numbered from 1 to 60. The narrow zones of 6 degrees (and the secant map surface) make the distortions so small that th map for a scale of 1:10,000 or smaller.

The projection plane of the UTM projection is a secant cylinder in a transverse position.

The UTM projection is designed to cover the world, excluding the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The areas not included in th

south of 80S, are mapped with the Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) projection. The figure below shows the UTM zo

figure is UTM grid zone 3N which covers the area 168 - 162W (zone number 3), and 0 - 8N (letter N of the latitudinal be

The UTM zone numbering system (click to enlarge).

Each zone has it's own central meridian. E.g. zone 11 extends from 120W to 114W, therefore the central meridian has a

Part of the world mapped in UTM Zone 11. The central meridian is located at 117 degrees west of Greenwich. The zone

A scale factor of 0.99960 is given to the central meridian of a UTM zone. To avoid negative coordinates for positons locate

meridian has been given a (false) Easting value of 500,000m. The equator has been given a Northing value of 0m for posit Northing value of 10,000,000m is allocated to the equator for positions south of the equator.

If a map series covers more than one UTM zone it is inconvenient to have the Eastings changing suddenly at a zone juncti

into an adjacent zone is allowed (figure below). Mapping beyond this area will result in distortions at the edges of a UTM zo larger map scales.

2 adjacent UTM-zones of 6 degrees longitude with a 40km overlap into the adjacent zone.

4.Equidistant cylindrical projection:

The equidistant cylindrical projection, also called simple cylindrical, or Plate Carre, has a true scale along all meridian direction). The projection is also known as the latitude/longitude projection because the latitude and longitude are directly Meridians are spaced at the same distances as the parallels, forming a grid of equal rectangles. Both shape and area are r exception of the polar regions. Used for simple portrayals of the world or regions with minimal geographic data such as ind equidistant cylindrical (or simple cylindrical) projection for the display of its imagery base. The transverse version of this pro projection.

The equidistant cylindrical projection (also called Plate Carre projection). The map is equidistant (true to scale) along the meridians (in are reasonably well preserved with the exception of the polar regions.

5.Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection:

The Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection represents areas correctly, but it does have rather noticeable shape disto equally spaced and 0.32 times the length of the equator. Parallels are unequally spaced and farthest apart near the equato Because of the distortions it is of little use for world maps. The Mollweide projection, a pseudo-cylindrical equal-area projec purpose. The Gall-Peters projection is a version of Lambert's projection, but with standard parallels at 45 degrees North an projection, but with standard parallels at 30 degrees North and South.

Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection. The shape distortions are significant towards the polar

6.Pseudo-cylindrical projections:

Pseudo-cylindrical projections are projections in which the parallels are represented by parallel straight lines, and the me

the only meridian that is straight. Examples are Mollweide, Sinusoidal (Sanson-Flamsteed), Goode Homolosine, McBryde-T

Winkel (I, II), Denoyer and Robinson. They are typically used to map the world in its entirety. Most pseudo-cylindrical projec conformal because the parallels and meridians do not always cross at right angles).

The Mollweide projection (figure below) is a classic equal-area projection, keeping parallels as straight lines while still pres central one are elliptical arcs. Suitable for thematic or distribution mapping of the entire world.

Mollweide's pseudo-cylindrical projection with an equal-area property.

The Robinson projection (figure below) is neither conformal nor equal-area and no point is free of distortion, but the distort center and along the Equator and therefore recommended and frequently used for thematic world maps. The projection pro than rectangular maps such as the Mercator.

Robinson's pseudo-cylindrical projection. Shapes and areas are reasonable well preserved

7.Interrupted projections:

Interrupted projections show the globe in one sheet with interrupted forms of graticules. They are typically used to map the

world in one map. Examples are Goode's projection (an interrupted Mollweide projection) or the interrupted Sanson-Flamst

Interrupted Mollweide projection for continental masses (after J.P. Goode).

4.5.2 Conic projections

Four well-known normal conical projections are the Lambert conformal conic projection, the simple conic projection, the thePolyconic projection. They give useful maps of mid-latitudes for countries which have no great extent in latitude.

1.Lambert conformal conic projection:

The Lambert conformal conic projection is confomal. The parallels and meridians intersect at right angles (as in any conf

inaccurate in conformal projections. Like with other conformal projections, Lambert's conical is also widely used for topogra

recommended to the European Commission for conformal pan-European mapping at scales smaller or equal to 1:500,000.

Lambert Conformal Conic projection (standard parallels 10 and 30 degrees North).

2.Simple conic projection:

The simple conic projection (figure below) is a normal conical projection with one standard parallel. All circular parallels ar which creates a true scale along all meridians (i.e. no distortion in north-south direction). The map is therefore equidistant a are reasonably well preserved. Whereas small countries are possibly shown on this projection, larger areas, such as Russi conic projection with two standard parallels.

Simple conic (or equidistant conic) projection (standard parallel 15 degrees North). The meridians are

3.Albers equal-area projection:

The Albers equal-area projection uses two standard parallels. It represents areas correctly and has reasonable shape dist standard parallels as compared with the noticeable distortions of the Lambert's equal-area conic projection with one stan suited for regions predominantly east-west in extent and located in the middle latitudes. Used for small regions or countries maps of the United States, for thematic maps and for world atlases.

Albers equal-area conic projection (standard parallels 10 and 30 degrees North).

5.Polyconic projection:

The polyconic projection is neither conformal nor equal-area. The projection is a derivation from the simple conic projectio (similar to the Bonne's equal-area projection). The polyconic projection is projected onto cones tangent to each parallel, so (figure below). The scale is true along the central meridian and along each parallel. The distortion increase rapidly away fro disadvantage makes the projection unsuitable for large areas on a single sheet. It is adaptable for topographic maps, and i the World, a map series at 1:1,000,000 scale published by a number of countries to common internationally agreed specific of the United States until the 1950's and coastal charts by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Polyconic projection, with true scale along each parallel.

6.Pseudo-conical projections:

Pseudo-conical projections are projections in which the meridians are represented by curves, and the parallels are equally

the pseudo-cylindrical projections in which the parallels are represented by straight lines). The central meridian is the only m the Bonne and Werner projection. Bonne's projection (figure below) is a pseudo-conical equal-area projection, with every parallel true to scale (similar to the

once popular for large-scale topographic maps and to map the different continents. The Werner projection is a variant of Bo parallel at the North or South pole.

Bonne's projection (standard parallel 60 degrees North), with true scale along each paralle

4.5.3 Azimuthal projections

Azimuthal (or zenithal or planar) projections are made upon a plane tangent (or secant) to the reference surface. All azimut maintaining correct azimuths, or true directions from the centre of the map. In the polar cases, the meridians all radiate out distance apart. A subdivision may be made into perspective and non-perspective azimuthal projections. In the perspective visualized as a true geometric projection, directly onto the mapping plane; illustrations are in the figure below. For the gnom (like a source of light rays), is the centre of the Earth. For the stereographic this point is the opposite pole to the point of ta perspective point is an infinite point in space on the opposite side of the Earth. Two well known non-perspective azimutha equidistantprojection (also called Postel projection) and the Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection.

Three perspective azimuthal projections: Gnomonic, stereographic and orthographic (source: E

1.Stereographic projection:

The azimuthal stereographic projection is a conformal projection. Since the projection is conformal, parallels and meridian aspect the meridians are equally spaced straight lines, the parallels are unequally spaced circles centered at the pole (figur away from the pole. The scale is constant along any circle having its centre at the projection centre, but increases moderat ellipses of distortion remain circles (indicating conformality). Areas increase with distance from the projection center. The p combination with the UTM coordinate system as Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) for mapping regions north of 84N conformal mapping of regions approximately circular in shape; the Netherlands uses a modified version of the stereograph known as RijksDriehoekstelsel (RD).

Polar azimuthal stereographic projection is a planar projection with a conformal property.

2.Orthographic projection:

The orthographic projection is a perspective projection that views the globe from an infinite distance. Distortion in size and more realistic than almost any other projection. In the polar aspect, meridians are straight lines radiating from the center, an concentric circles that become closer toward the edge of the globe. Only one hemisphere can be shown.

Google Earth shows the Earth as it looks from an elevated platform such as an airplane or orbiting satellite. The projection

general perspective. This is similar to the orthographic projection, except that the point of perspective is a finite (near earth space) distance.

Polar azimuthal orthographic projection.

3.Gnomonic projection:

The gnomonic projection (also known as central azimuthal projection) is neither conformal nor equal-area. The scale incre center. Area, shape, distance and direction distortions are extreme, but all great circles (or orthodromes) - the shortest dis are shown as straight lines. It's wise to orient the centre of the map at the point of interest (figure below), since scale distort centre of the gnomonic map projection and the direction of the shortest route (azimuth) is shown by a straight line from the azimuthal maps). The projection is useful for defining routes of navigation for sea and air travel, because the shortest route straight line (figure below). It should however not be used for regular geographic maps or for distance measurements. An e gnomonic projection between Amsterdam airport and New York airport is 8415 kilometres, but in reality it is around 5884 ki

Air-routes plotted in red on a the gnomonic projection. The centre of the projection is oriented at Amsterdam airport. The shortest air-r straight line and the directions of the shortest air-routes are true from the centre of the projection. However, the distan

4.Azimuthal equidistant projection:

The non-perspective azimuthal equidistant projection (also known as Postel projection) is an equidistant projection. Dista map to any point are correct; the bearing of any point from the center is also correct (this applies to all azimuthal maps). Di away from the center point, but are not very large compared to the distortions of the gnomonic projection. The projection is distances (figure below).

Air-routes plotted in red on a the azimuthal equidistant projection. The centre of the projection is oriented at Amsterdam airport to show point to the other airports. The shortest route - great circle - is shown by a straight line from the centre of the map only (in

5.Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection:

The non-perspective Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection preserves areas while simultaneously maintaining a true dire

pattern of distortion is radial. Scale decreases with distance from the center. It is best suited for maps of continents or regio

directions from the centre, such as Asia and the Pacific ocean. Recommended to the European Commission for statistical a projection is the Hammer-Aitoff projection.

Polar azimuthal equal-area projection (after Lambert).

4.6 Map projections overview

In summary, a short list of map projections grouped by class: Projection Cylindrical Central cylindrical
Description

Map projection is perspective but not conformal nor equal area. Projected perspectively from the cen tangent to the equator. Only used for teaching purposes.

Equidistant cylindrical Also known as simple cylindrical or Plate Carre. The projection is equidistant in the direction of the

(half as long as the parallels) are equally spaced straight lines forming square blocks. This projection

into x and y, hence is sometimes called the latitude-longitude projection. In Google Earth used for dis version is known as the Cassini projection.

Equirectangular

Also known as Plate rectangle, a variant of Plate Carre. Used for raster maps which store informati represents a rectangular block of latitude-longitude coordinates.

Gall-Peters Lambert cylindrical equal-area Miller cylindrical

Similar to Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection, but with standard parallels at 45 degrees North It is of little use for world maps because of the distortions. Mainly used for educational purposes.

Modified Mercator projection proposed by O.M. Miller. Compromise between Mercator and other cyli scale distortion increases moderately away from the equator. Used in numerous world maps.

Mollweide Mercator

Pseudo-cylindrical projection. Map is equal area. Occasionally used in thematic world maps.

Conformal map projection. Designed for navigational use; standard for marine charts. Recommende regions predominantly bordering the equator. Often inappropriately used as a world map.

Trasverse Mercator

Also called Gauss Conformal, or Gauss Krger. Transverse form (transverse cylinder) of the Mercato

maps at scales from 1: 20,000 to 1: 250,000. Recommended for conformal mapping of regions that a extent.

Universal Transverse A version of the Transverse Mercator, but one with a secant map surface. It divides the world into 60 Mercator (UTM) Azimuthal
degrees. Widely used standard for topographic maps and military maps.

Azimuthal equidistant Distances measured from the centre of the map to any point are correct and the bearing of any point

applies to all azimuthal maps). Commonly used in the polar aspect for maps of polar regions and the

hemispheres. The oblique aspect is frequently used for world or air-route maps centered on importan continents.

Gnomonic

Map is perspective and neither conformal nor equal area. Area, shape, distance and direction distort great circle paths as straight lines and thus to assist navigators and aviators.

Hammer-Aitoff Lambert azimuthal equal-area Orthographic

A variant of Lambert azimuthal equal-area. Used for thematic maps of the whole world.

Used for maps of continents and hemispheres. Also suited for regions extending equally in all directi

and the Pacific Ocean. Recommended to the European Commission for statistical analysis and displ

Known by Egyptians and Greeks 2000 years ago. Map is perspective and neither conformal nor equ shown. The Earth appears as it would on a photograph from space.

Stereographic

Apparently invented by Hipparchus (2nd century bc). Used in combination with UTM projection as Un

for mapping poles and in navigation charts for latitudes above 80. Recommended for conformal ma

approximately circular in shape; a modified version of the stereographic projection is used in the Net topographic maps.

Conical Albers equal area conic

It is equal to Lambert's equal area conic, but has two standard parallels (secant cone). Excellent for

projection does not contain the noticeable distortions of the Lambert projections. Frequently used for thematic maps and for world atlases.

Lambert conformal conic Polyconic

Lambert conformal conic, also called conical orthomorphic (Lambert, 1972). Extensively used for larg predominantly east-west in extent. Further widely used for topographic maps. or American polyconic (Hassler, 1820). Map is neither conformal nor equal area, but each parallel used for large scale mapping of the United States by the USGS until the 1950's.

Simple conic

Also known as equidistant conic. Meridians are true to scale (i.e. no distortion in north-south direction atlases for small countries.

Other projections Sinusoidal

Used since 16th century. Also called Sanson-Flamsteed or Mercator equal area projection. Pseudo-c

area. Used in atlas maps of South America and Africa. Occasionally used for world maps. Modificatio and sinusoidal 3x interrupted.

Van der Grinten Winkel Tripel

Shows the entire Earth within one circle. All areas, shapes and angles are greatly distorted.

Used in several atlases. A triple compromise of reduced shape, area and distance distortion. Selecte (NGS) for its new reference world map, in place of the Robinson projection.

List of map projections in common use. See also summary tables on the USGS map projections

More examples of map projections are given through the following links: Demonstration of different map projections (Flex projector, ETH Zurich) Demonstration of different map projections (Instituto de matematica, Brasil)

Demonstration of different map projections (H. Bottomley) Map projections grouped by use (Radical cartography) Picture gallery of map projections (TU Vienna) Picture gallery of map projections (Nevron) Understanding map projections (ESRI) Map projections for Europe Map projections for Europe (CRSeu)

4.7 Main references

R.A. Knippers. Coordinate systems and Map projections.. Non-published educational notes, ITC, Enschede, 1998. R.A. Knippers. Geometric Aspects of Mapping. Non-published educational notes, ITC, Enschede, 1999. P. Stefanovic. Georeferencing and Coordinate Transformations. Non-published educational notes. ITC, Enschede, 1996.