Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, without the express written consent of SKM Systems Analysis, Inc. No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Although every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this manual, the publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of information contained herein. For information, address SKM Systems Analysis, Inc., PO Box 3376, Manhattan Beach, CA 90266-1376, USA. 2006 SKM Systems Analysis, Inc. All rights reserved. Power*Tools, CAPTOR and DAPPER are registered trademarks and HI_WAVE and I*SIM are trademarks of SKM Systems Analysis, Inc. Microsoft is a registered trademark and Windows is a trademark of Microsoft Corporation. Intel is a registered trademark and Pentium is a trademark of Intel Corporation. ACAD and AutoCAD are registered trademarks of AUTODESK, Inc. WordPerfect is a registered trademark of Novell, Inc. Lotus and 1-2-3 are registered trademarks of Lotus Development Corporation. Arial is a registered trademark of The Monotype Corporation, PLC. PIXymbols is a trademark of Page Studio Graphics ImageStream Graphics Filters is a registered trademark and ImageStream is a trademark of ImageMark Software Labs, Inc. PIXymbols Extended Character Set. Copyright 1995. Page Studio Graphics. All rights reserved. For information, address Page Studio Graphics, 3175 North Price Road, Suite 150, Chandler, AZ 85224. Phone/Fax: (602) 839-2763. ImageStream Graphics & Presentation Filters. Copyright 1991-1995. ImageMark Software Labs, Inc. All rights reserved. Various definitions reprinted from IEEE Std 100-1992, IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms, copyright 1992 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. The IEEE takes no responsibility or will assume no liability for the reader's misinterpretation of said information resulting from its placement and context in this publication. Information is reproduced with the permission of the IEEE. MathType math equation editing fonts are licensed from Design Science, Inc. 1987-1996 by Design Science, Inc. All rights reserved.
3/26/2006
Contents
1 DEMAND LOAD STUDY
1-1
1.1. What is the Demand Load Study? .......................................................................1-2 1.2. Engineering Methodology.....................................................................................1-3 1.2.1. Definitions of Terms and Concepts..................................................................1-3 1.2.2. Load Characteristics .........................................................................................1-6 1.2.3. Demand Load Library ......................................................................................1-6 1.3. PTW Applied Methodology..................................................................................1-6 1.3.1. Before Running the Demand Load Study ........................................................1-6 1.3.2. Motor and Non-Motor Loads ...........................................................................1-6 Non-Motor Loads...................................................................................................1-7 Demand Load Types ..........................................................................................1-7 Energy Audit Types ...........................................................................................1-7 Motor Loads ...........................................................................................................1-8 Loads Defined in a Schedule..................................................................................1-9 1.3.3. Running the Demand Load Study ....................................................................1-9 1.3.4. Demand Load Study Options .........................................................................1-10 Project Configuration ...........................................................................................1-11 1.3.5. Error Messages...............................................................................................1-11 1.4. Application Examples .........................................................................................1-12 1.4.1. Non-Coincident Demand Calculation ............................................................1-12 1.4.2. Motor Design Load Calculation .....................................................................1-13 1.4.3. Multiple Motors at a Bus................................................................................1-13 1.4.4. Motors Assigned to a Motor Control Center..................................................1-14 1.4.5. Single Phase Non-Motor Loads in a Panel Schedule .....................................1-15 1.4.6. Loads with Different Power Factors ..............................................................1-17 1.4.7. Multiple Motors on a Single Motor Component ............................................1-18 1.4.8. Motor Starting ................................................................................................1-18 1.4.9. Multiple Loops in a System............................................................................1-19 1.4.10. Example from Plant......................................................................................1-20
2 SIZING STUDY
2-1
2.1. What is the Sizing Study?.....................................................................................2-2 2.2. Engineering Methodology.....................................................................................2-3 2.2.1. Feeder Sizing....................................................................................................2-3 2.2.2. Transformer Sizing...........................................................................................2-4 2.2.3. Transformer Feeders ........................................................................................2-4 2.3. PTW Applied Methodology..................................................................................2-4 2.3.1. Before Running the Sizing Study.....................................................................2-5 2.3.2. Running the Sizing Study.................................................................................2-5 2.3.3. Sizing Study Options........................................................................................2-6
DAPPER ii
Reference Manual
2.3.4. Error Messages ................................................................................................ 2-7 2.4. Application Examples........................................................................................... 2-7 2.4.1. Sizing a Simple Radial Feed ............................................................................ 2-7 2.4.2. Impact of Cable Temperature Derating ........................................................... 2-9 2.4.3. Multiple Branches with Different Load Values............................................... 2-9 2.4.4. Example from Plant ....................................................................................... 2-10
3-1
3.1. What is the Load Flow Study? ............................................................................ 3-2 3.2. Engineering Methodology .................................................................................... 3-2 3.2.1. The Solution Process ....................................................................................... 3-4 3.2.2. Modeling Transformers ................................................................................... 3-4 3.2.3. Utility Equivalent Impedance .......................................................................... 3-4 3.2.4. Load Characteristics ........................................................................................ 3-4 3.2.5. Voltage Drop Calculations .............................................................................. 3-5 3.3. PTW Applied Methodology ................................................................................. 3-6 3.3.1. Before Running the Load Flow Study ............................................................. 3-6 3.3.2. Running the Load Flow Study......................................................................... 3-7 3.3.3. Load Flow Study Options................................................................................ 3-7 System Modeling ................................................................................................... 3-8 Solution Method .................................................................................................... 3-8 Load Specification ................................................................................................. 3-8 Directly Connected Loads ................................................................................. 3-8 From Demand Load Study................................................................................. 3-9 Solution Criteria..................................................................................................... 3-9 3.3.4. Component Modeling ...................................................................................... 3-9 Swing Bus Generator........................................................................................... 3-10 On-Site Generation .............................................................................................. 3-10 Diversity Loads.................................................................................................... 3-11 3.3.5. Error Messages .............................................................................................. 3-12 3.4. Application Examples......................................................................................... 3-12 3.4.1. Voltage Drop and Power Losses.................................................................... 3-12 3.4.2. Modeling Transformer Losses ....................................................................... 3-14 3.4.3. Load Specifications ....................................................................................... 3-15 3.4.4. Net Branch Diversity Load ............................................................................ 3-17 3.4.5. Example from Plant ....................................................................................... 3-19
4-1
4.2 Engineering Methodology ............................................................................... 4-2 4.2.1 Balanced Faults.......................................................................................... 4-3 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit.................................................................................. 4-3 4.2.2 Unbalanced Faults...................................................................................... 4-5 Single-Line-to-Ground Faults................................................................................ 4-5 Line-to-Line and Double-Line-to-Ground Faults .................................................. 4-7 Grounding Impedance ........................................................................................... 4-7 P ............................................................................................................................. 4-7 Per Unit Notation................................................................................................... 4-7 4.2.3 Momentary and Interrupting Fault Current................................................ 4-9 4.2.4 Asymmetrical Peak Fault Current............................................................ 4-10
3/26/2006
Contents
DAPPER iii
Asymmetrical rms Fault Current ..............................................................4-11 4.2.5 4.2.6 Steady State Fault Current........................................................................4-11 4.2.7 Transformer Taps .....................................................................................4-12 Primary Transformer Tap Modeling ....................................................................4-12 Secondary Transformer Tap Modeling ................................................................4-13 4.2.8 Transformer Off-Nominal Voltage Modeling ..........................................4-13 4.2.9 Transformer Phase Shift ...........................................................................4-13 4.3 PTW Applied Methodology...........................................................................4-14 4.3.1 Before Running the Short Circuit Study ..................................................4-15 4.3.2 Running the Short Circuit Study ..............................................................4-15 4.3.3 Short Circuit Study Options .....................................................................4-15 Fault Type ............................................................................................................4-15 Faulted Bus...........................................................................................................4-16 Calculation Models...............................................................................................4-16 Motor Contribution ..........................................................................................4-16 Transformer Tap...............................................................................................4-16 Transformer Phase Shift...................................................................................4-16 Report Specifications ...........................................................................................4-16 Bus Voltages ....................................................................................................4-16 Branch Currents................................................................................................4-16 Phase or Sequence............................................................................................4-17 Fault Current Calculation .................................................................................4-17 Asymmetrical Fault Current at Time................................................................4-17 4.3.4 Component Modeling...............................................................................4-18 Feeder Data ..........................................................................................................4-18 Transformer Data .................................................................................................4-18 Three-Winding Transformers...............................................................................4-18 Contribution Data.................................................................................................4-21 4.3.5 Error Messages .........................................................................................4-22 4.4 Application Examples ....................................................................................4-22 4.4.1 Fault Currents on a Radial Unloaded Feeder............................................4-23 4.4.2 Single-Line-to-Ground Fault Currents at the Secondary of a Transformer with a Grounding Reactor ........................................................................................4-25 4.4.3 Source Sequence Impedance ....................................................................4-26 4.4.4 Fault with a Generator Source with Unequal Positive-, Negative-, and ZeroSequence Reactances................................................................................................4-28 4.4.5 Short Circuit Currents with a Motor Load at Bus 4 .................................4-30 4.4.6 Fault Duty Contribution to a Faulted Bus ................................................4-33 4.4.7 Transformer Off-Nominal Voltages and Transformer Taps.....................4-36 Case 1 ...................................................................................................................4-36 Case 2 ...................................................................................................................4-37 Case 3 ...................................................................................................................4-38 Case 4 ...................................................................................................................4-39 Case 5 ...................................................................................................................4-39 4.4.8 Modeling Transformer Connections.........................................................4-40 4.4.9 Example from Plant..................................................................................4-42
DAPPER ii
Reference Manual
3/26/2006
The Demand Load Study calculates the total apparent power and current at each bus and within each branch in the electrical power system, excluding local generation and power lost through impedance devices. The purpose of this Study is to calculate the connected, demand and design load values for each bus, including the effects of load diversity. The calculated load currents are based on the load bus nominal system voltage. The results are used as a basis for further studies in PTW. This chapter discusses: Engineering Methodology. PTW Applied Methodology. Examples.
IN THIS CHAPTER
1.1. What is the Demand Load Study? .................................................................... 1-2 1.2. Engineering Methodology ................................................................................ 1-3 1.3. PTW Applied Methodology ............................................................................. 1-6 1.4. Application Examples..................................................................................... 1-12
DAPPER 1-2
Reference Manual
[1]
Authored by Committee, 1996 National Electrical Code. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1996.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-3
Study Setup
Demand Load Library Demand Loads Energy Audit Loads Study Setup
Saved in Database
Used by Sizing Study For each branch: Demand and design load and power factor Total constant I demand load and power factor Total constant Z demand load and power factor Total constant kVA demand load and power factor For each bus: Total connected load and power factor Total demand load and power factor Total design load and power factor
Datablocks
Reports
DAPPER 1-4
Reference Manual
A load where the maximum current is expected to continue for three or more hours. The sum of the connected loads adjusted by a single or multiple level demand (diversity) factor. Also, the sum of the actual demand load values at a bus assuming that the individual demand load values do not peak at the same time. This value is referred to as the demand load throughout the Demand Load Study. The sum of the individual branch demand loads and loads attached directly to the bus. The difference between the coincident demand load and the non-coincident demand load reported at the bus. The coincident demand loads divided by the noncoincident demand loads. Always greater than one.
Diversity Factor
To illustrate these terms, consider a system with three 25 hp motors connected to a bus. The peak mechanical loads on the three motors are 12, 15 and 25 hp. The total connected load is 75 hp. The coincident demand load is the sum of the three peak mechanical loads, which is 52 hp:
Demand Load = 12 hp + 15 hp + 25 hp = 52 hp
The demand factor is the ratio of the demand load value to the connected load:
Demand Factor = 52 hp demand load 75 hp connected load = 0.69 or 69%
The NEC defines continuous loads as loads that operate for longer than three hours at a time. To size branch and feeder circuits with continuous loads, an NEC ampacity rating (long continuous load or design factor) must be used. For example, imagine a 30 kVA lighting load that is always on. The connected load is 30 kVA, and the demand factor is 100%. Therefore, the demand load for the lighting is 30 kVA. If the long continuous loading factor is 125%, then the design load value is 37.5 kVA, as shown:
Design Load = 30 kVA demand load 1.25 long continuous loading factor = 37.5 kVA
National codes may make reference to multi-level demand factors. For example, Chapter 2 of the NEC states that a receptacle load demand value is calculated based on the following rules: The first 10 kVA of a connected load is calculated at 100% demand factor. The remaining load is calculated at 50% demand factor.
If a receptacle connected load is 15 kVA, then the demand load at the bus is 12.5 kVA. The demand load is calculated as:
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-5
g b
Next imagine two 15 kVA receptacle branch circuits fed from a single feeder circuit. The demand load value in each branch circuit is 12.5 kVA. The connected load on the feeder circuit is as follows:
Connected Load =
The feeder circuit demand load can also be calculated. This is the non-coincident demand load, also known as the diversity load of the feeder circuit.
Demand Load = 10 kVA 100% + 20 kVA 50% = 20 kVA
g b
The net diversity or demand load at the feeder circuit is 20 kVA. It is not the sum of the two coincident branch circuit load values of 25 kVA. The diversity factor now can be calculated as:
Diversity Factor =
non coincident demand 12.5 kVA + 12.5 kVA = 20 kVA = 1.25 or 125%
The non-coincident demand load (20 kVA) is less than the sum of the individual coincident or peak demand loads (25 kVA) at the feeder bus. The Demand Load Study uses NEC methodology to identify each load in an electrical power system and its specific load factors. The Demand Load Study then vectorially sums the connected, demand and design load values for each upstream bus and branch. Each load may be assigned a unique power factor. To account for load diversity, the Demand Load Study re-calculates the demand and design values from the total connected load at each bus. If there are motors at the bus, the largest motor is identified and special multiplying factors are used to calculate the motor circuit design load value. For an example of multiple motors on a single motor component, see Section 1.4.7 in this Reference Manual. The methodology depends upon the assumption that only one source services each load. When the Demand Load Study detects a loop in the power system, it determines the number of impedance components in the loop and opens the branch element that is topologically farthest from the source of supply. The Demand Load Study does not determine the branch opening point based on total equivalent impedance. If there are multiple loops, it detects them and opens them as well. With the loop(s) open, it calculates the demand and design load values at each bus and within each branch beginning at the farthest point from the source of supply. Multiple independent power systems may result from either a specific electrical design or the methodology the Demand Load Study uses to open loops in the system. The Demand Load Study Report identifies all open branches at the beginning of the Study Report.
DAPPER 1-6
Reference Manual
If motor components are assigned to a motor control center (MCC) and the motors are referenced in the Motor Control Center Library, then the demand and design load values are based on NEC Table 430-150, as defined in the Motor Control Center Library.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-7
Load Types
Description of motors, as specified in the Number of Motors box of the Component Editor. Same as above.
Induction Motor Non-Motor Load Demand Load type Energy Audit Load type
A non-motor load with a uniquely defined set of demand factors as specified in the Demand Load Library. A non-motor load with a single unique load factor. Usually can be directly measured in the field.
Non-Motor Loads
Non-motor loads are modeled as either a Demand Load or an Energy Audit type load.
Demand Load Types
A Demand Load type must be defined using one of the 20 load types in the Demand Load Library. Because all new non-motor loads by default are created as Energy Audit types, you will need to change the load type from Energy Audit to Demand Load type in the Component Editor under the Load Diversity subview. Select one of the twenty categories from the Component Editor, but define those categories in the Demand Load Library. Demand Loads specified without a load category are considered to have a 100% demand load factor. The Demand Load Study calculates the connected, demand and design load values based on data from the library. The connected load value is always equal to the rated size of the load. The demand load value is generally equal to or less than the load rated size. You can add demand factors greater than one for load growth studies, although customarily the demand load factor is less than one in most practical design applications. The design load is generally equal to or greater than the demand load, and represents the design requirement that derates cables based on continuous loading. In the Demand Load Library, the General Load category LCL factor (design factor) is set at 1.0. On the other hand, article 220 of the NEC requires that conductors that are energized for more than three hours must not carry more than 80% of the calculated demand load. For these loads, the LCL factor should be set at 1.25. Lighting type loads, for example, are continuous load types requiring a design factor equal to 1.25 in accordance with the NEC. For lighting type loads, the design load value will be 125% of the demand load. You will receive a warning message if you do not define a demand load category in the Component Editor. If you ignore the warning, PTW makes the Demand and Design Load value equal to the Connected Load value, and posts a message telling you so after running the Study. The Demand Load characteristic (constant power, constant impedance, constant current) is defined for each Demand Load category in the Demand Load Library.
Energy Audit Types
An Energy Audit type load is defined by a load factor and load characteristic. The term Energy Audit comes from the fact that you may have measured or audited the system loads, and may not want to use special NEC demand factors. The load characteristic for Energy Audit load types is not used in the Demand Load Study. This load characteristic is fully defined in the Load Flow Chapter of the Reference Manual.
DAPPER 1-8
Reference Manual
New non-motor loads default as Energy Audit loads with a load factor of 1.0 and a constant kVA load characteristic. This default setting sets the connected, demand and design load values equal to the load rated size. The demand and design load values are always identical for Energy Audit type loads.
Motor Loads
Motors are generally modeled as a constant kVA load characteristic when running, and as a constant impedance load characteristic when starting. When a motor is either running or starting, the Demand Load Study scales the individual motor rated size by multiplying the quantity of motors by the motor load factor. When a motor is modeled as starting, Demand Load Study multiplies the rated size by the number of motors, and divides the product by the subtransient reactance ( X ). The default X is 0.17 pu, and d d the default load factor is 1.0. The starting power factor is calculated based on the motors fault duty X/R ratio, which has a default of 10. Thus, the default motor starting condition is a locked rotor current of 5.9 multiplied by the motors full load amperes (FLA), and a starting power factor of 10%. The following one-line diagram models a single 100 hp motor at Bus 2. It shows the motor parameters used to calculate demand and design load values.
UTILITY 1 BUS 1 Connected 91.42 kVA Demand 91.42 kVA Design 114.28 kVA BUS 2 Connected 91.42 kVA Demand 91.42 kVA Design 114.28 kVA MOTOR 1 Size 100.0 hp PF 0.85 Lag
C1
In this example, the motors mechanical to electrical energy conversion efficiency is 96% and the power factor is 85%. The connected motor load at Bus 2 is calculated as:
Motor kVA = 100 hp 746 watts hp 1000 watts kW 0.85 PF 0.96 efficiency
= 91.42 kVA
The motor design load value depends on identifying the largest motor at the bus. The Demand Load Study automatically locates the largest motor on the branch circuit and multiplies its rated size by the Largest Motor design factor. All the remaining motor rated sizes on the branch circuit are vectorially summed and then multiplied by the Remaining Motors design factor. Both the Largest Motor design factor and the Remaining Motors multiplying factor are defined in the Demand Load Study Setup dialog box, with default values of 1.25 and 1.0, respectively. The connected and demand load values are the same for motor circuits unless a load factor is specified, while the design load is generally larger than the connected load value.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-9
There are two instances when the motor demand load may be larger than the connected load when modeled in PTW. First, if a motor service factor (SF) is used in the Demand Load Study to determine the largest maximum system demand, then you may want to enter the SF as a load factor. Because the demand load is the motor rated size multiplied by the load factor, and because the SF might be 1.1, the demand load value could be 110% of the motors connected load. Second, if a motor is placed in a motor control center and the motors control library data is used, then the NEC Full Load Amperes (FLA) values (Table 430-150) are used to calculate both the demand and design load values. Because the NEC FLA values tend to be conservative, the demand and design load values are usually larger than the connected load. Note that regardless of the NEC FLA values, the motors connected load value is always the motors rated size multiplied by the number of motors.
DAPPER 1-10
Reference Manual
4.
Choose the OK button to return to the Study dialog box, and choose the Run button.
The Demand Load Study runs, writes the results to the database, and creates a report.
To choose a non-motor load in the Demand Load Study dialog box, refer to the following table:
Select this option button Include All Loads Include Only Demand Loads Include Only Energy Audit Loads To do this Include all non-motor loads entered as Demand Loads and/or Energy Audit loads. Include non-motor loads entered as Demand Loads. Include non-motor loads entered as Energy Audit loads.
The Demand Load Study includes all motors that are in service. Motor Load Design Factors are used to calculate the design load value of the largest motor and all remaining motors in a branch and feeder circuit. Enter motor data using the following guidelines:
In this box Largest Motor Type this information A design load multiplying factor for the largest motor on the branch circuit. The Demand Load Study identifies the largest motor on each branch circuit and multiplies its rated size by this design factor to determine the design load. A design load multiplying factor for all other motors on the branch circuit. The Demand Load Study vectorially
Remaining Motors
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-11
In this box
Type this information sums all of the remaining motor rated sizes on the branch circuit and multiplies them by this design factor to determine the design load.
The Demand Load Study identifies one motor in each branch as the largest motor. Both induction and synchronous motors are considered. In a case where the Number of Motors field in the Component Editor is greater than one, the Demand Load Study calculates the demand load value as the rated size multiplied by the number of motors. The design load value requires further steps. First, the Demand Load Study examines all the motors rated sizes on the bus to determine the largest motor on the bus. The largest motors rated size is then multiplied by the largest motor design factor from the Demand Load Study Setup dialog box.
Project Configuration
You can use the Demand Load Study to examine any number of different project configurations. For example, during the design process you may want to examine the power system with selector switches selecting the normal or emergency system in operation. To do this, simply run the Demand Load Study on the first system configuration and save the report. Then change the system and run the Demand Load Study a second time. Prior to running the second Study, change the report name under Report Files in the Study dialog box to avoid overwriting the first report. Then compare the two reports. The purpose of the Demand Load Study is to provide a picture of the total loads in the project. Therefore, the effects of local generation are not considered in the calculation. Note: The Load Flow Study can use Demand Load Study information to examine the load flow in the power system with tie breakers and loops closed. The Demand Load Study provides feeder and transformer in and out of service switches to simplify opening and closing the tie breakers and selector switches.
DAPPER 1-12
Reference Manual
branch. This error is fatal. To correct the problem, check the system for components erroneously out of service. Incomplete System Configuration: One or more component connections is missing. This error is fatal. Zero Load Data: The motor load on one or more load buses is zero kVA. This error is not fatal, and the Study continues. Load Demand Category Not Defined, PTW will detect non-motor loads modeled as demand loads, and where the demand category is not defined. PTW assumes a 100% demand category.
g b
At Bus 2, the connected load is 2000 kVA. The methodology requires that the demand load value be calculated as:
Demand Load = 100 kVA 100% + 1900 kVA 50% = 1050 kVA
g b
The connected, demand and design loads are shown on the following one-line diagram:
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-13
UTILITY 1 BUS 1 Connected 2000.00 kVA Demand 1050.00 kVA Design 1050.00 kVA BUS 2 Connected 2000.00 kVA Demand 1050.00 kVA Design 1050.00 kVA BUS 3 Connected 1000.00 kVA Demand 550.00 kVA Design 550.00 kVA
C1
C2 BUS 4 Connected 1000.00 kVA Demand 550.00 kVA LOAD 1 Design 550.00 kVA Size 1000.0 kVA PF 0.85 Lag
C3
In the diagram, note the coincident demand load is 550 kVA at Buses 3 and 4. The coincident peak of these values is 1100 kVA. However, the non-coincident demand load or diversity load at Bus 2 is only 1050 kVA. This is because of the methodology inherent in the NECs multi-level demand factors. For a review of multi-level demand factors, see the bulleted rules in Section 1.2.1 of this Reference Manual.
g b
DAPPER 1-14
Reference Manual
UTILITY 1 BUS 1 Connected 125.00 kVA Demand 125.00 kVA Design 143.75 kVA BUS 2 Connected 125.00 kVA Demand 125.00 kVA Design 143.75 kVA BUS 3 Connected 50.00 kVA Demand 50.00 kVA Design 62.50 kVA MOTOR 1 Size 50.0 kVA PF 0.85 Lag
C1
C2 BUS 4 Connected 75.00 kVA Demand 75.00 kVA Design 93.75 kVA
C3
Since there are no loads directly connected to Buses 1 or 2, the connected, demand, and design loads are the same at Buses 1 and 2. The Demand Load Study properly calculates the individual design load values for the two branch circuits as shown on the drawing.
The design load value at Buses 1 and 2 is 218.75 kVA. The data on the following oneline diagram agrees with the preceding calculations.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-15
UTILITY 1 BUS 1 Connected 200.00 kVA Demand 200.00 kVA Design 218.75 kVA BUS 2 Connected 200.00 kVA Demand 200.00 kVA Design 218.75 kVA BUS 3 Connected 125.00 kVA Demand 125.00 kVA Design 143.75 kVA MOTOR 3 Size 75.0 kVA PF 0.85 Lag MOTOR 1 Size 50.0 kVA PF 0.85 Lag
C1
C2 BUS 4 Connected 75.00 kVA Demand 75.00 kVA Design 93.75 kVA
C3
The demand and design loads are based on the FLA available in the Motor Control Center Library, not on the connected motor FLA based on connected load values.
DAPPER 1-16
Reference Manual
UTILITY 1 BUS 1
BUS 2
MCC BUS 3
The following portion of the Demand Load Study Report shows connected loads of 50 kVA and 75 kVA for the two motors. This is equivalent to 60.1 A and 90.2 A. The demand load current value is from the Motor Control Center Library, based on Table 430-150 of the NEC. For the 75 hp 460 V motor, the NEC FLA value is 96 A. Because the 75 hp motor is the largest motor on the bus, the design load value is 125% of the demand load value (96 A), which is 120 A. The demand and design kVA values are calculated from the NEC FLA.
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BUS-0003 480. VOLTS LINE TO LINE ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS KVA TYPE MTR 50.0 60.1 54.0 65.0 54.0 65.0 85.00 96.0 99.8 120.0 85.00 LARGEST KVA MTR 75.0 90.2 79.8 ============================================================================== TOTALS 125.0 150.4 133.9 161.0 153.8 185.0 85.00
With seven single-phase 15 A circuits, the panel is not balanced. Phase A has 45 A of lighting load, whereas Phases B and C each have 30 A of load. The Phase A power is
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-17
5.4 kVA, and Phases B and C each have 3.6 kVA. The sum of the power and current for each phase is:
Apparent Power = 5.4 kVA + 3.6 kVA + 3.6 kVA = 12.6 kVA
The load current shown in the PTW report is an average of the three-phase currents:
Average = 45 A + 30 A + 30 A 3 = 35.0 A
Because the loads all have the same power factor, the arithmetical average current is the sum of the three-phase currents divided by 3. Next, the two single-phase, two-pole water heater loads are added to the panel. Again, the load is not evenly distributed across the three phases. One heater is connected across Phases A and B, and the other is connected across Phases B and C. Combined with the seven single-pole lighting loads, the phase currents are 75 A on Phase A, 90 A on Phase B, and 60 A on Phase C. This phase current is reported at the bottom of the Schedule dialog box. Note: In the Load Schedule Report, PTW uses the bus rated voltage to calculate the fault current, whereas in the Comprehensive Short Circuit Study PTW uses the pre-fault voltage. You probably won't notice the difference because the bus rated voltage and the pre-fault voltage are usually the same; the only time they'll be different is when you have modeled transformer tap values and turn on the "Model Transformer Taps" option in the Comprehensive Short Circuit Study.
The total heating load per heater is 6.24 kVA. Because there are two heaters modeled, the total heating load is 12.48 kVA. This load is split across the three phases as shown in the following chart: Total Apparent Power in the Panel Schedule Panel Load (kVA) B C Total 3.60 6.24 9.84 3.60 3.12 6.72 12.60 12.48 25.08
A
Lighting Heating Total
Each heater draws 6.24 kVA split evenly across its two phases, or 3.1 kVA per phase. Phase B draws current for both heaters. The following demand load report reports the loads in kVA. Both loads are considered as continuous loads.
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BUS-0002 208. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR BUS-0001 ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS LIGHTING 12.6 35.0 12.6 35.0 15.8 43.8 95.00 HEATING 12.5 34.6 12.5 34.6 15.6 43.3 95.00 ============================================================================== 25.1 69.6 25.1 69.6 31.4 87.1 95.00 TOTALS
DAPPER 1-18
Reference Manual
e 3jb0.208 kVg
25.1 kVA
= 69.6 A
C1
BUS 2
Connected 97.95 kVA Demand 97.95 kVA Design 110.23 kVA PF 87.89 Lag
C2
BUS 3
Connected 97.95 kVA Demand 97.95 kVA Design 110.23 kVA PF 87.89 Lag
The results of the apparent power calculation appear as the demand load kVA rounded up to 98.0 kVA in the Report. The 85.62% power factor for the combined loads is based on the design load values.
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BUS-0003 480. VOLTS LINE TO LINE ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== KVA TYPE MTR 50.0 60.1 50.0 60.1 50.0 60.1 95.00 LARGEST KVA MTR 50.0 60.1 50.0 60.1 62.5 75.2 75.00 ============================================================================== 98.0 117.8 110.2 132.6 85.62 TOTALS 98.0 117.8
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-19
g b
The design load value for Bus 3 is 193.8 kVA, as shown in the following one-line diagram.
UTILITY 1 BUS 1 Connected 175.00 kVA Demand 175.00 kVA Design 193.75 kVA PF 85.00 Lag BUS 2 Connected 175.00 kVA Demand 175.00 kVA Design 193.75 kVA PF 85.00 Lag BUS 3 Connected 175.00 kVA Demand 175.00 kVA Design 193.75 kVA PF 85.00 Lag MOTOR 1 Size 50.0 kVA No. of Mtrs 2 PF 0.85 Lag MOTOR 2 Size 75.0 kVA No. of Mtrs 1 PF 0.85 Lag C2 C1
The following report show the design load of the largest motor as 93.8 kVA and the total design load as 198.8 kVA.
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BUS 3 480. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR BUS 2 ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS 100.0 120.3 85.00 KVA TYPE MTR 100.0 120.3 100.0 120.3 93.8 112.8 85.00 LARGEST KVA MTR 75.0 90.2 75.0 90.2 ============================================================================== 193.8 233.0 85.00 TOTALS 175.0 210.5 175.0 210.5
DAPPER 1-20
Reference Manual
thus the lock rotor current ratio is 4 per unit. The starting power factor is related to the motors X/R ratio. The motors X/R ratio is defined as 5, thus the starting power factor is 19.6%. The power factor result is:
Power Factor = cos arctan X R
o
d i = cosbarctan5g = cose78.7 j
= 19.61% Lag
The following one-line diagram shows this starting power factor. The motor load characteristic is changed from a constant kVA load to a constant impedance load during this starting simulation, although it does not effect the outcome of the Demand Load Study.
UTILITY 1 BUS 1
Connected 50.00 kVA Demand 200. kVA Design 250.00 kVA PF 19.61
C1
BUS 2
Connected 50.00 kVA Demand 200.00 kVA Design 250.00 kVA PF 19.61
C2
BUS 3
Connected 50.00 kVA Demand 200.00 kVA Design 250.00 kVA PF 19.61
MOTOR 1
Size 50.0 kVA Starting Condition PF 19.61
Note that the report show that 200 kVA of demand load is also at the largest motor:
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BUS-0003 480. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR BUS-0002 ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS 200.0 240.6 250.0 300.7 19.61 LARGEST Z MTR 50.0 60.1 ============================================================================== 200.0 240.6 250.0 300.7 19.61 TOTALS 50.0 60.1
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-21
Because the branch from Bus 6 to Bus 5 is temporarily out of service, the calculated connected, demand, and design loads at Bus 4 and Bus 5 are zero. Additionally, the demand load on the branch between Bus 1 and Bus 2 is 125 kVA. Utility 1 is the source of supply for all the loads in the system. If the branch from Bus 2 to Bus 6 were open instead of the branch from Bus 5 to Bus 6, the two sources of supply would feed the loads more equally. When there are loops in the power system, pay close attention to where the branches are automatically opened. Sometimes it is best to manually open the branch to ensure proper load balance between branches.
UTILITY 1 BUS 1
Connected 125.00 kVA Demand 125.00 kVA Design 143.75 kVA
UTILITY 2 BUS 4
Connected 0.00 kVA Demand 0.00 kVA Design 0.00 kVA
C1
C3
BUS 2
Connected 125.00 kVA Demand 125.00 kVA Design 143.75 kVA
BUS 5
Connected 0.00 kVA Demand 0.00 kVA Design 0.00 kVA
C2 BUS 6
C6
C4
BUS 3
Connected 75.00 kVA Demand 75.00 kVA Design 93.75 kVA
C5 BUS 7
Connected 50.00 kVA Demand 50.00 kVA Design 62.50 kVA
3/26/2006
EDISON UTILITY BUS R1 CB1 TM -1 DEMONSTRATION PROJECT FOR POWER*TOOLS FOR WINDOWS TX A PRI R2 CB2 TX A 003-HV SWGR
DAPPER 1-22
Reference Manual
R9
R10
CB9
CB10 C4
007-TX E PRI
TX B PRI BUS 4 R4 005-TXD PRI CB4 CB5 TX D DS SWG1 BUS 8 F1 TX H C6 029-TX D SEC CMP CTR HVAC BUS CB12 TX3 SEC BUS 11 C19 C7 C8 R11 TX G CMP HVAC LVP6 DS SWG2 BUS 13 DSB 1 BUS 14 C13 C9 M13 C16 C17 021-TX F PRI TX F BUS 28 A BUS 16 PLN 16 H2A C18 MCCB2 023-MTR 23 PLN - 17 H1A C12 MO/L#28B-1 MO/L#28B-2 BUS 17 022-DSB 2 MCP#28B-1 MCP#28B-2 BUS 28 B L2 LVP4 LVP5 L1 M20 L5 C20 DS SWG3 BUS 20 DSB 3 BUS 27 M25 PCB1 PCB2 PCB3 MO/L#25 F3 TX3 TER BUS 12 GEN 3 MCP#10 COMPUTERS TX C F2 F5 026-TX G PRI 025-MTR 25 C5 TX 6 BLDG 115 SERV R5 006-TX3 PRI TX E
TX B
C10
C11
TX C PRI BUS 9
F4
SW1
SWBD-1
LVP1
LVP2
LVP3
C14
BUS 15
MCC 15 - 1A
C15
MCCB1
018-RA
H3A BUS 19 M28 #1 & 2 M23-B PNL 19 H3A M23-A M28 #3 M28 #4
PNL 18 RA
DAPPER 1-23
The following figure shows a portion of the Plant project, including Demand Load Study results.
DEMAND LOAD ANALYSIS BUILDING 115 SERVICE
BLDG 115 SERV Connected 3580.25 kVA Demand 3480.52 kVA Design 4125.68 kVA C10 C11
026-TX G PRI Connected 1081.67 kVA Demand 981.84 kVA Design 1058.91 kVA F4 SW1
025-MTR 25 Connected 2500.00 kVA Demand 2500.00 kVA Design 3125.00 kVA
TX G F3
Connected 1081.67 kVA Demand 981.84 kVA Design 1058.91 kVA C13 L5 100.0 kVA LVP4 1.00 Unity PF LVP5 C20 M25 2500.0 kVA No of Mtrs: 1 0.80 Lag PF Load Factor 1.00 BUS 28 A Connected 500.00 kVA Demand 450.00 kVA Design 506.25 kVA BUS 28 B Connected 500.00 kVA Demand 450.00 kVA Design 506.25 kVA MCP#28B-1 MCP#28B-2
MO/L#28B-1
MO/L#28B-2
M28 #1 & 2 250.0 kVA No of Mtrs: 2 0.80 Lag PF Load Factor 0.90
The Demand Load Study reports the connected, demand and design load power and current at each bus, and the design load value power factor. Some of the data for the buses in the above one-line diagram are shown in the following report:
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BLDG 115 SERV 4160. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR 007-TX E PRI ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS BRANCH LOADS 026-TX G PRI 1081.7 150.1 981.8 136.3 1058.9 147.0 84.05 025-MTR 25 2500.0 347.0 2500.0 347.0 3125.0 433.7 80.00 029-TX D SEC 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 WARNING: LOAD IS ZERO ============================================================================== TOTALS 3580.3 496.9 3480.5 483.0 4125.7 572.6 81.08
DAPPER 1-24
Reference Manual
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR 026-TX G PRI 4160. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR BLDG 115 SERV ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS BRANCH LOADS DSB 3 BUS 27 1081.7 150.1 981.8 136.3 1058.9 147.0 84.05 ============================================================================== TOTALS 1081.7 150.1 981.8 136.3 1058.9 147.0 84.05
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR 025-MTR 25 4160. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR BLDG 115 SERV ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS LARGEST KVA MTR 2500.0 347.0 2500.0 347.0 3125.0 433.7 80.00 ============================================================================== TOTALS 2500.0 347.0 2500.0 347.0 3125.0 433.7 80.00
LOAD SCHEDULE FOR DSB 3 BUS 27 480. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR 026-TX G PRI ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS HEATING 100.0 120.3 100.0 120.3 125.0 150.4 100.00 BRANCH LOADS BUS 28 A 500.0 601.4 450.0 541.3 506.2 608.9 80.00 BUS 28 B 500.0 601.4 450.0 541.3 506.2 608.9 80.00 ============================================================================== TOTALS 1081.7 1301.0 981.8 1181.0 1058.9 1273.7 84.05 LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BUS 28 A 480. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR DSB 3 BUS 27 ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS LARGEST KVA MTR 500.0 601.4 225.0 270.6 281.2 338.3 80.00 ============================================================================== TOTALS 500.0 601.4 450.0 541.3 506.2 608.9 80.00 LOAD SCHEDULE FOR BUS 28 B 480. VOLTS LINE TO LINE SOURCE OF PWR DSB 3 BUS 27 ============================================================================== ITEM DESCRIPTION * CONNECTED LOAD * DEMAND LOAD * DESIGN LOAD * % KVA AMPS KVA AMPS KVA AMPS P F ============================================================================== END USE LOADS KVA TYPE MTR 250.0 300.7 225.0 270.6 225.0 270.6 80.00 LARGEST KVA MTR 250.0 300.7 225.0 270.6 281.2 338.3 80.00 ============================================================================== TOTALS 500.0 601.4 450.0 541.3 506.2 608.9 80.00
The complete load summary from the Demand Load Study Report is shown below. It lists the connected, demand and design load values and the design load power factor in each load category.
TOTAL SOURCE LOAD SUMMARY ****************************************************************************** ============================================================================== LOAD DESCRIPTION UNITS CONNECTED DEMAND DESIGN POWER FACTOR TYPE LOAD LOAD LOAD % ============================================================================== GENERAL LOADS KW 59.6 59.6 59.6 KVAR 28.9 28.9 28.9 KVA 66.3 66.3 66.3 90.00 LAGGING LIGHTING KW 216.2 216.2 270.2 KVAR 85.3 85.3 106.6 KVA 232.4 232.4 290.5 93.02 LAGGING RECEPTACLES KW 80.3 44.4 44.4 KVAR 49.7 27.5 27.5
3/26/2006
DAPPER 1-25
KVA 94.4 52.2 52.2 85.00 LAGGING KW 7.1 7.1 7.1 KVAR 4.4 4.4 4.4 KVA 8.3 8.3 8.3 85.00 LAGGING HEATING KW 540.0 540.0 675.0 KVAR 0.0 0.0 0.0 KVA 540.0 540.0 675.0 100.00 UNITY STANDBY LOADS KW 63.8 63.8 79.7 KVAR 39.5 39.5 49.4 KVA 75.0 75.0 93.8 85.00 LAGGING ENERGY AUDIT KVA KW 427.5 427.5 427.5 KVAR -1159.5 -1159.5 -1159.5 KVA 1235.8 1235.8 1235.8 -34.59 LEADING KVA TYPE MTR KW 8904.1 8831.0 8831.0 KVAR 4442.0 4405.5 4405.5 KVA 9950.6 9868.9 9868.9 89.48 LAGGING LARGEST KVA MTR KW 3200.0 3200.0 4000.0 KVAR 2400.0 2400.0 3000.0 KVA 4000.0 4000.0 5000.0 80.00 LAGGING -----------------------------------------------------------------------------TOTAL LOADS KW 13498.5 13389.5 14394.5 KVAR 5890.4 5831.6 6462.8 KVA 14727.7 14604.3 15778.7 % PF 91.7 91.7 91.2 LAGGING LAGGING LAGGING OFFICE EQUIPMENT
The demand load factors for the various demand loads are listed in the table below. Only seven of the twenty demand load categories are used in this example.
LOAD DEMAND TABLE ============================================================================== LOAD DESCRIPTION LOAD FIRST DEMAND SECOND DEMAND THIRD DEMAND DESIGN TYPE KVA % KVA % KVA % FACT ============================================================================== GENERAL LOADS K 100. 100. ALL 50. ALL 50. 1.00 LIGHTING K ALL 100. ALL 100. ALL 100. 1.25 RECEPTACLES Z 10. 100. ALL 50. ALL 50. 1.00 OFFICE EQUIPMENT Z ALL 100. ALL 100. ALL 100. 1.00 HEATING Z ALL 100. ALL 100. ALL 100. 1.25 STANDBY LOADS K ALL 100. ALL 100. ALL 100. 1.25 CAPACITOR BANK Z ALL 100. ALL 100. ALL 100. 1.35
2 Sizing Study
The Sizing Study sizes branch components such as feeders, neutrals, raceways, transformers, and equipment grounding conductors based on the results of the Demand Load Study (DLS). The Sizing Study is the second of two Studies used to quantify the preliminary electrical design to meet national codes and standards. Combined with the DLS, the preliminary design ensures that feeders and transformers meet minimum load values. Once the preliminary design is defined, more detailed Studies (Voltage Drop, Motor Starting, Short Circuit Studies) are used to verify that electrical apparatus is sized for normal and abnormal system operation. This chapter discusses: Engineering Methodology. PTW Applied Methodology. Examples.
IN THIS CHAPTER
What is the Sizing Study? ..............................................................................DAPPER 2-2 Engineering Methodology .............................................................................DAPPER 2-3 PTW Applied Methodology ..........................................................................DAPPER 2-4 Application Examples ....................................................................................DAPPER 2-7
DAPPER 2-2
Reference Manual
Study Setup
Cable Library Transformer Library Feeder Voltage Drop Criteria Transformer Tap Size Criteria Study Setup
Saved in Database
For each branch: Feeder size Quantity of feeders per phase Transformer nominal kVA Raceway information Transformer full-load kVA Used by Short Circuit Study and Load Flow Study
DXF Files
Datablocks
Reports
Authored by Committee, 1996 National Electric Code. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1996.
[1]
3/26/2006
Sizing Study
DAPPER 2-3
g b
g 100
If the voltage drop exceeds the specified level, the Sizing Study selects the next largest feeder and restarts the Sizing Study in order to select a cable or combination of parallel cables which meets the ampacity criteria of minimum cross-sectional area and acceptable voltage drop. The Sizing Study voltage drop calculation follows the methodology cited in
DAPPER 2-4
Reference Manual
Chapter 3 of the IEEE Red Book.[2] This simple methodology assumes no losses in the branch. Feeders attached to the primary or secondary of a transformer are sized differently than those associated with other branch circuits. These feeders tend to be short in length and are sized in direct relation to the transformer nominal rated size.
The capacity factor is stored in the Transformer Library. Typical capacity factors are:
Transformer Cooling Characteristic Dry Type (DT) Oil/Air Cooled (OA) Oil/Air/Forced Air (OAFA) Oil/Forced Air (FA) Capacity Factor (may be changed) 1.0 1.15 1.25 1.33
To change a transformers capacity factor: 1. 2. 3. Open the Transformer Library. Choose the Select command from the Component menu. Type a new capacity factor for the selected transformer.
Authored by Committee. IEEE Red Book: IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power and Distribution for Industrial Plants, IEEE Std 141-1993. USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 1994.
[2]
3/26/2006
Sizing Study
DAPPER 2-5
contains a loop, the DLS will have temporarily opened the loop to run the demand and design load Studies. Therefore, the Sizing Study is based on the radial system used in the DLS. Although user-defined feeders are not sized, if sufficient ampacity data is entered in the Component Editor, then feeder evaluation is accomplished. Because the sole purpose of the DLS is to provide the vector sum of the total load at each bus and in each branch of the electrical system, it ignores local generation. Therefore, the Sizing Study, which is based on the demand and design load values resulting from the DLS, tends to oversize feeders and transformers which are upstream from local generation. The Cable and Transformer Libraries contain feeder and transformer sizing tables that are required for the Sizing Study. You can modify the libraries to suit your individual design requirements.
The Sizing Study runs, writes the results to the database, and creates a Report.
DAPPER 2-6
Reference Manual
The Sizing Study is dependent on the system load values. Therefore, the Sizing Study bases its calculations on the results of the last Demand Load Study run.
Following is a list of the available Study options. You can keep the defaults, or type in new values for the Allowable Feeder Voltage Drop and Primary/Secondary Feeder percent text boxes:
In this box Allowable Feeder Voltage Drop Primary/Secondary Feeder Type this information Percent value to which you want to limit a single branch circuit voltage drop. Used as a sizing constraint. Percent Transformer FLA value. Used as a sizing constraint.
You can choose one of three options for the Study results:
Select this option button Size and Report, Do Not Change Database Size, Report and Change Database To do this Size the existing system, generate a Report of current feeder and transformer sizes; make no changes to the database. Size the existing system, generate a Report of current feeder and transformer sizes; make changes to the database based on the findings. Generate a Report of current feeder and transformer sizes; make no new sizing calculations or changes in the database.
3/26/2006
Sizing Study
DAPPER 2-7
You can select to create a DXF file suitable for import to Computer Aided Design (CAD) software, and specify an extended print character set:
Select this check box Create .DXF File Use Extended Character Set To do this Create a separate file with the dxf file extension and save it in the projects subdirectory. Provide for vertical lines and boxes around the feeder and transformer schedules. You must use the PIXymbolsExtended font which is automatically loaded as a True Type font when PTW is installed.
The Sizing Study tries to find an appropriate feeder size or parallel combination of feeders to meet either the cable ampacity or voltage drop limitation, but if none is found, the Sizing Study will broadcast a warning and leave the cable size unchanged. Note: Because the Sizing Study may change circuit impedance values, PTW will not allow you to run the Sizing Study simultaneously with either the Load Flow Study, Comprehensive Short Circuit Study, A_FAULT Study, or IEC_FAULT Study.
DAPPER 2-8
Reference Manual
UTILITY
B1
4160 V Demand Load 200.00 kVA C1 Size # 6 AWG/kcmil 1 Cables in Parallel 30.10 Amps Ampacity 75.0 A / Cable Length 100.0 ft B2 4160 V Demand Load 200.00 kVA T1 225.0 kVA B3 480 V Demand Load 200.00 kVA
C2
Size # 4/0 AWG/kcmil 4 Cables in Parallel 260.90 Amps Ampacity 230.0 A / Cable Length 1200.0 ft
B4 480 V Demand Load 200.00 kVA C4 Size # 2/0 AWG/kcmil 2 Cables in Parallel 131.92 Amps Ampacity 175.0 A / Cable Length 1000.0 ft B6 480 V Demand Load 100.00 kVA L2 Design Load 125.00 kVA
C3 Size # 2/0 AWG/kcmil 1 Cables in Parallel 128.98 Amps Ampacity 175.0 A / Cable Length 100.0 ft B5 480 V Demand Load 100.00 kVA L1 Design Load 125.00 kVA
In the one-line diagram, note the branch circuit conductor from Bus B4 to Bus B5. The #2/0 AWG cable has an ampacity of 175 A and a load current of 129 A. The cable is loaded to 73% of its ampacity, safely under the NECs 80% limit. The branch from Bus B4 to Bus B6 is ten times longer than the first branch. The voltage drop is significant, and the Sizing Study selects two #2/0 AWG cables in parallel. Two are required because of the voltage drop associated with the 1000-foot cable length. A low voltage feeder circuit is defined between Buses B3 and B4, but this is also defined as a secondary tap of the transformer. The Sizing Study sizes this feeder based on the transformer full load size. Transformer T1 was sized as 225 kVA to meet the total demand load of 200 kVA in this branch. The Sizing Study always reports when feeder cables are selected based on the transformer size. In this case, the Report listed the following message regarding the transformer secondary tap:
PRIMARY/SECONDARY TRANSFORMER FDRS SIZED AT 125. % OF TX FULL LOAD RATING *** NOTICE *** FEEDER SIZED TO 125. PERCENT OF TRANSFORMER SIZE BRANCH FROM B3 TO B4
3/26/2006
Sizing Study
DAPPER 2-9
270.6 338.3
From the preceding Report, the secondary feeder will be sized larger than 338.3 A because the transformer feeder sizing criterion was chosen as 125% of the transformers full load rated amperes. The user-defined Primary/Secondary Feeder sizing criterion is adjusted in the Feeder and Transformer Sizing Study dialog box. Thus, four parallel sets of #4/0 AWG cables are selected as the optimal solution, including the effects of the voltage drop, due to the extremely long cable length. The four #4/0 AWG cables have a combined cross-sectional area of 846.4 kcmil. Even if 750 kcmil conductors are selected, parallel circuits are required. If the transfer secondary tap were ten feet long, then two each #2/0 AWG cables, with a rated ampacity of 175 A per cable, would certainly meet the ampacity, cross sectional area, and voltage drop sizing criteria.
B5
The derating of Cable C3 is accomplished by adjusting the temperature text box in the Conductor and Raceway subview. Cable C3 must be sized differently than Cable C4, based on the 50C derating factor of 75%. Cable C3 is sized to a single #2/0 AWG cable, which has a rating of 175 A at 30 C or 131 A at 50 C. The actual demand load value in this branch is 121.7 A. This result is compared to the identical load and cable length in the branch from Bus B4 to Bus B5. In this branch only a single #1 AWG cable, rated at 130 A, is required.
DAPPER 2-10
Reference Manual
U1 B1 C1 Length 6000.0 ft Ampacity 150.0 A Size 2 No 1 LF Current 70.48 A C2 Length 25.0 ft Ampacity 83.0 A Size 6 No 1 LF Current 28.28 A T1 Size 225.0 kVA Load 205.00 kVA B4 C3 Length 10.0 ft Ampacity 175.0 A Size 2/0 No 2 LF Current 232.86 A B40 C30 Length 10.0 ft Ampacity 200.0 A Size 3/0 No 4 LF Current 352.89 A C50 Length 1000.0 ft Ampacity 150.0 A Size 1/0 No 3 LF Current 235.42 A B70 L10 105.00 kVA SPECIAL LOAD L20 205.00 kVA SPECIAL LOAD T2 Size 500.0 kVA Load 305.00 kVA C20 Length 25.0 ft Ampacity 110.0 A Size 4 No 1 LF Current 42.86 A
B2
B3
B30
B5
B50 C40
C4 Length 300.0 ft Ampacity 85.0 A Size 4 No 1 LF Current 63.22 A B6 L1 55.00 kVA SPECIAL LOAD B7
C5 Length 1000.0 ft Ampacity 175.0 A Size 2/0 No 2 LF Current 175.50 A B60 L2 155.00 kVA SPECIAL LOAD
The above diagram shows that each branch circuit is sized according to its load and that the primary and secondary transformer feeders are sized based on the transformer full load rating. Tip: To effectively use the Sizing Study where many transformers exist, it is best to place primary and secondary feeder taps on the transformer, as shown above.
3/26/2006
EDISON
UTILITY BUS R1
CB1 TM -1
R2 CB2
TX A 003-HV SWGR
R9
R10
CB9
CB10 C4
007-TX E PRI
TX B PRI BUS 4 R4 005-TXD PRI CB4 CB5 TX D DS SWG1 BUS 8 F1 TX H C6 029-TX D SEC CMP CTR HVAC BUS CB12 TX3 SEC BUS 11 C19 C7 C8 R11 TX G CMP HVAC LVP6 DS SWG2 BUS 13 DSB 1 BUS 14 C13 C9 M13 C16 C17 021-TX F PRI TX F BUS 28 A BUS 16 PLN 16 H2A C18 MCCB2 023-MTR 23 PLN - 17 H1A C12 MO/L#28B-1 MO/L#28B-2 BUS 17 022-DSB 2 MCP#28B-1 MCP#28B-2 BUS 28 B L2 LVP4 LVP5 L1 M20 L5 C20 DS SWG3 BUS 20 DSB 3 BUS 27 M25 PCB1 PCB2 PCB3 MO/L#25 F3 TX3 TER BUS 12 GEN 3 MCP#10 COMPUTERS TX C F2 F5 026-TX G PRI 025-MTR 25 C5 TX 6 BLDG 115 SERV R5 006-TX3 PRI TX E
TX B
C10
C11
TX C PRI BUS 9
F4
SW1
SWBD-1
LVP1
LVP2
LVP3
C14
BUS 15
Sizing Study
MCC 15 - 1A
C15
MCCB1
018-RA
H3A BUS 19 M28 #1 & 2 M23-B PNL 19 H3A M23-A M28 #3 M28 #4
PNL 18 RA
DAPPER 2-11
DAPPER 2-12
Reference Manual
C10
C11
026-TX G PRI
025-MTR 25 F4 SW1
F3 TX G MO/L#25
DSB 3 BUS 27
M25
L5 C13
C20
MCP#28B-2 MO/L#28B-2
M28 #1 & 2
M28 #3
M28 #4
The Sizing Study first lists notices if feeders are identified on either the primary or secondary side of two winding transformers. If feeders are identified, they are sized in accordance to the ***Notice*** listed. Some of the data for the buses in the above oneline diagram are shown in the following Report.
FEEDER AND TRANSFORMER STUDY CRITERIA ============================================================================== VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATIONS ARE PRELIMINARY EXECUTE VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW STUDY FOR MORE ACCURATE RESULTS *** NOTICE *** FEEDER SIZED TO 125. PERCENT OF TRANSFORMER SIZE BRANCH FROM BLDG 115 SERVICE TO 026-TX G PRI TX KVA: 1000.0 TR FLA: 138.8 MINIMUM FEEDER AMPACITY: 173.5
3/26/2006
Sizing Study
DAPPER 2-13
***
NOTICE
***
FEEDER SIZED TO 125. PERCENT OF TRANSFORMER SIZE BRANCH FROM DSB 3 BUS 27 TO BUS 28 A TX KVA: 1000.0 TR FLA: 1202.8 MINIMUM FEEDER AMPACITY: 1503.5
The Sizing Study Report also lists all the feeder sizes, as shown below, for a portion of the Plant project.
FEEDER SIZE REPORT ****************************************************************************** F E E D E R S C H E D U L E ============================================================================== FEEDER ROUTING FEEDER NO WIRE SIZE TYPE INSUL GROUND RACEWAY NO NAME VOLTAGE /PH QTY FDR MAT TYPE WIRE SIZE TYPE ============================================================================== FROM BLDG 115 SERV ********************* TO 026-TX G PRI TO 025-MTR 25 FROM DSB 3 BUS 27 ********************* TO BUS 28 A FROM DSB 3 BUS 27 ********************* TO BUS 28 B ( 4) 3 4160. EX 480. ( 4) 480. 2/0 CU THWN 1 1/2" C N 3 500 CU THWN 3" C N ( 1) ( 1) 3 3 1/0 500 CU CU XLP XLP 3" C 5" C N N
1 1
1/0 500
CU CU
XLP XLP
30. 30.
147. A 434. A
195. A 585. A
The Sizing Study Report also includes feeder evaluation, based on the design load value.
FEEDER EVALUATION ****************************************************************************** F E E D E R D E S I G N L O A D A N A L Y S I S ============================================================================== FEEDER ROUTING EXTG % QTY SIZE FEEDER DESCRIPTION DESIGN FEEDER NO NAME VD /PH FDR MAT INSUL AMBIENT LOAD CAPACITY ============================================================================== FROM BLDG 115 SERV 4160. ********************* TO 026-TX G PRI 0.29 TO 025-MTR 25 EX 0.43 FROM DSB 3 BUS 27 480.
1 1
1/0 500
CU CU
XLP XLP
30. 30.
147. A 434. A
195. A 585. A
DAPPER 2-14
Reference Manual
500
CU
THWN
30.
609. A
1520. A
2/0
CU
THWN
30.
609. A
700. A
3/26/2006
The Load Flow Study predicts the overall apparent real and reactive power distribution throughout a power system, including associated losses. Additionally, the Study calculates the voltage drop through each branch impedance component, and the associated voltages at each bus or node in the electrical system. This chapter introduces the steady-state load flow equations used in the Load Flow Study, demonstrates PTWs powerful algorithm used to solve these equations, and documents several case studies that validate the Study and provide you with examples of how to most effectively use the Load Flow Study. This chapter discusses: Engineering Methodology. PTW Applied Methodology. Examples.
IN THIS CHAPTER
1.1. What is the Load Flow Study?.......................................................................... 3-2 1.2. Engineering Methodology ................................................................................ 3-2 1.3. PTW Applied Methodology ............................................................................. 3-6 1.4. Application Examples..................................................................................... 3-12
DAPPER 3-2
Reference Manual
Study Setup
Cable Library Transformer Library Demand Loads Directly Connected Loads Study Setup
Saved in Database
For each branch: Voltage drop Power flow For each bus: Voltage Voltage angle Voltage drop Power flow Power factor
Datablocks
Reports
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-3
where I Y V column vector of total positive sequence currents flowing into each node (bus) in the system; The network admittance matrix (1/Z); Column Vector of positive sequence voltage at each bus.
This equation is a linear algebraic equation with complex real and imaginary coefficients. The matrix may be reduced and the solution for either voltage or current reached using matrix algebra. The current flowing into any node of the system may be defined:
Ii =
LM bP + jQ g * OP N V* Q
i i i
i
Eq. 3-2
where
bP + jQ g *
i
complex conjugate of the apparent power flowing into the ith node; complex conjugate of the voltage of the ith node.
Vi*
Eq. 3-3
Equation 3-3 is non-linear, and cannot be solved in closed form; thus the numerical analysis solution technique used must guess at each branch power flow, evaluate the algebraic equations, and then determine if the power into each bus equals power leaving the bus, including lossesthat is, determine if Kirchoffs Current Law is met. This iterative-type numerical analysis solution method continues until convergence is reached. (Convergence means that the power into the node equals the power out of the node.) A convergence criteria is established, based on an acceptable level of precision. For example, the algorithm might identify the largest load in the system and divide that load value by some constant, such as 20,000, to define a convergence criterion. Convergence usually occurs in less than ten guesses or numerical iterations. The steady-state load flow Eq. 3-3 can be reduced to a set of input and output variables; knowledge about these variables aids in the solution. Three types of buses are defined when solving for the power flow, as noted below:
Bus Type I II Node Load Bus Generation Bus, Class A Generation Bus, Class B III Swing or Slack Bus P, jQ -P, Q -P, V V, Variable Type
Independent Dependent
V, V, jQ, P, Q
The type I bus may be either a motor or non-motor load bus, where power out of the node is defined as a positive quantity. The dependent variables are voltage magnitude and voltage angle. The type II bus is a generation bus where real power is generated. A class A generator bus is non-regulated; the real and reactive power is fixed in magnitude. As load variations
DAPPER 3-4
Reference Manual
occur, the voltage magnitude and voltage angle vary. A class B generator type bus is a regulated bus. Automatic voltage regulation controls the bus voltage within the generators reactive power limits. Since the real power is fixed in magnitude, the system frequency (the resultant voltage angle) must vary. The type III bus is called a swing or slack bus, and the voltage magnitude and angle are held constant, and the real and reactive power then must vary. At least one bus in the electrical system must be defined as a swing bus in order to solve the steady-state load flow equation. From the preceding table, two of the four variables are always unknown, but there is a single equation (Eq. 3-3). This is why the Load Flow Study solution cannot be solved in closed form. By defining a swing bus voltage and angle, and recognizing that all type I bus voltages and angles are relative to the swing bus voltage magnitude and angles, numerical solution techniques may be used. The defining methodology assumes that the total apparent power into each node must equal the power out of the node (that is, that Kirchoffs Current Law is valid).
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-5
harmony with solution of the voltage conditions at each load bus, as described in the previous section. The type of loads specified and the system losses significantly influence the results of the load flow and voltage drop calculations. Constant impedance type loads are loads that vary as the square of the applied voltage. Examples of this type of load include incandescent lighting and resistance heating elements. Constant kVA loads are loads that remain (or attempt to remain) constant within boundary limitations regardless of the applied voltage. Examples of this type of load include motor loads and some types of lighting which utilize an inductive ballast to establish constant wattage to the lamp. It is clear that with constant kVA type loads, the actual load currents increase with decreasing voltage. With constant impedance loads, line currents decrease as the voltage is lowered. If both kVA loads and constant impedance loads are present, then the resulting voltage effects may be partially or totally canceled. Constant current type loads hold their current constant under varying voltage conditions. Like constant impedance type loads, as the voltage drops at the bus the amount of apparent power consumed by the constant current type load decreases. Constant current type loads are affected by the fluctuations in the bus voltage angle.
DAPPER 3-6
Reference Manual
R + jX
IZ
IX
Load Current
Eq. 3-4
where Vs Vr I R jX sending bus voltage; receiving bus voltage; load current; feeder resistance; feeder reactance.
PTW reports the magnitude difference between the receiving and sending end voltages as the voltage drop, expressed on a three-phase (line-to-line) basis.
VD = Es E r
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-7
Define individual loads. Define feeder and transformer sizes. Define generator sizes. Run the Demand Load Study (Optional). The branch load data required for Load Flow Study may either be entered, or calculated using the Demand Load Study. Tip: You may run the Demand Load Study in the same step that you run the Load Flow Study. All you need to do is select both Studies, and PTW will automatically run the Demand Load Study first. See Section 3.3.2, Running the Load Flow Study, following.
The Load Flow Study runs, writes the results to the database, and creates a report.
You can change any or all of the available Study Options to suit your needs. Following is a list of all of the controls available in this box, and their functions.
DAPPER 3-8
Reference Manual
System Modeling
If you select the Utility Impedance check box, PTW uses the three-phase short circuit capacity to calculate an equivalent positive sequence impedance. The voltage drop at the swing bus is calculated, given the total power supplied by the swing bus generator and this positive sequence impedance. It is reported separately in the Load Flow Report. Upon opening a new Project, the PTW does not model the system equivalent impedance by default. This means the voltage at the swing bus is equal to the voltage of the swing bus generator, which is set by default to 1 pu voltage at 0. If you uncheck the Transformer Phase Shift checkbox, PTW reports the voltage angles relative to the swing bus voltage angle. If you check this option, PTW models the voltage angle phase shift of the transformer connections.
Solution Method
PTW models either an Exact (Iterative) or Approximate Solution. Upon creating a new Project, PTW selects the Exact (Iterative) Solution method by default. It is recommended that you run the Study using the Exact (Iterative) Solution method first. This is because the solution method usually converges on most power systems. In the unlikely event that the steady-state load flow solution does not converge, you should re-run the Study using the Approximate Solution method. If it does not converge, a message in the Study Message dialog box will notify you of the problem. When the Approximate Solution method is selected, PTW temporarily converts all loads to constant impedance type characteristics, making these system losses smaller than if constant kVA type loads were modeled. An output report is then written, and data is sent to the database. Although it is an approximate solution (since the load characteristic is approximated), this solution method may help to identify the reasons for the nonconvergence. If you have a non-convergent solution, examine the output Reports bus voltage mismatch values and bus mismatch location, as there may be a data input problem that has caused the non-convergence. If this does not help, try adjusting the solution criteria; see Solution Criteria, following.
Load Specification
You may select one of five options for load modeling. These options are divided into two groups: Directly Connected Loads, and loads From the Demand Load Study. The default upon opening a new Project is to model all loads as Directly Connected loads using the Connected Load values. For a more detailed discussion of the demand and design load values, see the Engineering Methodology section of the Demand Load Study chapter.
Directly Connected Loads
Directly Connected Loads can be modeled as Connected Load or 1st Level Demand or Energy Factor. When either of these two options is selected, the load flow solution calculates the load at each bus, then solves the steady state load flow equation (Eq. 3-3). Neither of these options uses results from the Demand Load Study. When the Connected Load option button is selected, the Load Flow Study calculates the loads without considering any load or demand factors. If motor loads are identified, and if multiple motors are modeled in a single motor load object, the total motor connected load is the number of motors multiplied by the motors rated size. Otherwise, the load rated size is the connected load value. Motors expressed in horsepower are converted to electrical units by dividing by the efficiency.
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-9
When the 1st Level Demand or Energy Factor option button is selected, the Load Flow Study calculates the loads using the first level demand factors and energy audit load factors, as appropriate. If a non-motor load is identified with both an energy audit load factor and a demand load category, then the Study will use both the energy audit load factor and the first level demand load factor multiplied by the loads rated size. For motor loads, the load is calculated as the number of motors multiplied by the motor rated size multiplied by the motor load factor. Load diversity resulting from identifying multiple levels of demand load factors is not taken into consideration.
From Demand Load Study
Loads selected as From Demand Load Study can be modeled as Demand Load, Design Load (All Loads in Constant kVA), or Connected Load. The Load Flow Study models the loads based on the results of the last Demand Load Study run. If you have never run a Demand Load Study, the Load Flow Study will return an error message in the Run Study dialog stating that no load has been defined. When the Demand Load option button is selected, the Load Flow Study uses the calculated demand load values from the Demand Load Study. Upon creating a new Project, the Demand Load Study includes the results from all non-motor loads by default, unless you selected either the Include Only Demand Loads or Include Only Energy Audit Loads option button before running the Demand Load Study. Demand loads with multiple levels of demand factors, such as receptacle loads where the first 10 kVA of load have a 100% demand factor and the remaining receptacle load has a 50% demand factor result in a non-coincident demand (diversity) load that is unique. This diversity load is calculated at each branch within the load flow solution. See Example 3.4.4, Net Branch Diversity Load for further discussion. Remember that when modeling loads using any of the three From Demand Load Study options, the results are based on the results from the last Demand Load Study. If you change the system topology you need to first re-run the Demand Load Study. You may run the Demand Load Study and the Load Flow Study in one step, as described in Running the Load Flow Study on page 3-7
Solution Criteria
The two Acceleration Factor text boxes allow you to control how the Load Flow Study converges upon the solution. Generally, the Acceleration Factors do not need to be changed from their default values. However, if a non-convergent solution occurs, even after an Approximate Solution method has been run, try changing the Generation Acceleration Factor and/or the Load Acceleration Factor from their default of 1.0 to a factor between 0.1 and 1.0. This changes the guessing factor used to calculate the next iteration of the numerical solution. The smaller the factor, the smaller the step change used in the iteration solution. The Bus Voltage Drop and Branch Voltage Drop text boxes provide a quick method to flag excessive voltage drops in the output report. In the report, PTW flags with a dollar sign ($) any bus or branch voltage drop value that exceeds the limits set in these text boxes. Upon creating a new Project, the default values are a 5% bus voltage drop, and a 3% branch voltage drop. However, you can change these percentages by typing a percent value in the appropriate text box.
DAPPER 3-10
Reference Manual
On-Site Generation
An on-site generator that operates in parallel with the utility source may be defined as either a PV- or PQ-type generator in the Component Editor. The generator may have leading or lagging reactive power. Lagging reactive kVA is plotted as a positive value and referred to as an over-excited condition of the machine. Leading reactive kVA is plotted as a negative value and referred to as an under-excited condition of the generator. Any type of balanced loading within the area bounded by the curve shown following is considered as safe by the generator manufacturer.
Lagging 1.0 Rated PF Lagging Reactive Power-- Per Unit .50
0.0
-.50
PF Leading
-1.0 Leading
0.25
.075
1.00
A combined total of up to 10 Swing Bus (SB) and PV-type generators may be modeled in PTW. A total of up to 60 generators may be modeled, of which no more than 10 may be a combination of PV- and SB-type generators. When modeling SB generators, they may be modeled as generator components or as utility components. The source connection represents the system swing bus or slack bus. It maintains a constant voltage at a constant bus angle. The kW and kvar of the swing bus vary, or swing, in order to satisfy the following equation:
Generation loads losses = 0
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-11
The swing bus generator or utility source must supply any deficiency in generation, and all losses. If there is excess generation in the system, the source bus acts to absorb the excess generation. Usually, a system requires only a single swing bus. Multiple swing buses may be used to model large systems having multiple connections to a utility. Therefore, the exact utility voltages and angles may be specified. Additionally, multiple independent systems require that you specify a swing bus for each system. Only one swing bus may be specified at a single bus. In modeling generation in parallel operation with a utility connection or swing bus generator, the swing bus has unlimited power capabilities to maintain its voltage magnitude and voltage angle. Therefore, regulating-type generators (PV-type) located at the swing bus or near the utility will not produce any reactive power. In this case, model co-generation as PQ-type generators. Co-generation modeled as PV-type generators which are not located near the utility or swing bus generator will serve to regulate the voltage at the generator bus. PTW attempts to hold the bus voltage at the target level within the reactive power range. It may not be possible to obtain the target voltage. PTW will maintain the kW output of the generator and allow the voltage to float to the reactive power limit. PTW allows for modeling more than one generator at a bus. If the generators are PV-type generators, then you need to identify how much reactive power is generated by each machine (pu Var Participation factor). Usually the reactive power is shared equally between the machines; therefore, if two PV machines are modeled on the same bus, then the participation factor is 0.5 for each machine. When multiple PV generators are modeled on individual buses separated by small cables, you may get a non-convergent solution because the reactive power calculated by PTW depends on very small bus voltage angles. If this occurs, model the multiple PV machines on a single bus, or lump the generation into a single generator model.
Diversity Loads
Special attention needs to be paid when running the Load Flow Study when demand loads are considered. As discussed in the Non-Coincident Demand Calculation example of the Demand Load Study chapter, PTW considers the effects of non-coincident or diversity loads. In the example, even though each of the two branch demand loads are 550 kVA, the total demand load at Bus 2 is only 1050 kVA. The load flow solution must take this diversity load into consideration. In effect, the feeder servicing these two branches only needs to supply 1050 kVA, but each branch needs to be supplied 550 kVA. The load flow solution will report a small net negative diversity load at this upstream bus. See Example 3.4.4, Net Branch Diversity Loadat the end of this chapter. PTW accurately models the loads when loops are present in the power system. As was discussed in the Demand Load Study chapter, the Demand Load Study methodology must identify and calculate load diversity only in a radial system. The Demand Load Study detects loops, opens them temporarily to calculate load diversity, then closes the loops. In some cases, where extensive (nested) loops exist, the automatic opening of the loops can result in odd load flow solutions. It is recommended that if multiple loops exist in the power systems and if load diversity is not a significant issue for the Study, then the load flow solution be modeled using the Directly Connected Loads Load Specification option. Remember, this option allows for modeling the Connected Load or 1st Level Demand Load factor and Energy Factor.
DAPPER 3-12
Reference Manual
2.
3.
4.
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-13
GENERATOR B1 13800 V 13800.00 V 0.00 % C1 1886.52 kW 1467.74 kvar 5.71 kW Losses 57.13 kvar Losses 1.64 % VD 100.00 A
The load draws 100 A at 80% power factor and is assumed to have a constant current-type load characteristic.
DAPPER 3-14
Reference Manual
b g b0.19044g 3
= 5.71 kW
b g b1.9044g 3
= 57.1 kvar
= 2351.4 kVA
b g b = b1886.81 + j1467.9gkVA
The datablocks posted on the one-line diagram and the hand calculations are closely matched. The difference between hand and computer solutions is due to round-off and the
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-15
use of the simplified form of the voltage drop formula, as noted in Chapter 3 of the IEEE Red Book. The Report confirms these hand calculations, as noted below.
BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS (SWING GENERATORS) ***************************************************************************** SOURCE VOLTAGE ANGLE KW KVAR VD% (UTILITY IMPEDANCE) GEN-0001 1.000 .00 1886.52 1467.74 Gen Z Ignored BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ==== BUS: BUS-0001 DESIGN VOLTS: 13800 BUS VOLTS: 13800 %VD: .00 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 1.000 ANGLE: .0 DEGREES *** SWING GENERATOR: GEN-0001 1886.5 KW 1467.7 KVAR LOAD TO: BUS-0002 FEEDER AMPS: 99.9 VOLTAGE DROP: 226. %VD: 1.64 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 1886.5 KW 1467.7 KVAR 2390.2 KVA PF: .79 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 5.7 KW 57.1 KVAR 57.4 KVA ==== BUS: BUS-0002 DESIGN VOLTS: 13800 BUS VOLTS: 13574 %VD: 1.64 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: .984 ANGLE: -1.0 DEGREES NET BRANCH DIVERSITY LOAD: 1880.8 KW 1410.6 KVAR LOAD FROM: BUS-0001 FEEDER AMPS: 99.9 VOLTAGE DROP: 226. %VD: 1.64 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 1880.8 KW 1410.6 KVAR 2351.0 KVA PF: .80 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 5.7 KW 57.1 KVAR 57.4 KVA *** T O T A L S Y S T E M L O S S E S *** 6. KW 57. KVAR
795.54 kW 605.90 kvar 1.00 kW Losses 10.00 kvar Losses 0.68 % 41.84 A
T1
795.54 kW 605.90 kvar 1.00 kW Losses 10.00 kvar Losse 0.68 % 41.84 A B3 13800 V 13705.78 V 0.68 %
The following input data shows that on a per unit basis, the impedance of the cable equals the impedance of the transformer.
DAPPER 3-16
Reference Manual
FEEDER INPUT DATA ============================================================================== FEEDER FROM FEEDER TO QTY VOLTS LENGTH FEEDER DESCRIPTION NAME NAME /PH L-L SIZE TYPE DUCT INSUL ============================================================================== B1 B2 1 13800 1000.00 FT 1 C N +/- Impedance: 0.1904 + J 1.90 OHMS/M Length 0.1000 + J 1.0000 PU Z0 Impedance: 0.1904 + J 1.90 OHMS/M Length 0.1000 + J 1.0000 PU TRANSFORMER INPUT DATA ============================================================================== PRIMARY RECORD VOLTS * SECONDARY RECORD VOLTS FULL-LOAD NOMINAL NO NAME L-L NO NAME L-L KVA KVA ============================================================================== B1 D 13800.0 B3 YG 13800.0 0.00000 100000. Pos. Seq. Z%: 10.00 + J 100.0 0.100 + j 1.000 PU Zero Seq. Z%: 10.00 + J 100.0 0.100 + j 1.000 PU Taps Pri. 0.000 % Sec. 0.000 % Phase Shift (Pri. Leading Sec.): 30.00 Deg.
The Load Flow Report shows the power flow in both the cable and the transformer branch are identical. Losses in these two components are the same. The transformer was modeled at a 1:1 voltage ratio.
BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ***************************************************************************** VOLTAGE EFFECT ON LOADS MODELED ==== BUS: B1 DESIGN VOLTS: 13800 BUS VOLTS: 13800 %VD: .00 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 1.000 ANGLE: .0 DEGREES *** SWING GENERATOR: GENERATOR 1591.1 KW 1211.8 KVAR LOAD TO: B2 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU FEEDER: LOAD TO: B3 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU TRANSF: FEEDER AMPS: 41.8 VOLTAGE DROP: 94. %VD: .68 795.5 KW 605.9 KVAR 1000.0 KVA PF: .80 LAGGING 1.0 KW 10.0 KVAR 10.0 KVA TRANSF AMPS: 41.8 VOLTAGE DROP: 94. %VD: .68 795.5 KW 605.9 KVAR 1000.0 KVA PF: .80 LAGGING 1.0 KW 10.0 KVAR 10.0 KVA
==== BUS: B2 DESIGN VOLTS: 13800 BUS VOLTS: 13706 %VD: .68 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: .993 ANGLE: -.4 DEGREES NET BRANCH DIVERSITY LOAD: 794.5 KW 595.9 KVAR LOAD FROM: B1 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU FEEDER: FEEDER AMPS: 41.8 VOLTAGE DROP: 94. %VD: .68 794.5 KW 595.9 KVAR 993.2 KVA PF: .80 LAGGING 1.0 KW 10.0 KVAR 10.0 KVA
==== BUS: B3 DESIGN VOLTS: 13800 BUS VOLTS: 13706 %VD: .68 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: .993 ANGLE: -.4 DEGREES NET BRANCH DIVERSITY LOAD: 794.5 KW 595.9 KVAR LOAD FROM: B1 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU TRANSF: TRANSF AMPS: 41.8 VOLTAGE DROP: 94. %VD: .68 795.5 KW 605.9 KVAR 1000.0 KVA PF: .80 LAGGING 1.0 KW 10.0 KVAR 10.0 KVA
The losses through the cable and the transformer are equal, as they should be.
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-17
C1
C2
C3
42.1 A
29.4 A
42.1 A
C4 29.4 A
C5
20.57 A
B2 13705.13 V 0.69 % VD L1 1000.0 kVA Energy Audit 1.0 Energy Audit Load Factor
B3 13733.81 V 0.48 % VD
B4 13705.13 V 0.69 % VD
B6 13753.77 V 0.33 % VD L5 1000.0 kVA Demand Load Special Load 0.7 Energy Audit Load Factor
L2 L3 1000.0 kVA 1000.0 kVA Energy Audit Demand Load 0.7 Energy Audit General Load Load Factor
Each of the five loads is rated 1000 kVA; thus each loads connected load value is 1000 kVA. Loads L1 and L2 are Energy Audit type loads, whereas Loads L3, L4, and L5 are Demand Load types. Load L1 has an Energy Audit load factor of 1.0, while Loads L2 and L5 have an Energy Audit load factor of 0.7. Note that while Load L5 is a Demand Load type, it still has an Energy Audit load factor specified. Load L3 is selected as a General Load, while Loads L4 and L5 are selected as Special Loads; these selections were made from the Demand Load Category drop-down list box found in the Load Diversity subview of the Component Editor. The demand load factors (which are referenced from the Demand Load Library) used in this example are:
Load Type Load General Loads Special Loads 1st Level Factor 100% 70% 2nd Level Factor 50% 100% LCL 1.25 1.00
See the Engineering Methodology section of the Demand Load Study chapter for additional discussion on design and demand loads and long continuous loading (LCL) factors. It is important also to note that the Load Flow Study takes into account the effects of voltage on loads. All of the loads in this example are modeled as constant kVA type loads; thus, as the voltage at the load bus decreases, the current in the branch servicing the load increases. Calculating the load current is not easily accomplished by hand methods because the solution cannot be solved in closed form.
Component Editor Data Load # Individual Load Type Individual Load Factor Load Flow Study Setup Specifications Directly Connected From Demand Load Study Connected Load (Amps) 1st Level Demand or Energy Factor Demand Load (Amps) Design Load (Amps) Connected Load (Amps)
DAPPER 3-18
Reference Manual
Load Flow Study Setup Specifications Directly Connected From Demand Load Study Factor (Amps) 42.13 42.1 42.13 42.13 42.13
L1
1.0
L2
0.7
42.13
29.4
29.4
29.4
42.13
L3 L4 L5
Remember that all five loads in this example have a rated size of 1000 kVA, or 42.13 A. The calculated current in each branch is different , based on the Individual Load Type and the Individual Load Factor. The calculated load flow branch current using the 1st Level Demand or Energy Factor for Load L1 is equal to the connected load because the load factor is 1.0, whereas the current in the branch servicing Load L2 is 0.7 of the connected load. Note that the only difference in load characteristics between Loads L4 and L5 is that, although both are modeled as demand loads, Load L4 has a default energy audit load factor of 1.0 while Load L5 has a energy audit load factor of 0.7. Therefore, the calculated load flow branch current using the 1st Level Demand or Energy Factor is 29.4 A for Load L4 but only 20.57 A for Load L5. The calculated load flow branch current using the results From Demand Load Study should be further discussed. For example, the load flow current using the Demand Loads for both Loads L4 and L5 is equal to 40.85 A, the Energy Audit load factor of 0.7 is not used. The data shown in the above one-line matches the load specification 1st Level Demand or Energy Factor Study setup.
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-19
GENERATOR
B1
13800.00 V 0.00 % VD
B2
13799.57 V 0.00 % VD
C2
C3
13799.38 V 0.00 % VD
L1 L2
From the Non-Coicident Demand Calculation example, note that the connected load at Bus B2 is 2000 kVA, but the demand load value is 1050 kVA. This is a diversity load value, as the sum of the two branch (coincident) demand loads is 1100 kVA (550 kVA each). It can then be concluded that only 1050 kVA of apparent power must service Bus B2, but 550 kVA must flow to each of the two loads. Inspection of the real component of apparent power at Bus B2 is instructive. From the one-line diagram, 840 kW flows into the bus, but 440 kW flows out. A net branch diversity of -40 kW exists. This is most clearly displayed in the Load Flow Study report, as shown following:
BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ***************************************************************************** VOLTAGE EFFECT ON LOADS MODELED ==== BUS: B2 DESIGN VOLTS: 13800 BUS VOLTS: 13800 %VD: 0.00 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 1.000 ANGLE: 0.0 DEGREES NET BRANCH DIVERSITY LOAD: -40.0 KW -30.0 KVAR LOAD FROM: B1 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU FEEDER: LOAD TO: B3 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU FEEDER: LOAD TO: B4 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU FEEDER: FEEDER AMPS: 43.9 VOLTAGE DROP: 0. %VD: 0.00 840.0 KW 630.0 KVAR 1050.0 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING 0.0 KW 0.0 KVAR 0.0 KVA FEEDER AMPS: 23.0 VOLTAGE DROP: 0. %VD: 0.00 440.0 KW 330.0 KVAR 550.0 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING 0.0 KW 0.0 KVAR 0.0 KVA FEEDER AMPS: 23.0 VOLTAGE DROP: 0. %VD: 0.00 440.0 KW 330.0 KVAR 550.0 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING 0.0 KW 0.0 KVAR 0.0 KVA
At Bus B2, PTW reports the net difference in power flowing into the node (1050 kVA) and the power flowing out of the node (1100 kVA). This net difference acts to raise the system voltages, compared to the case where diversity is not considered. For example, in the above problem, change the load type by selecting the Energy Audit option button instead of Demand Load, and change the load factor to 0.55. The demand load at Bus 2 will now be 1100 kVA.
DAPPER 3-20
Reference Manual
11/22/2006
EDISON
UTILITY BUS
R1
CB1
TM -1
R2
CB2
TX A
003-HV SWGR
R9
R10
CB9
CB10 C4
007-TX E PRI
TX B PRI BUS 4 R4 005-TXD PRI CB4 CB5 TX D DS SWG1 BUS 8 F1 TX H C6 029-TX D SEC CMP CTR HVAC BUS F2 TX3 SEC BUS 11 C19 C7 C8 R11 TX G CMP HVAC LVP6 DS SWG2 BUS 13 DSB 1 BUS 14 C13 C9 M13 C16 C17 021-TX F PRI TX F BUS 28 A BUS 16 PLN 16 H2A C18 MCCB2 023-MTR 23 PLN - 17 H1A C12 MO/L#28B-1 MO/L#28B-2 BUS 17 022-DSB 2 MCP#28B-1 MCP#28B-2 BUS 28 B L2 LVP4 LVP5 L1 M20 L5 C20 DS SWG3 BUS 20 DSB 3 BUS 27 M25 PCB1 PCB2 PCB3 MO/L#25 F3 MCP#10 COMPUTERS TX C CB12 TX3 TER BUS 12 GEN 3 F5 026-TX G PRI 025-MTR 25 C5 TX 6 BLDG 115 SERV R5 006-TX3 PRI TX E
TX B
C10
C11
TX C PRI BUS 9
F4
SW1
SWBD-1
LVP1
LVP2
LVP3
C14
BUS 15
MCC 15 - 1A
C15
MCCB1
018-RA
H3A BUS 19 M28 #1 & 2 M23-B PNL 19 H3A M23-A M28 #3 M28 #4
PNL 18 RA
DAPPER 3-21
DAPPER 3-22
Reference Manual
The following figure shows a portion of the Plant project, including Load Flow results.
The Load Flow and Voltage Drop Report first lists the Study setup conditions and constraints. Also included is a listing of the convergence criterion and the number of iterations required for the load flow solution to converge upon an acceptable solution.
*** SOLUTION COMMENTS *** ========================= SOLUTION PARAMETERS BRANCH VOLTAGE CRITERIA : 3.00 % BUS VOLTAGE CRITERIA : 5.00 % ACCELERATION FACTOR FOR 'PV' GENERATORS : 1.00 ACCELERATION FACTOR FOR CONSTANT KVA LOADS: 1.00 EXACT(ITERATIVE) SOLUTION : YES UTILITY IMPEDANCE : YES TRANSFORMER PHASE SHIFT : NO ALL PU VALUES ARE EXPRESSED ON A 100 MVA BASE LOAD FLOW IS BASED ON CALCULATED DEMAND LOAD RESULTS FROM THE DEMAND LOAD ANALYSIS STUDY. LOAD ANALYSIS INCLUDES ALL LOADS. <<PERCENT VOLTAGE DROPS ARE BASED ON NOMINAL DESIGN VOLTAGES>> SWING GENERATORS SOURCE NAME VOLTAGE ANGLE
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-23
================================ EDISON 1.000 0.00 PV GENERATORS SOURCE NAME VOLTAGE kW kVARMIN kVARMAX PARTICIPATION ================================================================== GEN 2 1.000 350. 0. 300. 0.25 GEN 1 1.000 600. -600. 500. 0.75 GEN 3 1.000 2400. -900. 1600. 1.00 LARGEST LOAD: CONVERGENCE CRITERIA: LARGEST BUS MISMATCH LARGEST BUS MISMATCH LARGEST BUS MISMATCH LARGEST BUS MISMATCH LARGEST BUS MISMATCH LARGEST BUS MISMATCH 4000.00 KVA 0.200 KVA SWG3 BUS 20 SWG1 BUS 8 SWG1 BUS 8 SWG2 BUS 13 SWG1 BUS 8 SWG1 BUS 8
DS DS DS DS DS DS
Next the report lists the system swing bus generation and equivalent voltage drop of the swing bus generator(s) based on the the system utility fault duty contribution as you defined it.
BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS (SWING GENERATORS) ***************************************************************************** SOURCE VOLTAGE ANGLE KW KVAR VD% (UTILITY IMPEDANCE) EDISON 1.000 0.00 10190.11 4696.85 0.55 0.00370+J 0.11105
Once the swing bus generation is known, the generation of the various PV machines can be listed:
BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS (PV GENERATOR SCHEDULE REPORT) ***************************************************************************** ---VOLTAGE---KVAR LIMITS---ACTUAL---PV SOURCE NAME SCHED. ACTUAL MIN MAX KW KVAR GEN 2 1.000 1.000 0. 300. 350. 98. GEN 1 1.000 1.000 -600. 500. 600. 295. GEN 3 1.000 0.996 -900. 1600. 2400. 1600.
The basic data presented in the Load Flow and Voltage Drop Report is listed below for key buses and branches associated with the Building 115 Service:
BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ***************************************************************************** VOLTAGE EFFECT ON LOADS MODELED VOLTAGE DROP CRITERIA: BRANCH = 3.00 % BUS = 5.00 ==== BUS: UTILITY BUS DESIGN VOLTS: 69000 BUS VOLTS: 68618 %VD: 0.55 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 0.994 ANGLE: -0.6 DEGREES *** SWING GENERATOR: EDISON 10190.1 KW 4696.9 KVAR LOAD TO: TX A PRI FEEDER AMPS: 93.8 VOLTAGE DROP: 1414. %VD: 2.05 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 10185.5 KW 4557.0 KVAR 11158.4 KVA PF: 0.91 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 7.9 KW -2.9 KVAR 8.4 KVA LOAD FROM: EDISON FEEDER AMPS: 93.8 VOLTAGE DROP: 382. %VD: 0.55 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 10185.5 KW 4557.0 KVAR 11158.4 KVA PF: 0.91 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 4.7 KW 139.8 KVAR 139.9 KVA ==== BUS: BLDG 115 SERV DESIGN VOLTS: 4160 BUS VOLTS: 4071 %VD: 2.13 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 0.979 ANGLE: -6.1 DEGREES LOAD FROM: 007-TX E PRI TRANSF AMPS: 502.1 VOLTAGE DROP: 46. %VD: 1.10 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 2866.5 KW 2296.5 KVAR 3673.0 KVA PF: 0.78 LAGGING LOSSES THRU TRANSF: 26.2 KW 181.4 KVAR 183.3 KVA LOAD TO: 026-TX G PRI FEEDER AMPS: 146.3 VOLTAGE DROP: 12. %VD: 0.28 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 834.9 KW 607.1 KVAR 1032.3 KVA PF: 0.81 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 2.9 KW 1.1 KVAR 3.1 KVA LOAD TO: 025-MTR 25 FEEDER AMPS: 355.8 VOLTAGE DROP: 15. %VD: 0.36 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 2005.4 KW 1508.0 KVAR 2509.1 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 5.4 KW 8.0 KVAR 9.6 KVA LOAD FROM: 029-TX D SEC FEEDER AMPS: VOLTAGE DROP: 0. %VD: 0.00 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 0.0 KW 0.0 KVAR 0.0 KVA PF: 0.00 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 0.0 KW 0.0 KVAR 0.0 KVA ==== BUS: DSB 3 BUS 27 DESIGN VOLTS: 480 BUS VOLTS: 460 %VD: 4.09
DAPPER 3-24
Reference Manual
========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 0.959 ANGLE: -8.5 DEGREES NET BRANCH DIVERSITY LOAD: 92.0 KW 0.0 KVAR LOAD FROM: 026-TX G PRI TRANSF AMPS:1237.0 VOLTAGE DROP: 8. %VD: 1.67 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 832.1 KW 605.9 KVAR 1029.3 KVA PF: 0.81 LAGGING LOSSES THRU TRANSF: 10.6 KW 59.9 KVAR 60.8 KVA LOAD TO: BUS 28 A PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU FEEDER: LOAD TO: BUS 28 B PROJECTED POWER FLOW: LOSSES THRU FEEDER: FEEDER AMPS: 568.4 VOLTAGE DROP: 3. %VD: 0.70 362.0 KW 272.9 KVAR 453.3 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING 2.0 KW 2.9 KVAR 3.5 KVA FEEDER AMPS: 574.2 VOLTAGE DROP: 8. %VD: 1.65 367.5 KW 273.2 KVAR 457.9 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING 7.5 KW 3.2 KVAR 8.1 KVA
==== BUS: BUS 28 A DESIGN VOLTS: 480 BUS VOLTS: 457 %VD: 4.79 ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 0.952 ANGLE: -8.6 DEGREES NET BRANCH DIVERSITY LOAD: 360.0 KW 270.0 KVAR LOAD FROM: DSB 3 BUS 27 FEEDER AMPS: 568.4 VOLTAGE DROP: 3. %VD: 0.70 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 360.0 KW 270.0 KVAR 450.0 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 2.0 KW 2.9 KVAR 3.5 KVA ==== BUS: BUS 28 B DESIGN VOLTS: 480 BUS VOLTS: 452 %VD: 5.74$ ========================= PU BUS VOLTAGE: 0.943 ANGLE: -8.3 DEGREES NET BRANCH DIVERSITY LOAD: 360.0 KW 270.0 KVAR LOAD FROM: DSB 3 BUS 27 FEEDER AMPS: 574.2 VOLTAGE DROP: 8. %VD: 1.65 PROJECTED POWER FLOW: 360.0 KW 270.0 KVAR 450.0 KVA PF: 0.80 LAGGING LOSSES THRU FEEDER: 7.5 KW 3.2 KVAR 8.1 KVA
A summary listing of all bus voltages and branch currents is listed at the end of the report.
BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW BUS DATA SUMMARY ***************************************************************************** BUS NAME BASE VOLT PU VOLT BUS NAME BASE VOLT PU VOLT UTILITY BUS 69000.00 0.9945 TX A PRI 69000.00 0.9740 003-HV SWGR 13800.00 0.9899 TX B PRI BUS 4 13800.00 0.9897 005-TXD PRI 13800.00 0.9899 006-TX3 PRI 13800.00 0.9892 007-TX E PRI 13800.00 0.9897 DS SWG1 BUS 8 4160.00 1.0000 TX C PRI BUS 9 4160.00 0.9997 HVAC BUS 4160.00 0.9977 TX3 SEC BUS 11 4160.00 0.9898 DSB 1 BUS 14 480.00 1.0029 DS SWG2 BUS 13 4160.00 0.9898 TX3 TER BUS 12 4160.00 0.9958 DS SWG3 BUS 20 4160.00 0.9957 021-TX F PRI 4160.00 0.9938 BLDG 115 SERV 4160.00 0.9787 026-TX G PRI 4160.00 0.9758 025-MTR 25 4160.00 0.9751 022-DSB 2 480.00 0.9949 BUS 15 480.00 1.0018 018-RA 480.00 0.9971 BUS 16 480.00 0.9925 BUS 17 480.00 0.9894 H3A BUS 19 480.00 0.9870 023-MTR 23 480.00 0.9914 DSB 3 BUS 27 480.00 0.9591 BUS 28 A 480.00 0.9521 029-TX D SEC 4160.00 0.9787 BUS 28 B 480.00 0.9426 CMP CTR 208.00 0.9763 BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW BRANCH DATA SUMMARY ***************************************************************************** FROM NAME TO NAME TYPE VD% AMPS KVA RATING% TX A PRI UTILITY BUS FDR 2.05 93.89 11158.41 UNKNOWN EDISON UTILITY BUS FDR 0.55 93.89 11158.41 UNKNOWN TX A PRI 003-HV SWGR TX2 -1.60 94.95 11152.33 44.61 003-HV SWGR TX B PRI BUS 4 FDR 0.02 30.77 728.09 27.97 003-HV SWGR 005-TXD PRI FDR 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 003-HV SWGR 006-TX3 PRI FDR 0.07 212.57 5029.76 54.51 003-HV SWGR 007-TX E PRI FDR 0.03 155.27 3673.94 39.81 TX B PRI BUS 4 DS SWG1 BUS 8 TX2 -1.03 30.77 727.91 38.82 007-TX E PRI BLDG 115 SERV TX2 1.10 155.27 3672.99 63.88 DS SWG1 BUS 8 TX C PRI BUS 9 FDR 0.03 108.89 784.56 55.84 DS SWG1 BUS 8 HVAC BUS FDR 0.23 69.55 501.15 63.23 DS SWG1 BUS 8 CMP CTR TX2 2.37 63.97 460.91 92.18 TX C PRI BUS 9 DSB 1 BUS 14 TX2 -0.32 106.51 784.32 78.43 DS SWG2 BUS 13 TX3 SEC BUS 11 FDR 0.01 583.10 4158.75 74.76 3WINDING TX3 SEC BUS 11 TX2 0.74 583.10 4189.93 UNKNOWN DSB 1 BUS 14 BUS 15 FDR 0.11 285.02 237.65 18.75 DSB 1 BUS 14 BUS 16 FDR 1.05 538.95 449.39 76.99 DSB 1 BUS 14 BUS 17 FDR 1.35 114.11 95.15 87.78 DS SWG3 BUS 20 TX3 TER BUS 12 FDR 0.00 109.72 787.19 16.25 3WINDING TX3 TER BUS 12 TX2 0.15 109.72 788.37 UNKNOWN BALANCED VOLTAGE DROP AND LOAD FLOW BRANCH DATA SUMMARY ***************************************************************************** FROM NAME TO NAME TYPE VD% AMPS KVA RATING% DS SWG3 BUS 20 021-TX F PRI FDR 0.20 114.39 820.72 58.66 021-TX F PRI 022-DSB 2 TX2 -0.11 114.40 819.10 81.91 026-TX G PRI BLDG 115 SERV FDR 0.28 146.39 1032.30 75.07 025-MTR 25 BLDG 115 SERV FDR 0.36 355.82 2509.12 60.82 029-TX D SEC BLDG 115 SERV FDR 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 026-TX G PRI DSB 3 BUS 27 TX2 1.67 146.40 1029.30 102.93
11/22/2006
DAPPER 3-25
The voltage drop data reported is based on the criteria in the text boxes in the Load Flow Study Setup dialog box.
This chapter examines the theoretical basis of the Comprehensive Short Circuit Study (referred to hereafter as Short Circuit Study). It includes a systematic methodology and applies the methodology to numerous practical examples. You can also purchase separately the A_FAULT and IEC_FAULT Short Circuit Study modules. The chapters provided with A_FAULT and IEC_FAULT discuss the Short Circuit Methodology as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), respectively. The basis of all short circuit studies is Ohms Law and is referred to in this Reference Manual as the comprehensive methodology. This comprehensive methodology is exclusively examined in this chapter. This chapter discusses: Engineering Methodology. PTW Applied Methodology. Examples.
IN THIS CHAPTER
What is the Short Circuit Study? .................................................................DAPPER 4-2 Engineering Methodology .......................................................................... DAPPER 4-2 PTW Applied Methodology ......................................................................DAPPER 4-14 Application Examples ................................................................................DAPPER 4-22
DAPPER 4-2
Reference Manual
Study Setup
Cable Library Transformer Libray Study Setup
Saved in Database
Three-phase fault currents Unbalanced fault currents Momentary and asymmetrical fault currents
Datablocks
Reports
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-3
inverted admittance (impedance) matrix, the bus fault currents are calculated using Ohms Law.
where E Z I bus voltage matrix; bus impedance matrix; referred to as the Z Bus matrix; bus nodal current matrix.
B1 T1 B2
C1 M1 B3
M2
DAPPER 4-4
Reference Manual
Bus 1
Bus 2
Z Cable
Bus 3
Z Transformer
Z Utility
Z Motor 1
Z Motor 2
Next, the systematic procedure calls for converting all impedances to per unit values on a common power base, such as 100 MVA. Converting impedances from units of ohms to per unit is more critical when transformers are included in the power system. This is because the transformers impedance in ohms depends upon whether the impedance is viewed through the primary or secondary connection. When the transformers impedance is in per unit, its value is the same as when viewed through either the primary or the secondary connection. From the Thevenin equivalent impedance diagram, you can create a Norton equivalent diagram by short circuiting the voltage sources and injecting a Norton equivalent current (If) into the faulted bus.
Bus 2 Bus 1
Z Cable
Bus 3
If
Z Utility Z Motor 1 Z Motor 2
Utility
I Motor 1
Motor 2
In the above circuit diagram, the Norton equivalent current If splits at Bus 2 and flows through the three branches. The current in each branch is dependent on its impedance. The current at Bus 2 is actually the negative of the Norton equivalent current If. The sum of the three branch currents is also equal to If. Using simple series and/or parallel impedance combinations, you can determine the single Thevenin equivalent impedance at Bus 2. If you know the Thevenin equivalent impedance, you can determine the fault current in per unit amperes. The fault current is:
If = V Z Thevenin
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-5
Single-Line-to-Ground Faults
The following diagram shows a bolted single-line-to-ground fault in Phase A.
Ic
Ia Fault
LMI MMI NI
a0 a1 a2
OP 1 LM1 PP = 3 MM1 Q N1
1 1 a a
2
OPLI O a P MI P PMN PQ a Q MI P
a 2 b c
DAPPER 4-6
Reference Manual
where
I b = Ic = 0
and
a = e j120 a 2 = e j240
Substituting the above and solving yields the single-line-to-ground fault case:
1 Ia 3 1 I a1 = I a 3 1 I a2 = I a 3 I a0 =
b g b g b g
Therefore:
I a1 = I a2 = I a0
Because the three symmetrical components are equal in magnitude and in phase, they may be viewed as connected in series, as shown:
Z1
Ia1
Z2
Ia2
Ea
Z0
Ia0
From the preceding equations we know that the positive sequence current in Phase A is one-third of the phase current. Therefore:
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-7
I a = 3I a1
Substituting yields:
Ia = 3E a Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0
Grounding Impedance
The zero-sequence impedance of delta-wye-grounded transformers is modeled as an infinite impedance (open connection) when viewed from the delta side, and modeled as a shunt to the reference through the transformers zero-sequence impedance when viewed from the wye-grounded side. The wye-grounded wye-grounded transformer, if provided with a grounding impedance, is modeled with grounding impedance on either or both sides of the transformer connection. In this configuration there is no connection to reference. Although not specifically discussed in the above formulation of the unbalanced fault networks, any grounding impedance must be modeled at three times its ohmic value in the zero-sequence network. If a grounding impedance is established on the wyegrounded side of the transformer, its impedance is added in series to the shunt path (that is, in series with the transformers zero-sequence impedance).
where kVAutility (MVAutility) kVAbase (MVAbase) the utility system three-phase short circuit capability; the system three-phase power base specified for the Study.
DAPPER 4-8
Reference Manual
Z pu
F kV IJ FG kVA IJ pu = X G H kV K H kVA K
2 motor base base d motor
where
X d
motor subtransient reactance on its motor rated line-to-line voltage (kVmotor) and three-phase power (kVAmotor) base; line-to-line motor rated voltage; three-phase power base; line-to-line bus nominal system voltage at the point of the motor; three-phase power base.
For feeders:
Z pu = Z cable kv base 1000 kVA base
2
For transformers:
Z pu =
FG Z H
transformer %
100
IJ FG kV K H kV
transformer base
IJ FG kVA K H kVA
2
base
transformer
IJ K
where Ztransformer transformer percentage impedance on its self-cooled or nominal transformer three-phase power base (kVAtransformer) and rated line-to-line voltage (kVtransformer). The three-phase fault current base is:
Ishort circuit =
FG HZ
V
Thevenin
IJ pu A K
Expressed in amperes:
Ishort circuit = Ishort circuit pu I b
Sometimes the aforementioned per unit notation equations cannot be used directly. For example, if your utility fault data is not in power or current units, convert it to acceptable units. Suppose the utility equivalent impedance at the source is expressed as:
Available fault impedance = 0.0425 + j0.4250 at 4160 V
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-9
eR
+ X2
V 3 Z utility
e 3jb0.4272 g
4160 V
= 5622 A
DAPPER 4-10
Reference Manual
voltages. This time varying collapse is known as the ac decrement and is most often modeled as a time varying machine reactance. Current limiting fuses which operate within one-half cycle are subject to momentary currents and may open to clear the fault before the maximum prospective fault current occurs. Devices such as circuit breakers require the fault current to pass through a current zero before the arcing current is extinguished. Breakers may experience significant interrupting fault current for many cycles during operation. To calculate the momentary and interrupting fault currents, you must evaluate both the transient and steady state conditions. Consider a fault that occurs in a simple RL series circuit driven by an ideal sinusoidal voltage source. You can write Kirchoffs Loop Equation as:
Vpeak sin t + = Ri +
Ldi dt
i=
LM V g MZ N
b g
-t
peak
sin -
OP gP Q
where Z t f Vpeak
R 2 + L
2
time in cycles when the fault occurs; L tan -1 R 2f; time in seconds; frequency in Hertz; peak (crest) voltage.
FG IJ H K
2 radians when time () is equal to 0+. The second term is an exponentially decaying term, with a time constant of L/R. This is the dc decay. It must be subtracted from the first term to satisfy the boundary condition that at time equal to 0-, no fault current flows.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-11
2 I" k
idc
ip
i dc
2I k
The first one-half cycle asymmetrical peak current is the sum of the de decay and ac decrement components. This can be expressed in equation form as:
i asymmetrical peak = 2 I + 2 I e k k
2
FG R IJ c H XK
where iasymmetrical peak I k idc Ik c asymmetrical peak fault current; initial symmetrical rms fault current; dc decaying component of fault current; steady-state fault current; time in cycles into the fault.
I asymmetrical rms =
F bI g + GH b
2 k 4
2 I e k
R c X
2 R c X
I JK
= I 1 + 2e k
And at
= I 1 + 2e k
DAPPER 4-12
Reference Manual
Tap
" Xd
Z Transformer
Faulted Bus
The relationship between the short circuit current and primary tap setting is:
If =
V
2
X generator + Z transformer d
OP PQ
where If V Tap X d Ztransformer fault current; fault point pre-fault no loads pre-fault voltage; ideal voltage shifter in per unit; machine reactance; transformer impedance.
FG 1 IJ H 1+ Tap K
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-13
" Xd
Tap
Z Transformer
Faulted Bus
Transformer
Voltage Generator
The relationship between the short circuit current and transformer secondary tap setting is:
If =
V (1 + Tap ) ( X
2 " d generator
+ Z transformer )
DAPPER 4-14
Reference Manual
When the transformer phase shift is modeled for a single-line-to-ground fault, the branch sequence current might be:
1388 -120
418 -90
418 -90
1388 -120
Positive-Sequence
1388 -120
418 -150
418 -150
1388 -120
Negative-Sequence
0 -0
1388 -120
1388 -120
Zero-Sequence
In this example, the transformer is rated 13.8 kV - 4.16 kV, and if 1388 A in the positivesequence network flow in the secondary winding, the primary winding positive-sequence current is 418 A.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-15
The Short Circuit Study runs, writes the results to the database, and creates a report.
Fault Type
By default, PTW includes Three Phase Fault and Single Line to Ground fault calculations; the Line to Line Fault and Line to Line to Ground fault calculations can also be selected. Generally, the three-phase and single-line-to-ground current model the worst case fault currents in the system. You can select any combination of the four check boxes.
DAPPER 4-16
Reference Manual
Faulted Bus
By default, PTW faults All Buses. If you want to fault a single bus, select the One Bus option button and select the appropriate bus from the box. If All Buses is selected, limited data is written to the database; however, the Report can be extensive. If you are running a Study on a 100 bus facility and choose to report fault duties on all buses and branches, the total report could be 300 or more pages.
Calculation Models
Select the checkbox(es) for the calculations you want to include in the Study: Motor Contribution, Transformer Tap, and Transformer Phase Shift. You can select any combination of the three. Motor Contribution By default, PTW includes motor contributions. Unchecking the check box eliminates motor contributions from the Study results. Transformer Tap By default, PTW does not include tap effects in the transformer model. If this box is unchecked, all transformers appear without the effect on any taps, and the pre-fault voltage is relative to the swing bus voltage. By selecting Transformer Tap, PTW calculates the system pre-fault no load voltage profile based on the swing bus voltage and transformer tap settings. You must check this box to analyze transformer off nominal voltages properly. Transformer Phase Shift By default, PTW does not include Transformer Phase Shift, the transformer phase shift angle remains at 0, and the pre-fault voltage angles in each isolated area of the power system remain at the swing bus voltage angle. To report unbalanced circuit branch flows, select the Transformer Phase Shift check box. This option calculates each transformer phase shift in degrees based on the transformer connection type; the pre-fault voltage angle includes all transformer phase shifting relative to the swing bus.
Report Specifications
Make Report specification selections based on the following criteria. Bus Voltages By default, PTW calculates and reports voltages for the First Bus From Fault. You can also select from three other options: Second Bus From Fault, All Buses, and None. Keep in mind that if you select All Buses, the Study will take significantly longer to run. Bus voltages are reported but not written to the database. Bus voltages are not reported when sequence branch current values are selected. Branch Currents You can also select from three other options: First Branch From Fault, Second Branch From Fault, and All Branches. Upon opening a new project, the default is to report branch currents one branch away from the fault point. As shown in Figure 4-1, if you wish to display branch fault currents through 3-winding transformers, you must select the option to report 2 branches away (not just one branch away).
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-17
Figure 4-1. To report branch fault currents for 3-winding transformers, select to report 2 branches away, not one.
The speed of the Study is significantly impacted by the amount of Study results written to the database and to the output report. Branch currents are only written to the database if a fault at a single bus is selected. If a bus is faulted, then branch currents may flow from any location to the faulted bus. If a different bus is faulted, then different branch fault currents flow. Only one complete set of branch fault data is saved to the database for retrieval onto a datablock. Only initial symmetrical phase currents in the branch are reported. Phase or Sequence By default, PTW reports phase A, B, and C quantities. Phase current will always be written to the Report, but branch current flow will not be written to the database unless a single bus is faulted. You can also select to report the positive-, negative-, and zerosequence quantities. Sequence currents are not reported in the database, and therefore they will not appear in datablocks. Also, the sequence currents are not reported when asymmetrical fault currents are calculated. Fault Current Calculation By default, PTW calculates Initial Symmetrical RMS Only (No DC offset) fault currents. You can also select to calculate the Asymmetrical Peak or Asymmetrical RMS fault currents, both with DC offset and Decay. The Initial Symmetrical RMS Only option calculates bus voltages and branch flows as complex values. All values arise from the symmetrical. The Asymmetrical Peak option calculates the total asymmetrical peak or crest (dc offset and decay) fault current at a specified time. You must enter the time in cycles. The Asymmetrical RMS option calculates the total asymmetrical symmetrical (dc offset) rms current at a specified time. You must enter the time in cycles. Asymmetrical Fault Current at Time If you selected asymmetrical fault current calculations, you must enter a time in cycles. After the onset of the fault, the Study calculates the fault currents after the specified number of cycles. The default number of cycles is five. A minimum of 0.5 cycles is reported. If you selected initial symmetrical fault current calculations, the Study ignores the Asymmetrical Fault Current at Time value.
DAPPER 4-18
Reference Manual
Feeder Data
You must specify a cables positive-sequence impedance and one-way circuit length. PTW models the negative-sequence impedance as equal to the positive-sequence impedance. If a cables zero-sequence impedance is zero, the Short Circuit Study uses the positive-sequence value. Cable positive and zero sequence impedances may be selected from the Cable Library, or you can define them in the Component Editor. If you make the cable User Defined, you can enter specific cable impedance in ohms per 1000 feet or ohms per 1000 meters. Cable lengths must be entered in the same units as the cable impedance data (feet or meters). If you switch the Program Options from English to Metric units, PTW converts entered cable lengths and impedances to the appropriate units. Cable impedances are unaffected by the wire circuit description characteristics.
Transformer Data
You can select predefined two-winding transformers from the Transformer Library or you can define them yourself in the Component Editor. PTW defines two-winding transformers by their percentage leakage positive- and zero-sequence impedance value, cooling capacity type, and the nominal kVA rating. If a transformer's zero-sequence impedance is zero, PTW uses the positive-sequence value. Transformers' rated voltages may differ from the bus nominal voltages. PTW models those off-nominal voltages as ideal voltage shifters separate from any primary or secondary tap that is modeled. A warning message appears in the Study Messages dialog box when PTW detects a mismatch between the bus nominal voltage and the transformer rated voltage. You can also define the transformer impedance in the Component Editor using the transformer's resistance and reactance values in percent on the nominal or self-cooled kVA rating. When you set the PTW Project for the IEC Standards, user-defined transformers can be defined in per unit on any kVA base, the Rated Short Circuit Voltage percent or on Rated Ohmic voltage percent. Transformer negative-sequence impedance always equals the positive-sequence value in the Short Circuit Study. The primary and secondary transformer connections help determine the effect of the zero-sequence Thevenin equivalent impedance. The wye-grounded wye-grounded zero-sequence path appears as a non-shunt primary to secondary leakage impedance. Grounding impedance may be placed on one or both of the grounded points. PTW automatically multiplies this grounding impedance by three to calculate the proper zero-sequence impedance on a per unit base. The wye-grounded wye-grounded transformer is modeled in shell form, and is defined as an infinite impedance when viewed from either connection.
Three-Winding Transformers
Three-winding transformers may be modeled. Off-nominal voltage and transformer taps may be modeled in a manner similar to two-winding transformers. All three-winding
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-19
transformer data must be user defined in the Component Editor. PTW models the threewinding transformer using conventional network reduction, and establishes a fictitious center point bus. Also, PTW establishes a secondary to tertiary branch. This fictitious bus and associated branch count against the total bus and branch limit in PTW. There are two networks in the following one-line diagram. Transformer T1 is a threewinding transformer with a primary, secondary and tertiary power rating of 15 MVA, 15 MVA and 5.25 MVA, respectively.
GEN 1 GEN 2
BUS 1 C1 BUS 2
27856.53 A
BUS 7 C4 BUS 8
27856.53 A
22405.02 A
T2 BUS 9 BUS 4 CENTER POINT T3 BUS 10 C5 BUS 11 0.8790%
22405.02 A
6.0214%
T1 BUS 3
7199.51 A
T4 BUS 12
21706.12 A
11150.80 A
9.9790%
C2
C3
21705.22 A
C6 BUS 13
11150.56 A
BUS 5
BUS 6
20520.80 A
10860.47 A
20520.00 A
10860.25 A
1 2 3
15 5.25 5.25
It is important to note that the preceding measurements are relative to different power bases. In Test 1 when the tertiary circuit is open, short circuit current flows only in primary and secondary windings. Both of these windings have 15 MVA ratings. In the test, the voltage across the primary winding is increased until 6.9 % rated voltage causes the rated full current to flow in the secondary winding. By opening the tertiary circuit, no current flows in this winding. In Test 2, the tertiary winding is fully loaded based on its 5.25 MVA rating, even though the primary carries only about one-third rated current on its 15.0 MVA rating. The test stopped when the 5.6 % rated voltage was applied to the primary winding and full load current was reached on the tertiary winding (corresponding to 5.25 MVA). It is critical to know on what base the short circuit voltage takes place.
DAPPER 4-20
Reference Manual
The following drawing is an equivalent impedance diagram for the three-winding transformer:
T Z PT
P Z PS S
ZST
You can convert this into an equivalent wye diagram using standard network reduction techniques:
Z3 T Z1 P
S Z2
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-21
You can solve the equations by substituting the manufacturers data expressed on a common 15 MVA base:
Z1 =
Z2
LM j6.9 + FG j5.6 15 IJ - j3.8 15 OP 5.25 Q N H 5.25K = j6.0214 % LM j6.9 + FG j3.8 15 IJ - j5.6 15 OP = 5.25 Q N H 5.25K
1 2 1 2
= j0.879 % Z3 =
1 2
= j9.978 %
The above values represent the two-winding transformer equivalent impedances that must be used in the one-line diagram on page DAPPER 4-18. As of DAPPER Version 2.0, you cannot enter negative impedance values for the twowinding transformer component, even though these sometimes occur with network reduction of a three-winding transformer into an equivalent two-winding transformer case.
Contribution Data
Fault duty contributions to the power system originate from the motor generator and utility source components. PTW provides default subtransient and X/R ratio values. You can calculate the machine kVA and voltage base using the rated size and connected bus nominal voltage. For example, if you enter a 50 hp motor with an 80% power factor and 92% efficiency, PTW calculates the rated kVA base as:
kVA base = 50 hp 746 W hp 1000 W 0.8 pf 0.92 efficiency kW = 50.7 kVA
This is close to the rule-of-thumb that 1 hp is equal to 1 kVA. Of course, if you have a 1000 hp synchronous motor with a unity power factor, PTW calculates the motors kVA base value as 746 kVA for short circuit current purposes. The fault contribution calculation remains unaffected by the motor load factor. Fault contributions can be at any bus and there may be multiple contributions located at any bus. Important: You may change the ANSI contribution calculated kVA base, for example to model the 50 hp motor as 50.0 kVA. However in PTW, once the machine ANSI contribution kVA base is selected (or automatically calculated by PTW if the base kVA value is 0), it will not change. Therefore, if you enter the motor load as 50 hp, run a Study, and then change the motors rating to 75 hp, the motors ANSI contribution base kVA will remain 50 kVA. You must change the base kVA to 75 kVA manually. Induction motors are modeled as delta-connected, whereas synchronous motors and generators are modeled as wye-connected. Neutral (grounding) impedance may be modeled in the synchronous motor or generator.
DAPPER 4-22
Reference Manual
It involves the entry of single-line-to-ground short circuit contribution data. PTW uses the three-phase fault data and the single-line-to-ground fault data to calculate the positive, negative- and zero-sequence impedances from the following per unit equations:
Z1 = Z 2 1.0 Z1 = I f3 I fslg = Z0 =
3 1.0 Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0
b g
3 Z1 Z 2 I fslg
Utilities often report available single-line-to-ground fault duties on an equivalent threephase rating apparent power basis, using the equation:
kVA = 3 I fslg kV
You cannot use the three-phase equivalent rating of a single-line-to-ground short circuit contribution. If you do, PTW may attempt to calculate the zero-sequence impedance as a negative value. The actual apparent power to be entered into PTW is the utility equivalent single-line-to-ground duty divided by 3. Enter the single-line-to-ground fault current X/R ratio, not the zero sequence impedance X/R ratio.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-23
X1 1.0000 pu Xo 1.0000 pu
C1 B2
X1 1.0000 pu Xo 1.0000 pu
T1
B3
Figure 4-1
The short circuit capability of the Utility is given as 100 MVA at an X/R ratio of 99. This equates to an impedance of 0.010101 + j 0.999948 pu on a 100 MVA base at the nominal system voltage at Bus 1 of 13.8 kV. The Utility equivalent positive-sequence impedance, X positive, is shown in Figure 4-1 as 1.0000 pu , which is 0.999948 pu rounded to four significant digits. Although the computer displays impedance values to four significant digits, the calculations are accomplished to 16 significant digits. C1 is a high voltage cable between Bus 1 and Bus 2; its impedance is given as 0.0 + j1.0 pu on the 100 MVA 13.8 kV system base. The transformer (T1) impedance is also given as 0.0 + j1.0 pu , on its own base, which is the system base. The Thevenin equivalent impedance at Bus 3 is the sum of the utility, cable and transformer impedances, all expressed on the same 100 MVA base, or as:
Z Thevenin = 0.010101+ j0.999948 + 0 + j1.0 + 0 + j1.0 pu = 0.010101+ j2.999948 pu
g b
g b
Combining the real and imaginary components of the Thevenin equivalent impedance into a single complex impedance yields:
Z Thevenin = j2.999965 pu
The short circuit current is equal to the driving point voltage divided by the Thevenin equivalent impedance. The driving point voltage is 480 V or 1 pu V on the 480 V system base. Therefore, the three-phase fault current is:
Isc = 1 pu A j2.999965 = - j0.333337 pu A
DAPPER 4-24
Reference Manual
The base current on the 480 V side of the transformer on a 100 MVA base is:
I base = 100,000 kVA 3 0.48 kV = 120,281.3 A
This value matches the 40,094.23 A shown in Figure 4-1. Likewise the single-line-to-ground fault current at Bus 3 is calculated from the following equation:
Islg = 3V Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z ground
Because there is no grounding impedance on the transformer wye-grounded connection, Zground is zero. Because there is no transformer tap modeled, the driving point voltage is 1 pu voltage. Knowing that the transformer is connected delta-wye grounded, the zero-sequence impedance of the system network at Bus 3 is equal to only the transformer impedance of:
Z 0transformer = 0 + j1.0 pu
g b
g b
Recalling that the base current for the 480 V system is 120,281.3 A, the single-line-ground fault current at Bus 3 is:
Islg = I base Isc pu = 120,281.3 A 0.428576 pu A = j51,549.7 A
This single-line-to-ground calculation matches the Short Circuit Studys result of 51,549.68 A shown in Figure 4-1.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-25
4.4.2 Single-Line-to-Ground Fault Currents at the Secondary of a Transformer with a Grounding Reactor
The three-bus example in Section 4.4.1 is now modified by placing a grounding reactor on the transformers wye-grounded 480 V side to reduce the single-line-to-ground fault current to no more than 200 A. Note that in Figure 4-1 the single-line-to-ground fault current is greater than the three-phase fault current at Bus 3. You will recall that:
Islg = 3V Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0
The goal is to limit Islg to no more than 200 A or 0.00166 pu A on the 120,281.3 A current base. The positive- and negative-sequence impedances at Bus 3 are 0.010101 + j2.999948 pu , respectively. The positive- and negative-sequence impedances are not affected by adding impedance in the ground path. Ignoring resistance, the zero-sequence impedance is:
Zo = j1803.97 pu - 2( j2.999948) pu = j1797.99 pu
DAPPER 4-26
Reference Manual
PTW allows you to enter grounding reactors to one decimal; therefore PTW rounds 1.38 to 1.4 . Thus, the resulting single-line-to-ground fault current at Bus 3 is slightly less than 200 A (197.71 A), as shown in Figure 4-2.
X1 1.0000 pu Xo 1.3333 pu
UTILITY B1
X1 1.0000 pu Xo 1.0000 pu
C1 B2
X1 1.0000 pu Xo 1.0000 pu
T1
1.4 B3
Figure 4-2
The three-phase and single-line-to-ground hand calculations match PTWs results. PTW automatically takes into account the multiplying of grounding reactance by 3. The grounding impedance is entered in ohms: PTW automatically places it on a per unit base impedance on the nominal system voltage on the transformers grounded side, in this case 480 V. Likewise, if the transformer is connected wye-grounded-delta, the grounding impedance is entered in ohms; however, all per unit calculations would be based on the 13.8 kV nominal system voltage. PTW warns you in the Study Messages dialog box if a grounding impedance is entered on an unacceptable connection (a grounding reactor placed on a delta-transformer connection). Also, PTW allows two grounding reactors for the wye-grounded wye-grounded transformer connection. Each grounding impedance is converted to its respective per unit impedance value based on the bus nominal system voltage on each side of the transformer.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-27
UTILITY
X1 0.4183 pu Xo 0.1673 pu
C1
B1
B2
T1
B3
Figure 4-3
Given a utility three-phase fault current of 10,000 A at 13.8 kV and a single-line-toground fault current of 12,500 A, the equivalent Short Circuit Capacity in MVA is:
SCC3 = 3 10,000 A 13.8kV = 239,023 kVA SCCslg = 12,500 A
FG 13.8 kV IJ H 3 K
= 99,593 kVA
Whereas the single-line-to-ground fault current may be greater than the systems threephase fault current on an MVA base, the single-line-to-ground short circuit capability is less than the three-phase short circuit capability. On a 100 MVA base, the three-phase short circuit capability expressed in per unit ohms is:
Z utility = 100,000 kVA 239,023 kVA = j0.4184 pu
In order to determine the single-line impedance, you must first express the current as a per unit value.
DAPPER 4-28
Reference Manual
Islg = I base =
pu A
e 3jb13.8kvg
Islg
Substituting:
Z0 = 3 j0.4184 + j0.4184 - j2.9878 = j0.1673 pu
If the fault occurs at Bus 3 and the transformer connection is wye-grounded wyegrounded, then the zero-sequence impedance is the series of the transformer, cable and utility zero-sequence impedances:
Z 0 Bus 3 = j0.1673+ j1.0 + j1.0 = j2.1673 pu
If the driving point voltage is 1 pu, the single-line-to-ground fault current at Bus 3 is:
Zslg = 3 1 pu V Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 3 1 pu V = j2.418 + j2.418 + j2.1673 per = - j0.4284 pu A
In amperes:
Islg = I pu I base Islg = - j0.4284 120,281.3 A = j51,524.9 A
This 51,524.9 A is close to the 51,519.40 A predicted by PTW in Figure 4-3. The slight difference between solutions is because the hand calculations ignored resistance.
4.4.4 Fault with a Generator Source with Unequal Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence Reactances
PTW assumes that the utility system positive- and negative-sequence impedances are equal. In this example, a 100 MVA generator with a j1.0 positive-, j0.8 negative-, and j0.5 zero-sequence reactance is modeled. The generator X/R ratio is 999. The generator is modeled as a Swing Bus Generator with a driving point voltage of 1.0 pu V at an angle of 0. The transformer grounding reactor examined in Section 4.4.2 is removed and the transformer T1 is reconnected delta-wye grounded as shown in Figure 4-4.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-29
B1
X1 1.0000 pu Xo 1.0000 pu
C1 B2
X1 1.0000 pu Xo 1.0000 pu
T1
B3
Figure 4-4
Once again the difference between the hand calculated 40,093.77 A and the PTW calculated 40,093.79 A is that the hand calculation ignored resistance. Note that the Thevenin equivalent negative-sequence impedance at Bus 3 is j2.8 pu , which is slightly less than the positive-sequence value of 3.0. This is because the negative-sequence generator reactance is j0.8 pu , and the cable and transformer negative-sequence impedances are equal to the positive-sequence impedance. A portion of the single-line-to-ground Short Circuit Study report follows:
F A U L T A N A L Y S I S FAULT MODEL MODEL MODEL R E P O R T
TYPE: SLG INDUCTION MOTOR CONTRIBUTION: YES TRANSFORMER TAPS: YES TRANSFORMER PHASE SHIFT: YES
============================================================================== B3 VOLTAGE BASE LL: 480.0 (VOLTS) INI. SYM. RMS FAULT CURRENT: 53065.3 / -120. ( AMPS/DEG ) THEVENIN EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE: .002 +j 6.800 (PU) THEVENIN IMPEDANCE X/R RATIO: INFINITE SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE Z1: .001 +j 3.000 (PU) Z2: .001 +j 2.800 (PU) Z0: .000 +j 1.000 (PU) *****************************************************************************
The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedance values are reported, and the total of the three impedances is 0.002 + j6.8 pu . The fault point X/R ratio is 3400, or as reported in PTW, an infinite X/R ratio. Clearly, the generator negative-sequence
DAPPER 4-30
Reference Manual
impedance is used to calculate the Thevenin equivalent impedance at the fault point. The Thevenin equivalent zero-sequence impedance at Bus 3 is defined as only the impedance of the wye-grounded side of the transformer, as was the case in Section 4.4.1.
B1
C1 B2 T1 B3 C2 B4
MOTOR
Figure 4-5
The positive-sequence Thevenin equivalent impedance at Bus 4 is the sum of the impedance of the Generator, cables C1 and C2, and transformer T1 in parallel with the positive-sequence impedance of the Motor. Therefore the positive-sequence impedance at Bus 4 is:
Z1 =
The zero-sequence impedance at Bus 4 is the sum of the transformer T1 and cable C2 impedances in parallel with the motors zero-sequence impedance:
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-31
Z0 =
The Thevenin equivalent positive- and zero-sequence impedances predicted by PTW match the above hand calculations. Note that the base current in this part of the system is 120,281.3 A; therefore the calculated three-phase and single-line-to-ground fault current at Bus 4 is 150,352 A and 181,177 A, respectively. Part of the three-phase Short Circuit Study report is shown:
***************** F A U L T A N A L Y S I S R E P O R T ****************
B4
FAULT TYPE: 3PH MODEL INDUCTION MOTOR CONTRIBUTION: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER TAPS: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER PHASE SHIFT: YES VOLTAGE BASE LL: 480.0 (VOLTS) INI. SYM. RMS FAULT CURRENT: 150351.9 / -120. ( AMPS/DEG ) THEVENIN EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE: .001 +j .800 (PU) THEVENIN IMPEDANCE X/R RATIO: INFINITE ==== INI. SYM. RMS SYSTEM BUS ALL BUSES REPORTED ---PHASE A--13800.0 .7500 / 0. 13800.0 .5000 / 0. 480.0 .2500 / -30. 480.0 .0000 /-123. VOLTAGES ( PU / DEG ) ======= AT TIME = .5 CYCLES ---PHASE B-----PHASE C--.7500 /-120. .7500 / 120. .5000 /-120. .5000 / 120. .2500 /-150. .2500 / 90. .0000 / 117. .0000 / -3.
B4 B1 B2 B3 B4 B4 GENERATOR MOTOR B1 B2 B3
==== INI. SYM. RMS SYSTEM BRANCH FLOWS ( AMPS/DEG ) ======= ALL BRANCHES REPORTED AT TIME = .5 CYCLES VOLTS --PHASE A-----PHASE B-----PHASE 13800. 1045.9/ -90. 1045.9/ 150. 1045.9/ 480. 120281.3/-120. 120281.2/ 120. 120281.3/ B2 13800. 1045.9/ -90. 1045.9/ 150. 1045.9/ B3 13800. 1045.9/ -90. 1045.9/ 150. 1045.9/ B4 480. 30070.6/-120. 30070.6/ 120. 30070.6/
The Study is conducted with the Study Setup defined to fault a single bus (Bus 4), and all the Bus Voltages and Branch Currents for a fault at Bus 4 are selected. Using the datablock formats, the branch current flows can be displayed on the one-line diagram in Figure 4-6.
DAPPER 4-32
Reference Manual
GENERATOR
1045.94 A 1045.94 A
C1 B2 B1
1045.94 A
T1 B3
30,070.63 A
C2 B4
150,351.94 A 3 Ph
MOTOR
Figure 4-6
The single-line-to-ground Short Circuit Study report, for a fault at Bus 4 is shown:
FAULT TYPE: SLG MODEL INDUCTION MOTOR CONTRIBUTION: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER TAPS: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER PHASE SHIFT: YES ============================================================================== B4 VOLTAGE BASE LL: 480.0 (VOLTS) INI. SYM. RMS FAULT CURRENT: 181177.3 / -120. ( AMPS/DEG ) THEVENIN EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE: .002 +j 1.992 (PU) THEVENIN IMPEDANCE X/R RATIO: INFINITE SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE Z1: .001 +j .800 (PU) Z2: .001 +j .792 (PU) Z0: .000 +j .400 (PU) ==== INI. SYM. RMS SYSTEM BUS ALL BUSES REPORTED ---PHASE A--13800.0 .8609 / 5. 13800.0 .7237 / 13. 480.0 .3054 / -30. 480.0 .0000 /-123. VOLTAGES ( PU / DEG ) ======= AT TIME = .5 CYCLES ---PHASE B-----PHASE C--.9833 /-120. .8607 / 115. .9874 /-120. .7236 / 107. .9108 /-139. .9108 / 79. .9135 /-139. .9135 / 79.
B4 B1 B2 B3 B4 B4 GENERATOR MOTOR B1 B2 B3
==== INI. SYM. RMS SYSTEM BRANCH FLOWS ( AMPS/DEG ) ======= ALL BRANCHES REPORTED AT TIME = .5 CYCLES VOLTS --PHASE A-----PHASE B-----PHASE C 13800. 742.9/-121. 17.5/ -30. 742.9/ 61. 480. 144438.2/-120. 501.2/-180. 505.3/ -60. B2 13800. 742.9/-121. 17.5/ -30. 742.9/ 61. B3 13800. 742.9/-121. 17.5/ -30. 742.9/ 61. B4 480. 36739.1/-120. 500.1/ 0. 506.4/ 120.
The single-line-to-ground report shows that the voltage on Phase A of the faulted bus is 0 pu V, but the voltage on Phases B and C are 0.9 pu V. The phase current on phase A from the Utility is 3,6739 A and the motor contribution is 144,438 A. The total fault current into Bus 4 is therefore the sum of these two currents into the bus, or 181,177 A. Because the synchronous motor stator windings are connected wye-grounded configuration at Bus 4, there are currents flowing in all three phases. You can run the same Study with a short circuit at Bus 4 again; however this time the Study Setup has been modified to ignore motor contributions. The single-line-to-ground Short Circuit Study report ignoring motor contribution is shown:
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-33
***************** F A U L T
A N A L Y S I S
R E P O R T ****************
FAULT TYPE: SLG MODEL INDUCTION MOTOR CONTRIBUTION: NO MODEL TRANSFORMER TAPS: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER PHASE SHIFT: YES ============================================================================== B4 VOLTAGE BASE LL: 480.0 (VOLTS) INI. SYM. RMS FAULT CURRENT: 36821.3 / -120. ( AMPS/DEG ) THEVENIN EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE: .002 +j 9.800 (PU) THEVENIN IMPEDANCE X/R RATIO: INFINITE SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE Z1: .001 +j 4.000 (PU) Z2: .001 +j 3.800 (PU) Z0: .000 +j 2.000 (PU) ==== INI. SYM. RMS SYSTEM BRANCH FLOWS ( AMPS/DEG ) ======= ALL BRANCHES REPORTED AT TIME = .5 CYCLES VOLTS --PHASE A-----PHASE B-----PHASE C 13800. 739.4/-120. .0/ 59. 739.4/ 60. B2 13800. 739.4/-120. .0/ 78. 739.4/ 60. B3 13800. 739.4/-120. .0/ 78. 739.4/ 60. B4 480. 36821.3/-120. .0/-120. .0/-120.
B4 GENERATOR B1 B2 B3
*****************************************************************************
Because there is no wye-grounded motor load modeled, there is a single-line-to-ground fault current in the branch from Bus 3 to Bus 4 of 36,821 A in Phase A (the faulted phase); there are no fault currents in Phase B or Phase C. Likewise, on the delta side of the transformer, there is fault current flowing in Phase A and Phase C only. The associated sequence currents for this example are shown:
B4 GENERATOR B1 B2 B3 ==== INI. RMS SYSTEM BRANCH FLOWS ( AMPS/DEG ) ======= ALL BRANCHES REPORTED AT TIME = .0 CYCLES VOLTS -POS SEQ-NEG SEQ-ZER SEQ13800. 426.9/ 90. 426.9/ 30. .0/ 45. B2 13800. 426.9/ -90. 426.9/-150. .0/ 45. B3 13800. 426.9/ -90. 426.9/-150. .0/ 45. B4 480. 12273.8/-120. 12273.8/-120. 12273.8/-120.
*****************************************************************************
On the branch from Bus 3 to Bus 4 the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents are equal in magnitude and angle. The Phase A current is the sum of these three sequence values, or 36,821 A. Because the transformer is delta connected to the primary connection, there is no zero-sequence current flow on the 13.8 kV side of the system.
DAPPER 4-34
Reference Manual
UTILITY
22,768.38 A
B1 FEEDER
22,768.35 A B2
C1 C2 C3 C4
24,686.32 A
B3
698.55 A
B4
698.55 A
B5
698.55 A
B6
835.20 A
M1
M2
M3
M4
Size 100.0 kVA Xd" 0.1700 pu No. Mtrs 1 100 Mtr kVA Base
Size 25.0 kVA Xd" 0.1700 pu No. Mtrs 4 25 Mtr kVA Base
Size 25.0 kVA Xd" 0.6800 pu No. Mtrs 4 100 Mtr kVA Base
Size 100.0 kVA Xd" 0.1700 pu No. Mtrs 1 100 Mtr kVA Base
Figure 4-7
It is important to note that the fault current contributions from the first three branches into the faulted bus are identical. Because each of these cases has 100 kVA of connected motor load in the branch, the motor fault duty contribution is identical. (Be aware that when you enter the data for motors M1 and M2, you need to enter only the Number of Motors and the motor Rated Size in the first subview of the Component Editor.) For both motors, the motor base kVA is the same value as the rated size. PTW correctly models the total Thevenin equivalent subtransient reactance for both cases; for M1 it models the one motor as a single motor load object and for M2 it models the four motors as a single motor load object. Modeling motor M3 requires further explanation. The motor rated size is 25 kVA and there are four motors modeled in the single motor load object. However, when the data was entered in the ANSI Contribution subview, the motor contribution was lumped as 100 kVA. For PTW to correctly calculate the lumped impedance of these four 25 kVA motors, the motor X must be multiplied by four and the product entered in the X field. d d This is noted on the datablock below motor M3. If the motor data for M3 is entered correctly, then the results for motors M1, M2 and M3 will be identical. In the last branch from Bus 2 to Bus 4, a single 100 kVA motor is modeled but the rated voltage of the motor is 440 V. If the motor is rated 0.17 pu on its own base of 100 kVA and 440 V, then its impedance on the system base 480 V is:
X = X d motor d
FG kV IJ FG kVA IJ H kV K H kVA K
2 motor base base motor 2
Substituting:
X = 0.17 d
= 0.143 pu
This fault duty contribution is limited by the impedance of the 50 ft of cable from Bus 2 to Bus 6. The cable is #2 AWG THHN with a copper conductor in non-metallic conduct
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-35
and has a published impedance of 0.202 + j0.0467 per 1000 ft. Therefore, on a 100 kVA base (machine base) the cable impedance is:
Z cable =
= 0.0101+ j0.002335
Therefore, the cable impedance on the system base of 100 kVA is:
Z cable = 0.00438 + j0.000998 pu
g b
FG 1 IJ pu H 0.1439 K
= 6.949 pu
DAPPER 4-36
Reference Manual
PTW predicts the fault duty contribution for the motor with a base voltage that is different than the system base as 835.20 A, which is nearly identical to the hand calculation of 835.83 A.
Case 1
The one-line diagram in Figure 4-8 has three-phase transformer rated voltages that match the bus nominal system voltages, and there are no taps. The transformer reactance is rated 6% on a base of 13.8 kV and 10,000 kVA. PTW places all per unit values on a 100 MVA system base.
GENERATOR X1 0.2000 pu
Bus System Nominal 13,800.0 V B1 Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu V Bus Fault Current 20,918.49 A
T1
Pri Rated Voltage 13,800.0 V Sec Rated Voltage 4160.0 V Leakage Impedance 0.6000 pu Pri Tap 0.00 % Sec Tap 0.00 %
Bus System Nominal 4160.0 V B2 Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu V Bus Fault Current 17,348.27 A
Figure 4-8
The Generator equivalent impedance is j0.2 pu and the transformer per unit impedance is j0.6 pu. The total Thevenin equivalent impedance at Bus 2 is the sum for the generator and transformer impedances, or j0.8 pu. Therefore the three-phase fault current is:
Isc = 1 pu A j0.8 = - j1.25 pu A
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-37
I base =
100,000 kVA
Isc = I base I pu A
Case 2
You can substitute a transformer rated 13.2 kV - 3.979 kV, as shown in Figure 4-9. If the generator exciter is set to produce 13.8 kV at the transformer rated 13.2 kV bus, then the transformer on its low voltage side will produce 4.16 kV, which is greater than 3.979 kV. The transformer turns ratio is 3.317 and the ratio of nominal system voltages from buses B1 to B2 is also 3.317.
GENERATOR X1 0.2000 pu B1 Pri Rated Voltage 13,200.0 V Sec Rated Voltage 3979.0 V Leakage Impedance 0.6000 pu Pri Tap 0.00 % Sec Tap 0.00 % T1
Bus System Nominal 13,800.0 V Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu V Bus Fault Current 20,918.49 A
B2
Bus System Nominal 4160.0 V Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu V Bus Fault Current 18,531.12 A
Figure 4-9
The transformer is 6% on its own base; however this value must be modified by the transformer voltage to nominal system voltage ratio squared. The system base is 100 MVA. Substituting:
Z new = Z given
FG kV IJ F kV I H kV K GH kV JK F 13.2 kV IJ FG 100,000 kVA IJ = j0.06 pu G H 13.8 kV K H 10,000 kVA K F 3.979 IJ FG 100,000 kVA IJ = j0.06 G H 4.16 K H 10,000 kVA K
2 given new new given 2 2
= j0.54896 pu
DAPPER 4-38
Reference Manual
The Thevenin equivalent impedance at Bus 2 is the sum of the generator and transformer impedance as shown:
Z = j0.2 + j0.54896 pu = j0.74896 pu Isc = 1.0 pu V j0.74896 pu = - j1.335 pu A
Remembering that Ibase is 13,878.6 A for a system base of 4160 V, the fault current at Bus 2 is:
Isc = 13,878.6 A - j1.335 pu A = - j18,531 A
To properly model off-nominal voltages, you must select the Transformer Taps checkbox in the Study Setup dialog box. PTW actually models transformer off-nominal voltages using two fictitious taps. The first fictitious tap is on the primary side of the transformer to model the difference between the 13.8 kV bus nominal and the 13.2 kV transformer rated voltage. The second fictitious tap is on the secondary side of the transformer to model the 3.979 kV secondary transformer rated voltage and the 4.16 kV nominal system voltage. Thus when a lower voltage transformer is placed in the system with the same transformer ratio as the bus nominal system voltage ratio, the fault current increases over the no-tap or flat-tap case.
Case 3
You can also substitute a transformer rated 13.2 kV - 4.16 kV, as shown in Figure 4-10. Since the generator produces 13.8 kV without a primary tap on the transformer, the secondary voltage is 4.35 kV. To limit the secondary side voltage, the transformer is tapped at 13.8 kV. This is applied in PTW as a +4.54% primary tap. A positive primary transformer tap reduces the secondary voltage.
X1 0.2000 pu
GENERATOR
Bus System Nominal 13,800.0 V B1 Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu Bus Fault Current 20,918.49 A
Pri Rated Voltage 13,200.0 V T1 Sec Rated Voltage 4160.0 V Leakage Impedance 0.6000 pu Pri Tap 4.54 % Sec Tap 0.00 %
Bus System Nominal 4160.0 V B2 Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu Bus Fault Current 17,348.73 A
Figure 4-10
It should be noted that the combination of the lower transformer primary voltage rating and the positive tap setting work together to maintain the system voltage at Bus 2 at 4.16 kV. While the lower voltage transformer increases the fault current (Figure 4-9), adding the positive tap value reduces the fault current. The total fault current at Bus 2 is identical to that in Figure 4-8, or 17,348 A.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-39
Case 4
A 13.8 kV-4.16 kV transformer is placed in a system with bus nominal voltages of 13.8 4.16 kV, as shown in Figure 4-11. However because of heavy loading, the transformer is placed in service with a -2.5% primary tap. Under loaded conditions, the nominal system voltage with the -2.5% primary tap is 4.16 kV; however under no-load conditions, the prefault driving point voltage at Bus 2 is 1.0256 pu higher than the nominal system voltage.
GENERATOR X1 0.2000 pu Bus System Nominal 13,800.0 V B1 Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu Bus Fault Current 20,918.49 A Pri Rated Voltage 13,800.0 V T1 Sec Rated Voltage 4160.0 V Leakage Impedance 0.6000 pu Pri Tap -2.50 % Sec Tap 0.00 % Bus System Nominal 4160.0 V B2 Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.03 pu Bus Fault Current 17,565.02 A
Figure 4-11
Remembering that the base current at 4160 V is 13878.6 A, then the fault current is:
Isc = 13,878.6 A - j1.26558 pu A = - j17,565 A
It is significant to note that the pre-fault voltage at Bus 2 is 1.0256 pu above the nominal system voltage of 4160 V. Proper per unit methods should be applied if hand calculations are used.
Case 5
In this final case, the nominal system voltage at Bus 2 is set to 4.266 kV or 1.0256 higher voltage than in Case 4, as shown in Figure 4-12.
DAPPER 4-40
Reference Manual
GENERATOR X1 0.2000 pu
B1
Bus System Nominal 13,800.0 V Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu V Bus Fault Current 20,918.49 A
Pri Rated Voltage 13,800.0 V Sec Rated Voltage 4160.0 V Leakage Impedance 0.6000 pu Pri Tap -2.50 % Sec Tap 0.00 %
T1
B2
Bus System Nominal 4266.5 V Pre Fault Driving Point Voltage 1.00 pu V Bus Fault Current 17,565.02 A
Figure 4-12
The fault current at Bus 2 remains 17,565 A. The pre-fault voltage is now 1.0 pu V. The 6% transformer reactance must be placed on the system base, which is 13.8 kV. With the -2.5% primary tap, the Thevenin equivalent impedance at Bus 2 is:
Z = j0.2 + j0.06
Isc = I base I pu A
Carefully study the differences between Cases 4 and 5. The same transformer with the same ratings and taps is analyzed in the each case. The only difference is the system voltage selected at the faulted bus. In both cases, the fault current is the same. The impedances were calculated differently because the base voltages were different. The fault current in both cases is the same.
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-41
UTILITY
B1
B4
B2
T1
B3
If the utility and cable impedance each are 1 pu, then the total Thevenin equivalent positive-sequence impedance at Bus 3 and at Bus 4 is 3 pu. Transformer 1 is connected delta-wye grounded, with the secondary side of Transformer 1 defined as attached to Bus 3. The Thevenin equivalent zero-sequence impedance at Bus 3 is then 1 pu. The short circuit currents at Bus 3 are reported by PTW as 6610 A (threephase) and 8008 A (single-phase-to-ground), as noted in Figure 4-13. This is an expected solution. The Transformer 1 connections were set as defaulted with the primary as delta, and the secondary as wye-grounded as noted on the Component Editor screen shown following in Figure 4-14.
Figure 4-14
DAPPER 4-42
Reference Manual
The Transformer 2 is connected between Bus 2 and Bus 4, as shown in Figure 4-13. Unlike Transformer 1, the Transformer 2 connections were changed in the Component Editor, as shown following in Figure 4-15.
Figure 4-15
PTW defines transformer connections as referred to either Node 1 or Node 2. Node 1 is defined on the Drawing as on the top of the symbol, whereas Node 2 is always defined on the Drawing as located at the bottom of the symbol. It makes no difference how you connect the transformer to the buses on the Drawing the Node 1 connection is always referenced at the top of the symbol. Thus, in Figure 4-13 the Node 2 (bottom) connection for Transformer 1 is Bus 3, and in the Component Editor view shown in Figure 4-14, the Node 2 connection is wyegrounded. We know that the proper transformer connection for Transformer 2s connection at Bus 4 is wye-grounded. Knowing that the Node 1 connection is always on the top of the symbol when viewed on the one-line diagram, or as the primary connection when viewed in the Component Editor, the connection must be set as wye-grounded. Likewise, the Node 2 (bottom) connection for Transformer 2 must be delta. Compare the connections and transformer voltages in the two Component Editor screens shown in Figure 4-14 and Figure 4-15. It is imperative that when you model single-phase-to-ground fault currents, you understand how PTW treats the primary and secondary connections.
3/26/2006
EDISON
UTILITY BUS
R1
CB1
TM -1
R2
CB2
TX A
003-HV SWGR
R8 R3 CB3 CB6 C1 C2 SYN A GEN 1 GEN 2 C3 SYN B CAP 1 CB7 CB8 CB9 R6 R7
R9
R10
CB10 C4
007-TX E PRI
TX B PRI BUS 4 R4 005-TXD PRI CB4 CB5 TX D DS SWG1 BUS 8 F1 TX H C6 029-TX D SEC CMP CTR HVAC BUS F2 TX3 SEC BUS 11 C19 C7 C8 R11 TX G CMP HVAC LVP6 DS SWG2 BUS 13 DSB 1 BUS 14 C13 C9 M13 C16 C17 021-TX F PRI TX F BUS 28 A BUS 16 PLN 16 H2A C18 MCCB2 023-MTR 23 PLN - 17 H1A C12 MO/L#28B-1 MO/L#28B-2 BUS 17 022-DSB 2 MCP#28B-1 MCP#28B-2 BUS 28 B L2 LVP4 LVP5 L1 M20 L5 C20 DS SWG3 BUS 20 DSB 3 BUS 27 M25 PCB1 PCB2 PCB3 MO/L#25 F3 MCP#10 COMPUTERS TX C CB12 TX3 TER BUS 12 GEN 3 F5 026-TX G PRI 025-MTR 25 C5 TX 6 BLDG 115 SERV R5 006-TX3 PRI TX E
TX B
C10
C11
TX C PRI BUS 9
F4
SW1
SWBD-1
LVP1
LVP2
LVP3
C14
BUS 15
MCC 15 - 1A
C15
MCCB1
018-RA
H3A BUS 19 M28 #1 & 2 M23-B PNL 19 H3A M23-A M28 #3 M28 #4
PNL 18 RA
DAPPER 4-43
DAPPER 4-44
Reference Manual
The following figure shows a portion of the Plant project including Short Circuit Study results.
SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY FAULT ALL BRANCHES BUILDING 115 SERVICE BLDG 115 SERV 10618.85 A 3 PH 10557.23 A SLG C11
C10
F3 TX G MO/L#25
M25
LVP5 LVP4 BUS 28 B 18508.62 A 3 PH 15548.13 A SLG MCP#28B-1 BUS 28 A 20786.14 A 3 PH 17923.31 A SLG MO/L#28B-1 MO/L#28B-2 MCP#28B-2
M28 #1 & 2
M28 #3
M28 #4
The Short Circuit Report includes all the pre-fault voltages and associated voltage angles, given that some transformers within the system have voltage taps set. Some of the data for the buses in the above one-line diagram are shown in the following report.
************* P R E - F A U L T BUS# NAME BASE VOLTS 69000.00 69000.00 13800.00 13800.00 4160.00 4160.00 4160.00 480.00 480.00 4160.00 480.00 V O L T A G E P R O F I L E **************
PU VOLTS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0256 1.0256 1.0519 1.0519 1.0519 1.0789 1.0789 1.0519 1.0789
ANGLE (D) 0. 0. -30. -30. -60. -60. -60. -90. -90. -60. -90.
UTILITY BUS TX A PRI 003-HV SWGR 007-TX E PRI BLDG 115 SERV 026-TX G PRI 025-MTR 25 DSB 3 BUS 27 BUS 28 A 029-TX D SEC BUS 28 B
3/26/2006
DAPPER 4-45
The comprehensive Short Circuit Study (three-phase) Report for a short circuit at DSB 3 or Bus 27 is listed below.
***************** F A U L T A N A L Y S I S R E P O R T **************** FAULT TYPE: 3PH MODEL INDUCTION MOTOR CONTRIBUTION: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER TAPS: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER PHASE SHIFT: YES ============================================================================== DSB 3 BUS 27 VOLTAGE BASE LL: 480.0 (VOLTS) INI. SYM. RMS FAULT CURRENT: 24713.1 / -170. ( AMPS/DEG ) THEVENIN EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE: 0.883 +j 5.176 (PU) THEVENIN IMPEDANCE X/R RATIO: 5.865 ASYM RMS 1/2 CYCLES 32080.4 INTERRUPTING AMPS 3 CYCLES 5 CYCLES 24753.0 24713.7 8 CYCLES 24713.1
INI. SYM. RMS FAULTED BUS VOLTAGES ( PU / DEG ) AT TIME = 0.5 CYCLES ---PHASE A-----PHASE B-----PHASE C--0.0000 / -82.9 0.0000 / 157.1 0.0000 / 37.1 INI. SYM. RMS FAULTED CURRENT ( AMPS / DEG ) AT TIME = 0.5 CYCLES ---PHASE A-----PHASE B-----PHASE C--24713.1 /-170.3 24713.1 / 69.7 24713.1 / -50.3
The comprehensive Short Circuit Study (single-line-to-ground) Report for a short circuit at DSB 3 or Bus 27 is listed below.
***************** F A U L T A N A L Y S I S R E P O R T **************** FAULT TYPE: SLG MODEL INDUCTION MOTOR CONTRIBUTION: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER TAPS: YES MODEL TRANSFORMER PHASE SHIFT: YES ============================================================================== DSB 3 BUS 27 VOLTAGE BASE LL: 480.0 (VOLTS) INI. SYM. RMS FAULT CURRENT: 23955.3 / -170. ( AMPS/DEG ) THEVENIN EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE: 2.765 +j 16.015 (PU) THEVENIN IMPEDANCE X/R RATIO: 5.791 SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE Z1: 0.883 +j 5.176 (PU) Z2: 0.883 +j 5.176 (PU) Z0: 1.000 +j 5.662 (PU) ASYM RMS 1/2 CYCLES 31011.3 INTERRUPTING AMPS 3 CYCLES 5 CYCLES 23990.9 23955.7 8 CYCLES 23955.3
INI. SYM. RMS FAULTED BUS VOLTAGES ( PU / DEG ) AT TIME = 0.5 CYCLES ---PHASE A-----PHASE B-----PHASE C--0.0000 / -76.0 1.0940 / 148.4 1.0977 / 31.4 INI. SYM. RMS FAULTED CURRENT ( AMPS / DEG ) AT TIME = 0.5 CYCLES ---PHASE A-----PHASE B-----PHASE C--23955.3 /-170.2 0.0 /-170.2 0.0 /-170.2
The Short Circuit Study Report for all buses faulted is shown below. A summary threephase and single-line-ground report is also included.
***************** F A U L T A N A L Y S I S S U M M A R Y *************** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BUS NAME VOLTAGE AVAILABLE FAULT CURRENT L-L 3 PHASE X/R LINE/GRND X/R 003-HV SWGR TX B PRI BUS 4 005-TXD PRI 006-TX3 PRI 007-TX E PRI DS SWG1 BUS 8 TX C PRI BUS 9 HVAC BUS TX3 SEC BUS 11 DS SWG2 BUS 13 TX3 TER BUS 12 DS SWG3 BUS 20 13800. 13800. 13800. 13800. 13800. 4160. 4160. 4160. 4160. 4160. 4160. 4160. 10034.8 9830.7 9891.7 9966.3 9970.8 6072.8 6026.0 5701.7 18318.1 18303.7 20317.1 20307.9 13.6 7.0 10.2 11.1 11.5 8.4 7.5 3.6 9.4 9.3 7.3 7.3 12796.2 12279.6 12452.9 12526.3 12628.7 6640.8 6559.7 5999.3 18976.2 18946.6 19500.2 19468.0 12.3 5.3 8.5 8.7 9.8 8.6 7.4 3.0 6.9 6.8 5.1 5.0
DAPPER 4-46
Reference Manual
021-TX F PRI BLDG 115 SERV 026-TX G PRI 025-MTR 25 022-DSB 2 023-MTR 23 DSB 3 BUS 27 BUS 28 A DSB 1 BUS 14 BUS 15 018-RA BUS 16 BUS 17 H3A BUS 19 029-TX D SEC BUS 28 B UTILITY BUS TX A PRI CMP CTR
4160. 4160. 4160. 4160. 480. 480. 480. 480. 480. 480. 480. 480. 480. 480. 4160. 480. 69000. 69000. 208.
17384.8 10618.9 9694.9 10060.7 45790.9 47063.0 24713.1 20786.1 16327.5 15492.8 11644.5 13770.7 6760.2 11572.0 9921.5 18508.6 8063.3 2281.5 23552.7
2.8 8.9 3.9 7.4 6.4 7.8 5.9 4.3 6.3 5.4 2.1 2.6 0.8 1.7 7.3 2.2 26.9 19.6 5.3
15443.0 10557.2 9198.1 9466.1 34099.1 31374.4 23955.3 17923.3 17986.3 16457.9 10984.0 13918.5 5873.2 10988.3 9555.9 15548.1 2547.6 752.8 25176.4
2.2 8.1 3.3 6.3 6.0 5.6 5.8 4.0 6.1 5.2 1.9 2.3 0.7 1.5 6.7 1.8 14.7 11.7 5.2
3/26/2006
Bib
A-1
A Bibliography
Bibliography
Anderson, Paul M. Analysis of Faulted Power Systems. New Jersey: IEEE Press, 1973. Anthony, Michael A. Electric Power System Protection and Coordination. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995. Beeman, Donald, ed. Industrial Powers Systems Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955. Earley, Mark W., ed. National Electric Code Handbook. 7th ed. Elgard, Olle I. Electric Energy Systems Theory: An Introduction. New York: McGrawHill, 1971. Fitzgerald, A.E., Charles Kingsley, Jr., and Alexander Kusko. Electric Machinery. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. General Electric Company. Application Engineering Information." Catalog Issue EESG II-AP-1, Dec. 1975. ---. Transformer Connections. Massachusetts: General Electric Company, 1970. IEEE Brown Book: IEEE Std 399-1990. New York: IEEE, 1990. IEEE Red Book: IEEE Std 141-1993. New York: IEEE, 1993. McGraw-Edison Power Systems Division. Distribution-System Protection Manual. Pennsylvania: McGraw Edison, Bulletin # 71022. National Electric Code, 1996 ed. Authored by Committee. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1996. Skilling, Hugh Hildreth. Electrical Engineering Circuits. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967. Stagg, Glenn W., and Ahmed H. El-Abiad. Computer Methods in Power System Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.
A-2
Reference Manual
Stevenson, William D. Elements of Power System Analysis. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. Stigant, S. Austin, and A.C. Franklin. The J & P Transformer Book. 10th ed. London: Newnes-Butterworths, 1973. Wagner, C. F., and R.D. Evans. Symmetrical Components. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961. Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book. East Pittsburgh, PA: Westinghouse, 1964.
3/26/2006
Index
DAPPER i
Index
A
Admittance Matrix definition of, 4-2 Ampacity, 2-3 ANSI, 4-1 Asymmetrical Peak Fault Current. See Faults Asymmetrical rms Fault Current. See Faults non-coincident demand, 1-12 Plant project, 1-20 single phase non-motor loads in a panel schedule, 115 load categories, 1-6 loads. See Loads looped systems, 1-2, 1-5 methodology, 1-3 radial systems, 1-2 running the Study, 1-9 service factor (SF), 1-9 special considerations, 1-11 Study options, 1-10 terms and concepts, 1-3 Demand Load Type. See Loads Demand Load Value, 1-3 Design Load Value, 1-3 Diversity Factor, 1-4 Diversity Loads, 3-11 Double Line-to-Ground Fault. See Faults Dry Type Transformer, 2-4
B
Balanced Faults. See Faults
C
Co-Generation and the Load Flow Study, 3-10 Coincident Demand, 1-4 Connected Load, 1-3 Constant Current. See Loads Constant Impedance. See Loads Constant kVA. See Loads Continuous Load, 1-4
E
Energy Audit Type. See Loads Engineering Methodology. See Methodology Error Messages Demand Load Study, 1-11 Load Flow Study, 3-12
D
Demand Factor, 1-3 Demand Load Categories, 1-6 Demand Load Library and the Demand Load Study, 1-6 Demand Load Study and the Demand Load Library, 1-6 before running the Study, 1-6 error messages, 1-11 examples, 1-12 loads with different power factors, 1-17 motor design load, 1-13 motor starting, 1-18 motors assigned to a motor control center, 1-14 multiple loops in a system, 1-19 multiple motors at a bus, 1-13 multiple motors on a single motor component, 1-18
F
Fault Current. See Faults Faults balanced, 4-3 definition of, 4-3 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit, 4-3 fault current asymmetrical peak, 4-10 asymmetrical rms, 4-11 interrupting, 4-9 momentary, 4-9 steady state, 4-11 unbalanced, 4-5 definition of, 4-3 double line-to-ground, 4-7
DAPPER ii
Reference Manual
grounding impedance in, 4-7 line-to-line, 4-7 per unit notation use in, 4-7 positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence modeling in, 4-7 single-line-to-ground, 4-5 Feeder Sizing parallel cables, 2-3 Feeder Sizing. See Sizing Study
G
Generators PV and PQ, 3-10 Grounding Impedance. See Impedance
I
IEC, 4-1 Impedance equivalent, 3-4 grounding, 4-7 Interrupting Fault Current. See Faults
special bus loads, 3-4 steady state load flow equation, 3-3 Study options, 3-7 transformer taps, 3-4 utility equivalent impedance, 3-4 voltage drop, 3-5 Loads, 1-3 constant current, 1-7, 1-8 constant impedance, 1-7, 1-8 constant kVA, 1-7, 1-8 diversity, 3-11 largest motor design factor, 1-8, 1-10 load categories, 1-6, 1-7 load characteristics, 1-6 long continuous load factor (LCL), 1-3, 1-7 motor loads, 1-6, 1-8 non-motor loads, 1-6, 1-7 Demand Load types, 1-7 Energy Audit types, 1-7 remaining motors design factor, 1-8, 1-10 Long Continuous Load Factor (LCL). See Loads Looped Systems, 1-2, 1-5, 1-19, 3-11
M
Methodology Demand Load Study, 1-3, 1-6 Load Flow Study, 3-2 Short Circuit Study, 4-2 Sizing Study, 2-3, 2-4 Momentary Fault Current. See Faults Motor Loads. See Loads Motor Service Factor (SF). See Demand Load Study
K
Kirchoff's Current Law, 3-3, 3-4, 4-3
L
Lead/Lag, 3-10 Line-to-Line Fault. See Faults Load Categories, 1-7 Load Flow Study bus types, 3-3 co-generation, 3-10 definition of, 3-2 error messages, 3-12 examples, 3-12 load specifications, 3-15 modeling transformer losses, 3-14 net branch diversity load, 3-17 Plant project, 3-19 voltage drop and power losses, 3-12 load types, 3-4 methodology, 3-2 running the Study, 3-7 solution process, 3-4
N
NEC, 1-2, 1-4, 1-5, 1-7, 1-9, 2-2, 2-3, 3-5 Negative-Sequence Modeling. See Sequence Modeling Net Branch Diversity, 1-4 Non-Coincident Demand, 1-4 Non-Motor Loads. See Loads Norton Equivalent Circuit, 4-4 Norton Equivalent Diagram, 4-4
O
Off-Nominal Voltage Modeling. See Transformers Ohm's Law, 3-2, 4-3 Oil/Air Cooled Transformer, 2-4 Oil/Air/Forced Air Transformer, 2-4
3/26/2006
Index
DAPPER iii
P
Panel Schedule, 1-15 Per Unit Notation usage in unbalanced faults, 4-7 Phase Shift. See Transformers Positive-Sequence Modeling. See Sequence Modeling Power Factor, 3-6
R
Radial Systems, 1-2 Reactive Power, 3-10
error messages, 2-7 examples, 2-7 cable temperature derating, 2-9 multiple branches with different load values, 2-9 Plant project, 2-10 sizing a radial feed, 2-7 feeder sizing, 2-3 ampacity, 2-3 methodology, 2-3, 2-4 running the Study, 2-5 Study options, 2-6 transformer feeders, 2-4 transformer sizing, 2-4 cooling characteristics, 2-4 Slack Bus, 3-4 Steady State Fault Current. See Faults Steady State Load Flow Equation. See Load Flow Study Swing Bus, 3-4, 3-10
S
Sequence Modeling positive-, negative-, and zero-, 4-7 Service Factor (SF). See Demand Load Study Short Circuit Study. see also Faults before running the Study, 4-15 definition of, 4-2 error messages, 4-22 examples, 4-22 fault currents on a radial unloaded feeder, 4-23 fault duty contribution to a faulted bus, 4-33 fault with a generator source with unequal positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence reactances, 4-28 modeling transformer connections, 4-40 Plant project, 4-42 short circuit currents with a motor load at bus 4, 4-30 single-line-to-ground fault currents at the secondary of a transformer with a grounding reactor, 4-25 source sequence impedance, 4-26 transformer off-nominal voltages and transformer taps, 4-36 methodology, 4-2 running the Study, 4-15 Study options, 4-15 transformer taps primary modeling, 4-12 secondary modeling, 4-13 transformers off-nominal voltage modeling, 4-13 phase shift, 4-13 Single-Line-to-Ground Faults. See Faults Sizing Study before running the Study, 2-5
T
Taps. See Transformer Taps Thevenin Equivalent Circuit, 4-3 Thevenin Equivalent Impedance, 4-3 Transformer Sizing. See Sizing Study Transformer Taps modeling in Load Flow Study, 3-4 modeling in Short Circuit Study, 4-12 Transformers modeling in Load Flow Study, 3-4 off-nominal voltage modeling in Short Circuit Study, 413 phase shift, 4-13
U
Unbalanced Faults. See Faults Utility, 3-4
V
Voltage voltage angle, 3-4 voltage magnitude, 3-4 Voltage Angle, 3-6 Voltage Drop, 3-5, 3-6
DAPPER iv
Reference Manual
3/26/2006