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, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
( )
( )
j r r
V
r e
r dV
r r
'
' 1
'
4 '
b
r
f
pe
- -
=
-
, ,
,
,
, ,
j r r
e
r r
'
'
b - -
-
, ,
, ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 16
Infinitesimal Antenna
z
x
y
r r r ' = -
, , ,
r ' 0 =
,
Infinitesimal antenna body
Observation point
J(0)
(0) r
,
dV'
S D
z D
I constant
phasor
=
,
z l D <<
Dielectric medium ( , )
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 17
The current flowing in the infinitesimal antenna is assumed to be
constant and oriented along the zaxis
The solution of the wave equation for the magnetic vector potential
simply becomes the evaluation of the integrand at the origin
( ) ( )
( )
z
S r S
V r z
V
i
S z I J ' J 0 '
' J ' I
= D = D D =
D D
D
=
D
, , ,
, ,
,
,
,
1
H A
I
A
4
1
E H
j r
z
z e
i
r
j
b
m
m
p
we
-
D
=
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 18
There is still a major mathematical step left. The curl operations
must be expressed in terms of spherical coordinates
z
x
y
r
,
q
j
i
j
,
i
j
,
i
q
,
r
i
,
Azimuthal angle
Elevation angle
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 19
In spherical coordinates
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
r
r
r
r
r
i r i r i
r
r
A rA r A
A A i
r
A r A i
r r
r A A i
r r
2
sin
1
A
sin
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
sin
1
q j
q j
j q
j q
q j
q
q j
q
q
q
q q j
q j
q
=
= -
+ -
+ -
, , ,
,
,
,
,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 20
We had
For the fields we have
j r
z z r
j r
z e
i i i i
r
j z e
i
r r
ith
j
w
I
A cos sin
4
I
1
A 1 sin
4
b
q
b
j
m
q q
p
m b
q
p b
-
-
D
= = -
D
= +
,
, , , , ,
,
, ,
j r
j z e
i
r j r
I
1 1
H A 1 sin
4
b
j
b
q
m p b
-
D
= = +
,
, , ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 21
The general field expressions can be simplified for observation
point at large distance from the infinitesimal antenna
( )
( )
j r
r
j z e
j r
i
j r
j r
i
j r
j r
2
2
I
1
E H
4
1 1
2cos
1 1
sin 1
b
q
b
m
we e p
q
b
b
q
b
b
-
D
= =
+ + +
,
, ,
,
,
( )
r r
j r
j r
2
1 1 2
1 1
p
b
b l
b
>> >> = >>
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 22
At large distance we have the expressions for the Far Field
At sufficient distance from the antenna, the radiated fields are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.
The magnetic field and electric field are in phase and
These are also properties of uniform plane waves.
E H H
m
h
e
= =
, , ,
j r
j z e
i
r
I
H sin
4
b
j
b
q
p
-
D
,
, ,
j r
j z e
i
r
I
E sin
4
b
q
b
m
q
e p
-
D
,
, ,
r 2p l >>
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 23
However, there are significant differences with respect to a uniform
plane wave:
The surfaces of constant phase are spherical instead of planar,
and the wave travels in the radial direction
The intensities of the fields are inversely proportional to the
distance, therefore the field intensities decay while they are
constant for a uniform plane wave
The field intensities are not constant on a given surface of
constant phase. The intensity depends on the sine of the
elevation angle
The radiated power density is
{ }
2
*
2
2
1 1
( ) Re E H
2 2
I
sin
2 4
r
r
P t i H
z
i
r
j
m
e
b
h
q
p
= =
D
=
, , , ,
,
,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 24
The spherical wave resembles a plane wave locally in a small
neighborhood of the point ( r, , ).
z
( ) P t
,
E
q
H
j
r
,
q
J
,
j
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 25
Radiation Patterns
Electric Field and Magnetic Field
z
x
or H E
q j
q
y
x
Plane containing the antenna
proportional to sin
Plane perpendicular to the antenna
omnidirectional or isotropic
Fixed r
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 26
Timeaverage Power Flow (Poynting Vector)
z
x
( ) P t
,
q
Plane containing the antenna
proportional to sin
2
tot
P d d r P t
z z
r d
r
,
, ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 28
1 2 tot tot
P P =
1 tot
P
2 tot
P
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 29
The total radiated power is also the power delivered by the
transmission line to the real part of the equivalent impedance seen
at the input of the antenna
The equivalent resistance of the antenna is usually called radiation
resistance. In free space
2
2
2 2
I
1 4 2 1 2
I I
2 3 4 2 3
eq
tot eq
R
z
z
P R
ph p ph
l p l
D
D
= = =
,
, ,
_
[ ] [ ]
2
2
8 20 0 1
o
o
eq o
z
R p
m
h p
l
h
e
= =
D
= W =
W
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 30
The total radiated power is also used to define the average power
density emitted by the antenna. The average power density
corresponds to the radiation of a hypothetical omnidirectional
(isotropic) antenna, which is used as a reference to understand the
directive properties of any antenna.
z
x
( , ) P t q
,
q
ave
P
Power radiation pattern of an
omnidirectional average antenna
Power radiation pattern
of the actual antenna
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 31
The timeaverage power density is given by
The directivity (formerly called directive gain) of the infinitesimal
antenna is defined as
( )
Surface of wave front
2
2
2
Total Radiated Powe
2
r
I
1
I
12 3 4
4 4
ave
tot
P
z
P
z
r
r r
b
h h
b
p p
p p
= =
D
= = D =
,
,
1
2 2
2
2
( , , )
I I
si ( , )
3
sin
2
n
2 4 3 4
ave
P t r
z z
P r r
D
q
b b
h h
q q
q
p
j
p
-
D D
= =
=
, , ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 32
The maximum value of D(,) is also called directivity (if
unspecified, maximum is implied). For the infinitesimal antenna,
the maximum occurs when the elevation angle is 90
The directivity gives a measure of how the actual antenna performs
in the direction of maximum radiation, with respect to the ideal
isotropic antenna which emits the average power in all directions.
{ }
2
3
max ( , ) sin 1 Directivi . t
2 2
y 5 D
p
q j
= = =
x
z
90
ave
P
max
P
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 33
The infinitesimal antenna is a suitable model to study the behavior
of the elementary radiating element called Hertzian dipole.
Consider two small charge reservoirs, separated by a distance z,
which exchange mobile charge in the form of an oscillatory curent
+
( ) I t
t
z D
+
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 34
The Hertzian dipole can be used as an elementary model for many
natural charge oscillation phenomena. The radiated fields can be
described by using the results of the infinitesimal antenna.
Assuming a sinusoidally varying charge flow between the
reservoirs, the oscillating current is
current flowing
out of reser
charge on
reference rese
voir
rvoir
cos ( ) ( ) ( ) I
phaso
o
r
o o
d d
I t q t q t j q
dt dt
w w = = =
_
Radiation
pattern
o
q
o
I
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 35
A short wire antenna has a triangular current distribution, since the
current itself has to reach a null at the end the wires. The current
can be made approximately uniform by adding capacitor plates.
The small capacitor plate antenna is equivalent to a Hertzian dipole
and the radiated fields can also be described by using the results of
the infinitesimal antenna. The short wire antenna can be described
by the same results, if one uses an average current value giving the
same integral of the current
max
2
o
I I =
I
max
I
o
z D
I
o
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 36
Example A Hertzian dipole is 1.0 mm long and it operates at the
frequency of 1.0 GHz, with feeding current I
o
= 1.0 Ampres. Find
the total radiated power.
For a short dipole with triangular current distribution and maximum
current I
max
= 1.0 Ampre
8 9
2
2 3 2
Hertzian dipole
3 10 10 0.3 m 300 mm
1 mm
4 2 1 2
120 ( ) ( 1 10 )
3 4 12 0.3
4.39 mW
o
o
o
tot
I z
c f
z
I z
P
h
l
l
l
p h p p
p
l p p
-
D
= = =
D =
D
= =
=
<
max
2 4.39/ 4 1.09 mW
o tot
I I P = =
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 37
Timedependent fields - Consider the farfield approximation
( )
{ }
( )
( )
{ }
( )
2
I sin
Re H Re
4
I sin
Re cos( ) sin
I sin
s
I sin
sin(
in
( )
4
Re
( )
4
4
E
)
j t r j t
j t
j z
e i e
r
z
i j t r j t
E t
H t
z
i t r
r
t
r
e
r
r
z
i
r
q
w b w
j
j
j
w
b q
p
b
b q
h w
q
w b w
b q
w
p
p
b
b
p
b
-
D
=
D
- + -
=
- -
D
-
D
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 38
Linear Antennas
Consider a dipole with wires of length comparable to the
wavelength.
z D
' q
q
' r
r
'
i
q
,
i
q
,
' z
z
1
L -
2
L
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 39
Because of its length, the current flowing in the antenna wire is a
function of the coordinate z. To evaluate the farfield at an
observation point, we divide the antenna into segments which can
be considered as elementary infinitesimal antennas.
The electric field radiated by each element , in the farfield
approximation, is
In farfield conditions we can use these additional approximations
'
I
' sin '
4 '
j r
j z e
E i
r
b
q
b
m
q
e p
-
D
D =
,
,
r r z
'
' ' cos
q q
q
-
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 40
The lines r and r are nearly parallel under these assumptions.
z D
' q q
q
' r
r
' z
z
2
L
'cos z q
This length is neglected if
' 'cos r r z q -
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 41
The electric field contributions due to each infinitesimal segment
becomes
The total fields are obtained by integration of all the contributions
you cannot
neglect here
'cos
4 'cos
I
'
4
j r j z
j z e e
E i
r z
b b q
q
b
m
e p q p
-
D
D =
-
,
,
you can
neglect here
sinq
2
1
2
1
cos
cos
E sin I( )
4
H sin I( )
4
j r
L
j z
L
j r
L
j z
L
j e
i z e dz
r
j e
i z e dz
r
b
b q
q
b
b q
j
m b
q
e p
b
q
p
-
-
-
-
=
=
, ,
, ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 42
Short Dipole
Consider a short symmetric dipole comprising two wires, each of
length L << . Assume a triangular distribution of the phasor
current on the wires
The integral in the field expressions becomes
( )
( )
max
max
1 0
I( )
1 0
I z L z
z
I z L z
-
=
+ <
cos
max
since short
1
dipole for a
cos
2
max 1
1
2
I( ) I( )
2
z
L L
j
L L
j
z
L
z e dz z dz
z L L
I
e
b
b q
q
p
b b
l
-
-
= =
_
<
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 43
The final expression for farfields of the short dipole are similar to
the expressions for the Hertzian dipole where the average of the
triangular current distribution is used
average
current
max
max
max
E sin 2
4 2
sin
4
H sin
4
j r
j r
j r
j e I
i L
r
j I L e
i
r
j I L e
i
r
z
b
q
b
q
b
j
m b
q
e p
m b
q
e p
b
q
p
-
-
-
=
=
D
=
, ,
,
, ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 44
Halfwavelength dipole
Consider a symmetric linear antenna with total length /2 and
assume a current phasor distribution on the wires which is
approximately sinusoidal
The integral in the field expressions is
max
I( ) cos( ) z I z b =
( )
4
cos
max
max
2
4
2 cos
cos cos
2
sin
j z
I
I z e dz
l
b q
l
p q
b
b q
-
=
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 45
We obtain the farfield expressions
and the timeaverage Poynting vector
max
max
cos
E cos
2 sin 2
cos
H cos
2 sin 2
j r
j r
j e I
i
r
j e I
i
r
b
q
b
j
m p q
e p q
p q
p q
-
-
=
=
, ,
, ,
2
2
max
2 2 2
cos
( ) cos
2
8 sin
r
I
P t i
r
m p q
e
p q
=
, ,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 46
The total radiated power is obtained after integration of the
timeaverage Poynting vector
The integral above cannot be solved analytically, but the value is
found numerically or from published tables. The equivalent
resistance of the halfwave dipole antenna in air is then
( )
2.4376
2
2
max
0
2
max
1 cos 1 1
2 4
1
0.193978
2
eq
tot
R
u
P I du
u
I
p m
e p
m
e
-
=
=
_
_
( 2) 0.193978 73.07
eq
R
m
l
e
= W
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 47
The direction of maximum radiation strength is obtained again for
elevation angle =90 ande we obtain the directivity
The directivity of the halfwavelength dipole is marginally better
than the directivity for a Hertzian dipole (D = 1.5).
The real improvement is in the much larger radiation resistance,
which is now comparable to the characteristic impedance of typical
transmission line.
2
max
2 2
2
2
max
2 2
( , , 90 )
8
1.641
1
4
2.4376
8
tot
I
P t r
r
D
P r
I
r
m
e
p
m
p
e
p
= =
,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 48
From the linear antenna applet
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 49
For short dipoles of length 0.0005 to 0.05
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 50
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 51
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 52
For general symmetric linear antennas with two wires of length L, it
is convenient to express the current distribution on the wires as
The integral in the field expressions is now
( ) ( ) { }
max
I sin z I L z b = -
( )
( ) ( ) { }
cos
max
max
2
sin
2
cos cos cos
sin
L
j z
L
I L z e dz
I
L L
b q
b
b q b
b q
-
- =
= -
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 53
The field expressions become
( ) ( ) { }
( ) ( ) { }
2
1
2
1
cos
max
cos
max
E sin I( )
4
cos cos cos
2 sin
H sin I( )
4
cos cos cos
2 sin
j r
L
j z
L
j r
j r
L
j z
L
j r
j e
i z e dz
r
j I e
i L L
r
j e
i z e dz
r
j I e
i L L
r
b
b q
q
b
q
b
b q
j
b
j
m b
q
e p
m
b q b
e p q
b
q
p
b q b
p q
-
-
-
-
-
-
=
= -
=
= -
, ,
,
, ,
,
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 54
Examples of long wire antennas
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 55
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 56
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 57
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 58
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 59
Radiation Pattern for E and H
Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 60
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 61
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 62
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 63
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern