SECTION III SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS Definition 3.

.1 (An Equation) An equation is a statement that two algebraic expressions are equal. The two expressions are referred to as the sides of the equation. They are connected by the equality sign. Accordingly, we refer to the 'left side' and 'the right side' of an equation. Example Let 2x + 5 and 5x - 18 be two expressions. By setting 2x + 5 = 5x - 18 (3.1) we create an equation. We can manipulate equation (3.1) in the manner shown below so as to derive an alternative presentation of the equation. 2x - 5x + 5 = -18 Or -3x + 5 = -18 (3.2) The expression -3x + 5 now forms the left hand side while the constant term -18 forms the right hand side. Another approach to the manipulation of equation (3.1) is as follows: 5 = 5x - 2x - 18 yielding 5 = 3x 18 Equations (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) are all equivalent. Recall that algebraic expressions can be linear, quadratic, polynomial, exponential or logarithmic in nature. It is reasonable then to expect equations to be linear, quadratic, polynomial, exponential or logarithmic in nature. Examples: 4x + 7 = 21 equation) 2x7 = 1000 log 5 x = 4 (a linear equation) 2x + 9x + 4 = 0 (a quadratic equation) 4 3 2 2x - 7x + 12x - 9x + 4 = 0 (a polynomial (an exponential equation) (a logarithmic equation)
2

(3.3)

In the remaining sections of this chapter, we will explore solution approaches to these types of equations. Solution of the Linear Equation A linear equation can be solved by using either the Algebraic Approach or the Graphical Approach.

The Algebraic Approach In order to solve a linear equation of the form mx + b = c where m, b and c are constants (m is also called the coefficient of x and must be non zero) we proceed as follows: manipulate the equation so that the term in the variable x is located on one side and the constant terms are located on the other side. i.e. mx = c b

solve for x by dividing the right side constant term by the coefficient of the term in x
(c b ) m

in other words x =

Examples a. Consider 4x + 7 = 21 Manipulating we get 4x = 21 - 7 Thus x = 14/4 = 3.5

b. Consider -3x + 5 = -18

i.e.

4x

14

Manipulating we get -3x = -18-5 Thus x = -23/-3 = 7.67

i.e.

-3x = -23

The Graphical Approach We solve a linear equation of the form mx + b = c where m, b and c are constants by performing the following steps: Manipulate the equation so that the constant term in the right hand side becomes zero i.e. mx + b - c = 0

Plot the graph of the linear function y = mx + b c

Identify on the graph the point where the straight line y = mx + b - c cuts the x axis. The value of x at that point is the solution.

The graph touches the x axis. The graph cuts the x axis at two points.

Definition 3.2 (Quadratic Equation) Any equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are constants and a is not equal to zero is called a quadratic equation. Example 2x2 + 9x + 4 = 0 Note:

The constants a and b are called the coefficients of x2 and x respectively. Solution of Quadratic Equations First of all let us recall from Chapter 2 the following: Any function which is of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are constants with a 0 is called a quadratic function. e.g. f(x) = 2x 2 + 9x + 4 The graph of the quadratic function (which we showed in Chapter 2 to be parabolic in shape) presents in one of four ways: The entire graph lies above the horizontal axis (i.e. the x axis). In this case, the graph never cuts the x axis. The entire graph lies below the horizontal axis (i.e. the x axis). In this case, the graph never cuts the x axis. Definition 3.3 (Roots of a Quadratic Equation) Any x value that satisfies the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (where a, b and c are constants and a 0) is called a root of the quadratic equation. Finding the Roots of a Quadratic Equation We can find the roots of a quadratic equation by anyone of the following three methods, viz. 1. Plotting the Graph of the corresponding quadratic function and locating the value of x for each point where the graph cuts the x axis. It stands to reason that if the graph of the function lies totally above or totally below the x axis, the equation will have no roots. Factorising the corresponding quadratic function, equating each factor to zero and solving for x.
2. 3.

Using the Quadratic Formula.

Plotting the Graph of a Quadratic Function Recall that we plotted the graph of the function f(x) = 2x2 - x - 3 in Chapter 2.

We can use that graph to solve the quadratic equation 2x2 - x - 3 = 0 Observe the two points at which the graph cuts the x axis. The x values or these two points are -1 and 1.5 The roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 - x - 3 = 0 are therefore x = -1 and x = 1.5. Factorisation See page 507. Example Find the roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 - 7x + 3 = 0 If we rewrite the equation to highlight the factors of 2x2 -7x + 3, we get (x - 3)(2x - 1) = 0 Either (x - 3) = 0 or (2x -1) = 0

If x - 3 = 0 then x = 3 If 2x - 1 = 0 then 2x = 1 or x = 0.5 Hence, the roots are x = 0.5 and 3 Note: If the quadratic expression in the equation is a perfect square, there will be only one root of the equation; this root will be repeated. Example If x2 - 6x + 9 = 0 then (x - 3)2 = 0 The root is x = 3; this root is repeated. The Quadratic Formula See page 510. Given a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the roots are derived from the formula
x= b b 2 4ac 2a

Note:
1. 2.

The Quadratic Formula cannot be used if a = 0 If b2 - 4ac = 0, there is only one real root; this root is repeated.

3. 4.

If b2 - 4ac > 0, there are two distinct real roots. If b2 - 4ac < 0, there are two complex roots.

Example Consider the equation 2x2 - 7x + 3 = 0 Here a = 2, b = -7 and c = 3 b2 - 4ac = 49 - 4(2)(3) = 49 - 24 = 25 --> Two Real Roots Substituting in the quadratic formula we get
x= 7 ( 7) 2 4( 2)( 3) 2( 2)

x=

x=

x =3

7+5 4
or

7 25 4

or

x=

x = 0.5

7 5 4

Solution of Exponential Equations First of all we recall from Chapter 2 that exponential functions are of the form f(x) = b x where the base b > 0 and b 1. It follows that an exponential equation will be of the form bx = c where c is a constant term

The very form of the equation suggests that x is the index to which the base b must be raised so as to generate the constant c. We can therefore solve exponential equations on this basis. Example Solve for x in the equation 4x = 1024. Clearly, x is the index to which the base 4 must be raised so as to generate the constant 1024. 42 = 16, 4 3 = 64, 4 4 = 2 5 6 a n d 4 5 = 1 0 2 4 Hence x = 5 is our solution. Alternatively, we can say that x = log4 1024 = 5. Solution of Logarithmic Equations

First of all we recall from Chapter 2 that logarithmic functions are of the form: f(x) = log b x where the base b > 0 and b 1. It follows that a logarithmic equation will be of the form logb x = c where c is a constant term.

The very form of the equation suggests that x is the number that is generated when the base b is raised to the index c. We can therefore solve logarithmic equations on this basis. Example Solve for x in the equation log3 x = 4. Clearly, x is the number that is generated when the base 3 is raised to the index 4. Hence x = 34 = 81 is the solution. Solution of Polynomial Equations Again we recall from Chapter 2 that a polynomial function of degree n is any function of the form g(x) = cnxn + cn-1xn-1 +................+c1x +c0 where n is a nonnegative integer and cn,cn-1, cn-2,.... c1, c0 are constants with cn 0

Definition 3.4 (The Remainder Theorem) The remainder when the polynomial function g(x) = cnxn + c n-1 x n-1 +.............+c 1 x +c 0 is divided by the factor x - k is equal to g(k) i.e. the value of the function g(x) when x = k. Example Find the remainder when the polynomial 2x4 - 7x3 + 12x2 - 9x + 4 is divided by the factor x - 1 using both long division and the Remainder Theorem. The Long Division Approach
2 x3 5 x2 + 7 x 2 x 1 2 x 4 7 x 3 + 12 x 2 9 x + 4 2x 4 2x 3 5 x 3 + 12 x 2 5 x + 5x
3 2

7x 2 9x 7 x2 7 x 2x + 4 2x + 2 2

Long division has established that the remainder is 2.

The Remainder Theorem Approach g(1) = 2(1)4 - 7(1)3 + 12(1)2 - 9(1) + 4 = 2 - 7 + 12 - 9 + 4 = 18 - 16 =2 Both Long Division and the Remainder Theorem yield the same remainder.

Definition 3.5 (A Polynomial Equation) See page 560. A polynomial equation is an equation of the form cnxn + cn-1xn-1 +............+c1x +c0 = 0 where n is a nonnegative integer and Cn,Cn-1, Cn-2.......Cl,C0 are constants with cn 0. Linking the Polynomial Equation with the Remainder Theorem One advantage of using the Remainder Theorem is the fact that we can find the remainder from the division of a polynomial expression by a linear expression without having to perform long division. Another advantage of the Theorem is seen in the following statement: If the remainder g(k) when a polynomial expression g(x) is divided by the factor x - k equals zero, then x = k is a solution of the polynomial equation g(x) = 0. This statement provides the basis for a trial and error approach to finding the solutions of polynomial equations. Example Find a solution of 2x 4 - 7x 3 + 12x 2 - 9x + 2 = 0 Let g(x) = 2x4 - 7x3 + 12x2 - 9x + 2 Is x = 1 a solution? Proceed to find g(1) If g(1) = 0 then x = 1 is a solution of the equation.

g(1) = = 2(1)4 - 7(1)3 + 12(1)2 - 9(1) + 2 = 2 - 7 + 12 - 9 + 2 = 16 - 16 =0 Hence x = 1 is a solution of the equation 2x 4 - 7x 3 + 12x 2 - 9x + 2 = 0