by

FRANK H. J. RHODES
1he UniveISiy O MiChiQan
|LLOG1HP1LO BY
REBECCA MERRILEES
anO
RUDY ZALLINGER
_ GOLDEN PRESS NEW YORK
Western Publishing Company, Inc.
Racine, Wisconsin
fLRLNO
How l i fe arose an d how man devel oped are two qu es
t i ons that are as ol d as man h i msel f, as the creat i on
accounts of many ci vi l i zati ons bear wi t ness. But anci ent
as i s t hi s concern, t he i mpl i cati ons of man' s rel ati on s h i p
t o t h e wor l d of l i vi ng th i ngs are as si gni fi cant i n t he
Space Age as t hey were i n t he Stone Age. Thi s book i s
a si mpl e account of man's search for t hos e ori gi ns an d
rel at i ons hi ps. I t descri bes t h e hi stori cal devel opment of
the present t heory of evol uti on, or descent wi th modi fi
cati on, the i ndi cati ons that support i t, i ts nature an d
mechani s m, and i ts resul t i n the l ong hi story of l i fe.
The book concl udes wi t h a secti on on t he mean i n g of
evol ut i on, for the th eory of evol uti on has had a profound
i mpact on man' s vi ew of hi msel f and hi s rel at i ons hi p to
t he worl d in whi ch he l i ves. Evol uti onary t heory provi des
a powerfu l expl anat i on of how l i fe devel oped, yet be
yond i t, an d unanswered by i t, l i es t he ul ti mate questi on
of why l i fe devel oped. That questi on, confronti n g as i t
does t he l arger si gn i fi cance of l i fe, t hough t he abstrac
ti ve met hods of sci ence provi de no appropri ate sol ut i on
to |l, is neit her meani ngl ess nor i nconsequential . for in
our res pons e to i t, i ndi vi dual l y and col l ecti vel y, l i es the
future of evol ut i on, an d wi th it the future of man ki nd.
I am grateful to my col l eague Dr. Al fred Smi t h who
ki ndl y read t he manuscr i pt of t hi s book.
Fran k H. T. R~des
Goioru, P GoioruGuior

, ond Goiorucrrt

ote ttodemotks O Westetn Publ i s h i ng Comony, |nc,

.j
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Nu mber: zzo
1
1
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW L LIFE . .-2V
Di vers i ty, devel opment and ori gi n of l i fe; spon
taneous generat i on; cl as s i f i cat i on; degrees of
di vers i ty and di scovery of l i fe's l ong h i story;
devel opment of t he t heory of evol ut i on from
Ari stotl e t o Lamarc k to Charl es Darwi n and
Al fred Rus s el Wal l ace; t he voyage of t he Beagle
and publ i cat i on of On the Origin of Species; t he
wor k of Gr egor Mendel , l eadi ng to t he l aws of
i nheri tance and to t he new synt hesi c t heory of
evol ut i on.
I NDICATIONS OF EVOLUTION . . ... 30-55
Cont i nu i ty, u n i ty an d t he nat ure of l i fe; i nter
depen dence an d i mpl i cat i on s of s i mi l ar i t i es
anatomi cal , embryol ogi cal , bi ochemi cal , and
serol ogi cal ; adaptat i ons; geograph i cal di s t r i bu
t i on; l i vi ng speci es; changes i n speci es; fos s i l s and
hi gher taxa; mi ss i ng l i n ks an d t he fos s i l record.
THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION . . . 56-1(3
I n heri tanc e: Cel l di vi si on; patter ns and l aws;
probabi l i ty and mechani s m; genes; chemi stry
( DNA and RNA) , sources of vari abi l i ty; recom
bi nat i on and mutat i on; genet i c dri ft; i sol at i on
and mi grat i on.
Nat ur al Sel ect i on : Nat ure of nat ur al sel ect i on
and i t s act i on i n l i vi ng popu l at i ons and fos s i l s ;
adapt at i on and mi mi cry; sexual sel ecti on; nat
ural sel ect i on i n man; mi s s i ng l i nks .
Ti me: The geol ogi c t i me scal e, rates of and
reci pe of evol ut i on.
THE COURSE OF EVOLUTI ON . 104-150
The pr i mi t i ve eart h; ori gi n of l i fe; fos s i l s-t he
ol dest; mar i ne i nvertebrates-t he ol dest; l i f e on
l an d; l an d, vas cul ar seedl ess and seed bear i ng
pl ant s; amph i bi ans ; t he r i s e of and domi nance
of t he rept i l es; adopt i ve radi at i on; bi rds; evol u
t i on and geographi c di st ri but i on of mammal s ;
pri mat es an d evol ut i on of h u man soci et i es.
THE MEANI NG OF EVOLUTI ON .... 151-155
I t s i mpl i cat i ons ; perspect i ve; t he fut ure of man .
MORE INFORMATI ON.
I NDEX
.1 56
.1 57
3
OVFkVIFW OF |IFF
Eart h teems wi t h l i fe. li vi ng creat ures exi st from ocean
dept hs to t he hi ghest mount ai n peak s, from equatori a l
j ungl es an d hot mi neral spri ngs t o t he frozen pol a r
wastel ands, from t he bl i ndi ng bri g htness and ari di ty
of t he desert to t he dark intesti nes of ani mal s . I n each
envi ron ment, untol d numbers of i ndi vi dua l organi s ms
i n h abi t every nook and cranny of t he avai l abl e s pace.
Most ani mal and pl ant speci es contai n a myri ad
i ndivi dual s. Thus the surface l ayer of most meadow
soi l s contai ns several mi l l i on ani mal s per acre. Mi cro
scopi c ani mal s and pl ants exi st i n uncountabl e n u mbers.
One gram of soi l may contai n hundreds of mi l l i ons of
l i vi ng t hi ngs. Bi rds and i nsects exi st i n popul ati ons so
vast as to constitute l ocal "pl ague" conditi ons. Aquati c
l ife is no l ess prol ifi c.
I t i s unl i kel y t hat the eart h i s u ni que i n thi s respect .
I t has been cal cul ated t hat t here may be mi l l i ons of
pl anets i n ot her parts of the u ni verse capabl e of sup
porti ng some form of l i fe.
Each environ ment supports di sti nctive communi ty of pl ants and
ani mal s.
6. Other invertebrates-21 ,000
5. Worml ike phyla-38,00
4. Protozoans-30,000
3. Chordates-5,000
2. Mol l usks-45,000
1 . Arthropods-900,000
MAJOR GROUPS (PHYLA)
OF ANIMALS-OVER
1 ,000,000 SPECIES
DIVERSITY OF LI FE i s shown by the ex| stence of
more t han one mi l l i on ki nds (speci es) of ani mal s and
more t han J0,000 ki nds of pl ants.
Ani mal s range i n si ze from a few thousandths of
an inch to more than !00 feet in l engt h. They represent
a vast vari ety of ways of l i fe-parasi tes, predators,
herbi vores, swi mmers, fi ers, crawl ers, burrowers. Some
spend thei r l i ves fxed i n one spot; others undertake
seasonal mi grati ons of thousands of mi l es.
I n spi te of t he many ki n ds of a ni mal s a n d pl ants,
t hey represent on l y a few basi c groups ( phyl a ) .
4. Algae and Fungi-0,000
J. Mosses and L iverworts-
23,000
Z. Ferns, Conifers, etc. -1 0,000
1. Fl oweri ng Plants-250,000
MAJOR GROUPS (PHYLA)
OF PLANTS-ABOUT
350,000 SPECIES
5
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LI FE has al ways been on e of
man's great concerns . Anci ent s acred wri ti ngs of
many fai t hs di scuss t hi s questi on . The ea r l y chapt ers
of the Book of Genesi s, for exampl e, deal wi th the
sequence of creat i on, and Ada m na med t he di feren t
k i n ds of a ni mal s . Th e need t o cl assi fy l i ving t hi ngs was
part l y practi cal . Some pl ants were poi sonous, ot hers
edi bl e. Some ani ma l s were h armfu l , ot hers were not .
Ear l y man's s urvi va l depended on hi s s k i l l i n recogni z
i ng each ki nd. Ma n ' s dai l y experi ence and rel i gi ous
t radi tion coi nci ded here : every ani mal and pl a n t t hat
he recogni zed reproduced " after i t s own ki nd. "
Man's ear l y l ife as a hunter brought h i m in cl ose
contact wi th ani mal s, and anci ent cave paintings bear
a record of hi s interest. Later domesti cati on of ani
mal s and harvesting of crops increased thi s concern.
Creati on of Adam from Mi chel angel o' s pai nt i ng of Si sti ne Chapel
Cei l i ng.

Kl1b, Greek phi l osopher,

was al so one of the frs t an d
greatest bi ol ogi st s. He wrote
extensi vel y on the cl assi fcat i on
and s tructure of over 500 s pe
ci es of ani mal s from t he Medi
terranean area. Ari stotl e was a
gi fted observer, and descri bed
detail s of s uch t hi ngs as ch i ck
embryol ogy. He accepted t he
spontaneous generati on of fi es
from putrefyi n g matter, but was
al so concerned about the prob
l ems of heredi ty.
ARI STOTLE |384-32 2 B. C. ) , pupi l of Pl ato and tutor
of Al exander the Great, observed t hat s peci es appeared
to be unchanging. Cows produced onl y cows; horses
arose onl y from horses. Between the two t here was a
cl ear di vi si on. Speci es were characteri zed by t hei r repro
ductive i sol ati on. I ndi vi dual s devel oped, according to
Ari stotl e, by the capaci ty ( psyche) of each to conform
t o the a rchetype characters of t he speci es rel ati ons hi ps .
He constructed a "l adder of Nature" s howi ng t he unity
of pl an.
I n contrast to Aristotl e's "vital i st" vi ews, the De
mocri tan s were "mechan i sts . " They bel i eved t hat an
organi s m's acti vi ty was the resul t of t he interaction
of the atoms of whi ch i t was made. Al though vital i sti c
and mechani sti c controversi es sti l l persi st, the s upposed
confl i ct between sci ence and rel i gi on being an exampl e,
the two vi ews are often compl ementary, not competi ti ve.
In s ome si tuati ons, we need to use both ( p. 1 55) . The
di scuss ion i n t hi s book i s mechani sti c ( "how" t hings de
vel op, not "why") , but t hat does not mean t hat l i fe has
no meani ng and purpose.
7
M ORI GIN OF LI FE as l ong regarded as a 8QOH-
taneous event : l i ving things arose from nonl ivi ng mat
ter. Al though the vari ous groups of l iving things were
bel i eved to have been created i n defnite sequence, i t
was supposed that each kind of ani mal and pl ant
arose "ful l y for med" from t he dust of t he earth. Such
a vi ew invol ved no obvi ous contradi cti ons. Fl i es, for
exampl e, coul d be seen to devel op from maggots,
whi ch arose "spontaneousl y" in decayi ng meat. The
spontaneous generati on of l iving t hings became a
uni versal assu mpti on. We sti l l speak of di rt " breedi ng"
ver min. The vi ew was al so economi cal : i t invol ved onl y
one category of expl anati on. Our current popul ar
vi ews requi re not onl y an expl anati on for t he ori gin
of l i fe but a l so one for t he ori gi n of speci es.
Earl y vi ews on t he or i gi n of l i f e i ncl uded one t hat suggested s heep
arose from a pl ant. (After Wei nberg.)
8
SPONTANEOUS GENERATI ON of l i vi ng creatures
from nonl i vi n g matter became increasi ngl y s uspect i n
the seventeenth century. Francesco Redi |1621-97) , an
Itali an physi ci an , became convi nced that the maggots
found i n meat were deri ved not from the meat i tself
but from eggs l ai d by fi es .
f l i es, decoyi n g
meat , an d maggots
REDI pl aced a "dead s nake,
s ome fs h, and a s l i ce of veal"
in f our open-mout hed fas ks ,
and t hen pl aced t he s ame
t hi ngs i n f our fas ks t hat he
cl os ed and s eal ed. Fl i es con
stantl y settl ed on the meat i n
t he open fas ks , whi c h beca me
wor my. No wor ms appeared on
t he meat i n t he s ea l ed fas k s .
Knowi ng t h at s ome bel i eved
ai r to be es s ent i a l for genera
t i on, Redi repeat ed t he exper
i ment , t hi s t i me us i ng a gauze
cover f or t he " cl osed" fas ks
t o protect t hem f rom f i es but
al l owi ng ai r i ns i de. Agai n, no
maggot s appeared on t he meat .
Thi s di scredi ted t he most fami l
i ar exampl e of s pon ta neous
generation .
meat decoyi ng,
bu t no f l i es or maggots
A REFINED VERSION of Redi's
experi ment was used by Pasteur
i n t he mi d- ei ghteent h cent ury
to demonstrate t hat putrefact i on
and f er mentat i on depend on
act i on of ai r - bor ne organ i s ms .
Open-
.
f l i es an d
maggots on
decoyi n g meat
Covered wi t h
g a u ze-
no f l i es or
mag g ots on
decoyi n g meat

A CLASSI FICATI ON OF LI FE wos devised by Ari stot l e

i n t he fourt h century B. C. and stood undi sput ed for
ni neteen cent ur i es. Thi s cl assi fcati on embr aced a
compl ete gradat i on from t he l owest to t he hi ghest
or gani s m-man .
Fifteent h and si xt eent h century voyages of di scov
ery an d t he inventi on of t he mi croscope reveal ed a
di versi ty of an i mal an d pl ant form ond functi on un
known to Ari stot l e. Wi th t hese n ew observati ons,
changes in cl assi fcat i on took pl ace.
JOHN RAY (1627-1705), an En
gl i sh natural i st, i ntroduced t he
present i dea of speci es and
h igher categories i n cl assi fca
ti on . Ray s howed t hat groups
of s i mi l ar s peci es coul d be
cl assi fed i nto sets, wh i ch he
cal l ed genera. Thi s system is
t he basi s for t he i ntern ation al
on e s ti l l bei ng u s ed today.
CARL LINNAEUS ( 1 707- 1 778), a
Swedi sh nat ural i st, devel oped
t he present system an d met hod
of bi ol ogi cal cl assi f i cati on (tax
onomy). He used a u n i form
system of cl ass i f i cati on and no
mencl at ure. The 1 Ot h edi ti on of
hi s Systema Naturae ( 1 758)
marks the begi n n i ng of modern
taxonomy.
kELATlVE AGE OF
LATEGOklE5 OF ANlMAL5
THE LI NNAEAN TYPE CLASSI FICATI ON s h ows an increas i ng simi
l ar i ty of each grou p from t he kingdom to t he s peci es. Note t he
modern evol u t i onary branch i n g in t erpret ation on t he ri gh t.
IN BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE,
t he basis of t he cl assif i cation
devel oped by Linnaeus, each
species has t wo names: t he f i rst
is the genus to which i t be
l ongs; the second is the spe
ci es. The Common Raven, for
exampl e, is Corvus corax, whi l e
t he s omewhat simil ar Common
Crow is Corvus brachyrhynchos.
Lin naeus used t his s hort, and
internati onal l y understood cl as
sification to cl assify al l of t he
species known at t hat ti me.
LI NNAEUS and most of hi s contemporari es assumed
t hat each speci es was di stinct and unchangi ng, t hei r
degrees of s i mi l ari ty refl ecting s i mi l arity to the arche
types, or model s, upon whi ch each had been created.
! !
Mb VARYI NG DEGREES OF DIVERSI TY shown by
di ferent speci es s uggested to some ei ghteent h cent ury
students a conclusi on bol dly di ferent from that reached
by li nn aeus and mos t of hi s contemporari es. Per haps,
i t was argued, s peci es were not unchanging and i m
mutable. Per haps exi sting s peci es arose by a sl ow
modi fcati on of ear l i er for ms . Per haps degrees of
s i mi l ari ty between s peci es refected t hei r degree of
relati ons hi p to common ancestral for ms . Perhaps
change, not constancy, was one essenti al char acteri sti c
of s peci es . Perhaps speci es have evol ved, or unfol ded,
r at her t han havi ng appeared fully for med. Perh aps
t hey arose not from a si ngl e creati ve act but by s l ow
processes of ch ange over l ong peri ods of ti me.
ERASMUS DARWI N ( 1 73 1 - 1 802),
grandfat her of Charl es Dari n,
was a physician, poet, and
nat ural ist. He was impressed by
t he extent of changes in farm
wit hi n t he l ifeti me of indivi dual
animal s (frogs, for exampl e), by
t he i nfuence of sel ecti ve breed
i ng i n horses and dogs, by
diferences due to cl i mate, and
by t he cl ose afni ties of t he
mammal s-wh i ch he reasoned
i mpl i ed thei r common ori gi n.
JEAN BAPTISTE DE LAMARCK
( 1 744- 1 8 29), French sol di er and
bi ol ogist, was t he fou nder of
t he st udies of i nvertebrate ani
ma l s . He stressed t hat no ab
sol ute l imits separated one spe
cies from another and t hat
s peci es retai n constant charac
teri stics onl y i n u nchangi ng en
vi ronments. When the envi ron
ment does change, he argued,
t he i ncreased use of some or
gans and the rel ative di suse of

others l ead to i nheri tabl e

changes. The gi rafe' s l ong neck,
f or exampl e, coul d be best ex
pl ai ned by t he l ong- conti nued
habi t of reachi n g upward t o
feed on t he l eaves of trees.
By Lamarc k's t heory, t he rel a-
t i ve devel opment of any organ
responds t o i t s deg ree of use.
Lamarck' s bel i ef that ac
qui red charact eri st i cs can be
i n h eri ted i s no l onger accepted,
but h i s recogn i t i on of evol uti on
was of maj or i mportance.
Lamarck's vi ews suggested t hat
gi rafes reach i ng upward be
came i ncreas i ngl y l onger
necked an d trans mi tted t hi s
characteri st i c t o t hei r ofs pri ng.
The concepts of evol ut i on proposed by Eras mus
Darwi n a n d by Lamarck were not on l y rej ected but
were al so ri di cul ed by t hei r sci enti fc contemporari es.
Thi s was because of t he excesses of s ome i n ter preta
ti on s proposed by Lamarc k a n d hi s di sci pl es, a n d a l so
because ma n ' s everyday experi ence provi ded l i t t l e
support for Lamarck' s t heory of speci es devel opment .
I n spi te of ci rcumstanti al evi dence, no one had yet
seen one speci es t ur n i nto a not her.
! 3
M lbLLVKT M Ll HAD A LONG HISTORY
di d not come unti l t he ei ghteenth and nineteenth cen
turi es, when i t became general l y recogni zed t hat fos
si l s were the remai ns of once-l iving ani mal s and pl ants.
Fossi l s indi cated that many speci es had become extinct
and t hat most l i ving speci es were of recent ori gi n. If
speci es were i mmutabl e, how coul d these changes in
the pattern of l i fe be expl ai ned? Duri ng the nineteenth
century, two opposi ng school s of t hought devel oped.
CATASTROPHI STS attempted to
reconci l e t he fossi l record wi th
the earl y chapters of t he Book
of Genesi s. They regarded t he
Fl ood of Noah as t he l ast of
series of great worl dwi de ca
tastrophes, each of whi ch de
stroyed al l l ivi ng t hi ngs. After
eac h catastrophe, a new crea
ti on took pl ace, in whi ch the
earth was repopul ated by ani
mal s and pl ants of new and
diferent speci es. These in turn
were destroyed, and t hei r fos
si l remai ns ent ombed i n t he
strata 0 the next catacl ysm.
GRADUALISTS mai ntai ned t hat
t he foss i l record s howed n o evi
dence of wor l dwi de catastro
phes, al t hou gh it di d s how many
exa mpl es of l ocal eros i on s urfaces
and c hangi ng envi ron ment s of
roc k deposi t i on. Al t hough t hese
changes are often marked by
t he cutoff of one ki nd of fossi l
and i ts repl acement by anot her,
t h i s was a pi ecemeal , l ocal , i rreg
u l ar process, not a worl dwi de
one. New speci es ori gi nated,
accord i ng t o gr adual i sts, by t he
sl ow modi fi cat i on of ancestral
for ms.
GEORGES CUVIER ( 1 769- 1 832) ,
an out standi ng French anatomi st
and pal eont ol ogi st, st udi ed the
foss i l vertebrates of t he Pari s
Bas i n. The s uccessi on of di ffer
ent speci es seemed to h i m to
i mpl y a seri es of u n i versal ca
tastrophes, t he l ast of whi ch was
the F l ood of Noah. Cuvi er be
l i eved that some speci es survi ved
to repopul ate the earth whi l e
ot her st udent s i nvoked a new
creat i on after each of the catas
trophes. As many as 30 catastro
phes were proposed.
JAMES HUTTON 172-177),
Scott i sh physi ci an , l andowner,
and agr i cu l t uri st, l ai d t he fou n
dat i ons of moder n geol ogy. He
recogn i zed t hat many rocks
were the res ul t of eros i on an d
deposi t i on i n envi ron ments t hat
had modern coun t erpart s. Thi s
concept of uniformitarianism
sough t to expl ai n t he feat ures
of t he eart h i n terms of pres ent
processes.
CHARLES LYELL 177-1875), a
Scott i sh s ol di er, l awyer, and
geol ogi st, publ i s hed The Prin
ciples of Geology in 1830-33
The book, whi c h ran to twel ve
edi t i ons, had enor mous i nfu
ence. I n i t , Lyel l establ i s hed t he
sci ence of geol ogy, j ust i f yi ng
and ampl i fyi ng Hutton' s con
cept of u n i formi tari a n i sm. Lyel l
f i rst used t he word "evol ut i on"
i n i t s presen t sense.
New di scoveri es l ed to t he gradual rej ect i on of catas
t rophi s m. Fi rst, t he n u mber of catastrophes requi red to
expl ai n t he fossi l record steadi l y i nc reased u nt i l t he
whol e system became unwi el dl y. I t beca me cl ear, al so,
t hat the rock record coul d be i nter preted sat i sfactor i l y
i n ter ms of pr esent- day, observabl e geol ogi c processes
rat her t han un k n own cat ast rophes . I n addi t i on, t he "di -
_ 1=uv'i al " rocks t hat l ay over t he s urface of much of Europe
and Nort h Ameri ca and were t hought t o be t he remai ns
of Noah' s Fl ood were recogn i zed as gl aci al deposi ts .
More and more evi dence of cont i nui ty ( or evol uti on) of
fossi l s was demonstrated. Darwi n and Wal l ace proposed
an acceptabl e mechani s m for t he process of evol ution .

CHARLES DARWI N'S VOYAGE aboard t he HN5

Beagle changed the worl d' s vi ewpoi nt i n regard to
evol uti on and the devel opment of speci es. Unti l t he
publ i cati on of Darwi n's On t he Origin of Species, i n
0, t he i dea of evol ution was genera l l y rejected.
Darwi n was born at Sh rewsbury, Engl and, on Febru
ary 1 2, 1809, t he s ame day as Li ncol n. After two years
of medi cal trai ni ng at Edi n burgh, he went to Com
br i dge, where he graduated i n 1 831 . After hi s gradua
t i on, Dari n was appoi nted natu ral i st to t he Beagle, a
240-ton, 1 0- gun bri g, whi ch was to undertake a survey
voyage to Sout h Ameri ca and from t here on around
t he worl d. The voyage l asted fve years, and t he i n
s i ghts Darwi n gai ned duri ng t h ose years were t o be
come t he fou ndat i on of hi s l i fe' s wor k. Da rwi n mode
i mportant cont ri but i ons to t he geol ogy of Sout h
Ameri ca, t he ori gi n of coral reefs, t he rel at i onshi ps
between l ivi ng a n d fossi l a ni mal s, a n d t he struct ure,
adaptati on, a n d geographi c di st ri but i on of a ni ma l s .
I t was t hese st udi es t hat l at er for med t he basi s for hi s
evol uti onary theory.
1 6
DARWI N took the frst volume
of Lyel l 's newl y publ i s hed Prin
ciples of Geology on the voyage
and was deepl y i mpressed by i t .
Lyel l argued that t he earth's
surface had been s haped by
such nat ur al forces as ri ver
erosi on , vol can i c er upt i ons , and
changes i n sea l evel s . Darwi n
us ed s uch i deas i n u n ravel i ng
t he geol ogy of areas he vi si t ed,
and t hey i nf uenced hi s t h i n k
ing about t he ori gi n of s peci es .
Charl es Darwi n, aged J1
The route of the HMS Beagle is shown on t he map above. I t i s
probabl e that Darwi n contracted Chagas ' di sease during an i nl and
j ourney i n South Ameri ca, making hi m a s emi - i nval i d l ater.
FOSSI L VERTEBRATES col l ected
by Darwi n from Argent i na and
el sewhere i nc l uded Toxodon a
heavy el ephant- si zed mammal
t hat l ooked muc h l i ke a rhi noc
eros. Darwi n concl uded ( wrong
ly) t hat i t s howed t he two
groups were cl osel y rel at ed.
Darwi n di scovered foss i l teeth
of horses that had l i ved at t he
same t i me as Toxodon and had
become ext i nct wi th i t , al though
s urvi vi ng i n ot her parts of the
worl d. Thi s made the i dea of
catastrophi c worl dwi de ext i nc
t i on appear suspect.
THE SI MI LARI TY of some fossi l
vertebrates, such as t he gi ant
armadi l l o- l i ke Glyptodon, to
forms s t i l l l i vi ng suggested to
Darwi n the idea of descent by
evol ut i on.
M GALPAGOS I SLANDS, l ocated i n the Pacifc
about 600 mi l es west of the coast of Ecuador, a re a
desol ate group of 1 4 rocky i sl ands, representi ng t he
remai ns of exti nct vol canoes. The i sl a nds a re sepa
rated from each other by deep wat er, an d no wi n ds or
ocean currents carry s mal l ani mal s or seeds from one
t o another . The general absence of mammal s has al
l owed gi ant tortoi ses t o graze i n safety, l i zar ds t o be
come seagoi ng, and fnches to exi st i n ni ches that el se
where are occupi ed by other speci es.
Darwi n di scovered t hat each of t he i sl ands, al t hough
havi ng very s i mi l ar cl i mat es and envi ronments an d
bei ng on l y about 50 mi l es apart, h as i ts own fauna
and fl ora - s i mi l ar to but di sti nct from t hose of t he
nei ghbori ng i sl ands . Thi s suggested to Darwi n t hat
t he s i mi l ar speci es mi ght have devel oped from a com
mon ancestor rat her t han each havi ng been created
separat el y.
The i sl an ds are of recent ori gi n, an d t hei r fauna,
derived from t he Sout h Ameri ca n mai n l an d, i l l ust rates
col onizat i on of, an d adopti on to, an empty envi ron
men t by rel ativel y rapi d evol uti on.
I GUANAS grow to f our feet l ong
and are fears ome i n a ppearan ce,
but t hey are har ml es s her bi vores,
feedi ng on seaweeds. Fou nd on l y
i n t he Gal apagos I s l ands, t hey
i n c l ude two rel ated s peci es , one
t errestri al , and t h e ot her mari ne.
The l atter are powerf u l swi mmers,
wi th webbed toes and a f l attened
ta i l to as s i s t i n swi mmi ng. Eac h
i s l and has i t s own race, s howi ng
mi nor di f ferences f rom one group
to anot h er.
GIANT TORTOI SES eighi ng up
to 250 pounds graZe on vegeta
ti on, fl l i ng a ni che occupi ed
i n other pl aces by mammal s.
These tortoi ses a re foun d only
i n the Gal apagos I sl ands, and
each maj or i sl and has its own
variety. The variation within
stngl e speci es of tortoise is so
si mi l ar to that found between
speci es i n t he Gal apagos fnches
t hat Darwi n wrote, " I must s us
pect thOt (the f nch speci es) are
only varieties."
THE FI NCHES of the Gal a pagos
I sl ands showed a general s i m
i l arity t o one another and to
those of t he mai nl and of South
Ameri ca, but t he f nches of
each i sl and di fered sl i ghtl y
from those of t he next. The
1 3 diferent s peci es s howed a
perfect gradat i on, from ground
l i vi ng, seed-eati ng f or ms wi t h
heavy, l arge beaks to tree
dwel l i ng, i nsecteati ng for ms
wi t h l ong, poi nt ed beaks.
Darwi n wondered why t he
s peci es, i f created s eparat el y,
resembl ed one an ot her an d
t hose of t he mai n l an d of Sout h
Ameri ca, whereas bi rds of t he
Cape Verde I s l ands , at t he
s ame l at i t ude i n t he Sout h At
l anti c, resembl ed t hose of Af ri
ca. "On e mi ght real l y fan cy,"
wrote Darwi n , " t hat . . . one
s peci es had been ta ken an d
modi fed f or di feren t ends . "
Thes e a re i l l u s trated on p. 8 2.
The Gal apagos I sl ands, showi ng route of H.M.S. Beagl e.
1 9
Mb SEARCH FOR A MECHANI SM h ad begu n . Ch a r l es
Darwi n retur ned wi t h the Beagle t o Engl and i n October
of 1 836. The fol l owi ng Jul y he opened hi s frst note
book on The Transmutation of Species. He was t hen
27 yea rs ol d. Darwi n had seen how sma l l var i at i on s
coul d be sel ected by arti fci al breedi n g i n domesti c
an i mal s . Coul d the same transformat i ons within a spe
ci es al so occur between speci es so t hat one ul t i mat el y
gave ri se to a nother? Darwi n ' s observati ons suggested
that they coul d, but he coul d not vi sual i ze t he method.
ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE
( 1 832- 1 9 1 3), Bri t i sh su rveyor
and nat ural i st, i ndependentl y
suggested the t heory of nat ural
sel ecti on. Al ready convi nced
of t he fact of evol ut i on, he con
cei ved t he i dea of nat ural se
l ecti on whi l e l yi ng si ck wi t h
fever i n t he Mol uccas i n Febru
ary, 1 858. He recal l ed the Essay
oo Population, by Robert Mal
t hus, whi ch he had read twel ve
years before. He wrote that he
saw i ts appl i cat i on to evol u
t i on "i n a fas h of i n t u i t i on. "
Wal l ace was al so an out
standi ng pi oneer i n t he st udy of
t he geographi c di stri but i on of
ani mal s and i ts s i gn i fcance for
the theory of evol ut i on ( p. 43) .
ROBERT MALTHUS (1 766-1834)
was an Engl i s h cl ergyman and
economi st . Unc onvi nced t hat
man i s perfect, and di s bel i evi ng
t he probabi l i ty of un i versal
peace, equal i ty, and pl enty,
predi cted by the pol i t i ci an s an d
ut i l itari an phi l osophers of the
ei ghteent h cent ury, Mal t hus
wrote an anonymous " Essay on
Popu l ati on " i n 1 798. I n i t, he
slated t hat h u man popu l at i on
can not expa nd i ndef n i tel y.
Popul at i ons expand at a geo
met ri c rate of i ncrease wi t h
wh i ch f ood s uppl i es can never
keep pace. Fami ne, di sease,
and war, Mal l hus argued, wi l l
l i mi t t h e i ncreas i ng si ze of hu
man popu l ati ons .
Nat ural sel ect i on i mpli es that
ancestral gi raffe popul at i ons i n
cl uded necks of vari ous lengt hs.
More of the l onger- necked gi
raffes s urvi ved, an d t hey pro
duced i n creas i ng n u mbers of
offspr i ng t hat i nheri t ed t hei r
parents' longer nec ks.
"I n October, wrote Darwi n , " I h appened to
read Mal t hus for amusement. Bei ng wel l prepared to
appreci ate t he struggl e for exi sten ce, whi ch every
where goes on, from l ong cont i n ued observati on of t he
habi ts of an i mal s and pl ants, i t at once struck me
t hat under t hese ci rcumstances favor abl e var i ati on s
woul d tend t o be pr eserved an d unfavorabl e ones to
be destroyed. The res ul t of t hi s woul d be t he for mati on
of a new speci es. "
Darwi n cal l ed t hi s process " n at ur al sel ecti on. " He
argued t hat t hose parti cul ar i n dividual s better -adapted
to t hei r envi ronment wou l d l i ve l onger t han t he rest.
Si nce t he ofs pr i ng woul d s hare t hei r parents' char
acteri sti cs, over many gen erati ons, t hose most favor
abl e woul d tend to predomi nate. Darwi n mul l ed over
his t heory, prepari ng a bri ef out l i ne of it i n 42, and
a l onger abstract two years l ater. Thes e were not pub
l i s hed unt i l ( See p . 2 2 ) . For t he next fourteen
years he gat hered data for a four- vol ume treat i se.
These vol umes were never publ i s hed.
Z
M ORI GI N OF SPECI ES. I n t he 8UDDer of 858,
Darwi n recei ved from Al fred Russel Wal l ace a man
uscri pt enti tl ed "On the Tendency of Vari eti es to
Depart I ndefni tel y from the Ori gi nal Type. " Wal l ace
had i ndependentl y reached t he concl usi on that nat ur al
sel ecti on had pl ayed a maj or rol e i n t he or i gi n of n ew
speci es. Di smayed, Darwi n ofered to wi thdraw hi s own
manuscri pt, but a j oi nt paper by the two men was read
b
e
fore t he li nnaean Soci ety of london on Jul y ! , !858.
On November 24, !85, Darwi n publ i shed t he
Origin of Species-a bri ef abstract, as he cal l ed i t , of
his vi ews . The book created a sensat i on. The frst edi
ti on of !250 copi es sol d out on the frst day of publ i
cati on. Sci enti sts were at frst di vi ded i n t hei r vi ews.
Others, wrongl y as it now appears, regarded the book
as a di rect chal l enge to rel i gi ous bel i efs. I n such di verse
fel ds as phi l osophy, history, anthropol ogy, pol i ti cs,
and soci ol ogy, Darwi n ' s book rai sed profound ques
tions. The debate was widespread and i ntense.
111 011h 01 d11I11
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ZZ
THE BOOK was careful l y writ
ten and cogentl y argued. The
frst four c hapt ers descri bed t he
res ul ts of domes t i c s el ecti on
and breedi ng an d then devel
oped t he i dea of natural se
l ecti on. The ffth chapt er, de
vot ed to t he mechen i sms of
vari at i on and i n heri tance, i s
t he onl y part of the book that
has s i nce been di scredi ted. The
s i xth to tent h chapters di s
c uss ed possibl e obj ect i ons to
the whol e i dea of evol ut i on,
and t he re mai ni ng chapters
treated poss i bl e evi dence for
evol ut i on. Shown at l eft i s t h e
ti tl e page of t he 1 st edi t i on.
Cartoonist's vi ew, i n 1 871 , of Charl es Darwi n ( Left ) and 1. H.
Huxl ey, ( ri gh t ) who champi oned hi s teachi ngs.
The i mportan ce of Darwi n' s book on The Origin of
Species, i s di ffi cul t to exaggerat e. I t has been cal l ed t he
most i mportant book of t he ni neteent h century. More
t ha n any ot her book, before or si nce, i t establ i s hed t he
t heory of evol uti on-or "descent by modi fi cat i on, " as
Darwi n cal l ed i t. I n t hi s, Darwi n i n i t i at ed a transforma
t i on i n t he study of t he organ i c worl d as profound as
t hat brought a bout i n t he physi cal worl d by Newton' s
work wi t h gravi t ati on . I n bi ol ogy, evol ut i on provi ded
a powerful n ew uni fyi ng pri nci pl e, gi vi ng new mean
i n g an d i nsi ght t o a maze of confl i ct i ng data an d al so
a n ew i mpetus i n every fi eld of i nqui ry.
The book's i nfuence was not confned t o bi ol ogy.
I f l i fe had a hi story, so had man, so had l anguage, 5O
had cul ture. Had t hey too evol ved? I f there had been
organi c evol uti on, had t here al so been i norgani c evo
l ut i on in whi ch the eart h, t he sol ar system, the uni verse,
matter, and energy i tsel f had under gone change?
A watershed of human thought was establ i shed.
Man's vi ew of the wor l d, of l ife, and of hi msel f would
never be qui te the s ame agai n.
23
DAkWlN'5 IHE5l5 for t he ongm of new speci es
rested on three essenti al foundati ons-two of t hem
demon strabl e facts, t he other an i nference.
Fi rst, Darwi n stressed t hat variation exi sted t hrough
out t he wor l d of l i vi ng t hi ngs. No two i n di vi dual s of
the s ame s peci es are exactl y al i ke. I n si ze, proporti ons,
col ori ng, mental abi l ity, di s posi ti on, physi ol ogi cal pro
cesses, and many ot her ways, each i ndi vi dual i s uni que.
Further more, many of these and other features are
transmi tted from parent to ofspri ng.
Secondl y, Darwi n argued that every s peci es over
produces . More young are produced t han ever survive,
for the number of i ndi vi dual s in a popul ati on show rel
ati vel y l i ttl e vari ati on. Thi s overproducti on exi sts at
every l evel i n the pl ant and ani mal ki ngdoms. " Even
sl ow- breedi ng man, wrote Darwi n, " has doubl ed ( hi s
numbers) i n twenty-fve years, and at t hi s rate, i n l ess
than a t housand years there woul d l i teral l y not be
standi ng room for hi s progeny.

There must t herefore

be a very high rate of mortal i ty, and t hi s has been
shown to be so. I n many s peci es of birds and i nsects,
98 percent of t he i ndi vi dual s die before mat uri ty.
Swarm of locusts exempl i fes abundance of l ivi ng t hings.
NATURAL
SELECTI ON

GRAZI NG HORSES
Darwi n ' s "reci pe" for evol ut i on was the i nteracti on of vari at i on,
overpopu l at i on , and nat ur al sel ecti on ; i l l u s trated here i s evol uti on
of horses ( See p. 5 1 ).
Thi rdl y, Darwi n argued that many characteri sti cs
of pl ants an d ani mal s were adaptati ons to the en
vi ronments i n whi ch t hey l i ved . The protecti ve col or i ng
of many an i mal s was cl earl y adapti ve. The teeth of
ani mal s were cl earl y rel ated to t hei r di et, as were the
beaks of bi rds . Whal es, t hough mammal s, were so
adapted to l i fe i n the seas that they had fshl i ke
bodi es. Darwi n suggested that t hese had come about
by natura/ selection of favorabl e diferences i n ances
tral organi s ms . Those best adapted to t hei r envi ron
ment woul d s urvive l onger and so produce more of
spr i ng than those that were not. The ofspr i ng woul d
i nheri t thei r parents ' favorabl e characteri sti cs. New
speci es coul d develop i n t hi s way.
The vi gorous debate t hat fol l owed publ i cati on of
Darwi n ' s book saw gradual acceptance of hi s views .
Darwi n mi s understood t he mechani s m of vari at i on and
i nheritance, but hi s general theory has wi thstood the
test of ti me.
25
Mb lAW5 OF I NHERI TANCE, whi ch had el uded Dar
wi n an d Wal l ace, were di scovered by Gregor Men del
( 1 8 22- 1 884) , an Austri an monk. Mendel is consi dered
t o be t he founder of modern geneti cs. Hi s wor k was
publ i shed i n 1866, but remai ned general ly unknown
unt i l i t was i n dependentl y " redi scovered" by t hree
bi ol ogi sts i n 1900.
Men del deci ded to study the i n heri tance of one or
two readi l y recogn i zabl e characters i n t he garden
pea-t he si ze and form of t he peas, t hei r fower col or,
and so on . He cross- pol l i nated one form wi th another
and t hen careful l y recorded the resul ts of thi s over
several growi ng seasons . ( p. 60 )
MENDEL raised peas by cross
pollinating those with smooth,
round peas and those with
shriveled, wrinkled peas. He
discovered that they did not
produce a blending of the par
ent characters, as was gener
ally believed, but that all the
new peas were smooth and
round. He then used these
seeds to produce a not her crop,
cross-pollinated them, and dis-
covered t hat t h ree-quarters of t he
new generat i on were s moot h a nd
r o u n d a n d o n e qu ar t e r wa s
wri nkl ed.
Mendel cal l ed c h aract ers t hat
c oul d be mas ked i n one genera
t i on but appear i n an ot her ( s uc h
a s wri n k l ed peas ) recessve,
t hos e t hat over s hadow t hem ( s uc h
as t he s moot h, rou nd pea f or m) ,
dominant.
Me ndel con c l uded t hat t h i s
del ayed appeara nce of reces
s i ve c h aract er s mu st i mpl y t hat
each c haract er i s governed by an
i ndependent factor ( wh i c h we
now c al l a gene) and t hat t hese
must be pa i red i n t he parent but
not i n t he ga met es.
Mendel made t h ree major
di s cover i es : !) t hat c haracters
are gover ned by pai red , but i ndi
vi dual "factors, " 2) t hat t hes e
fact ors may be domi nan t or reces
s i ve, and 3) t hat t hes e f actors
combi ne, wi t hout bl endi n g, t o
produce c haracteri s t i c rat i os i n
the l ater generat i ons.
Hugo de Vries, the discoverer of
mutations, and the evening prim
rose that he used in his studies.
MUTATI ON. Mendel had shown t hat i nheri tance was
parti cul ar an d predi ctabl e. But i f thi s was so, how
coul d any new features ever ari se? The answer was
found partl y i n t he acti on of natural sel ecti on and
partl y i n the work of a Dutch botani st.
Hugo de Vri es {1848-1935) was Professor of Botany
at Amsterdam. He studi ed the mechani sm of i nheri tance
of characters i n t he eveni ng pr i mrose and became i n
creasi ngl y suspi ci ous of t he t hen cur rent vi ew that
di ferent parent al characters al ways bl ended i n the
ofspr i ng and that al l vari ati ons were s mal l . He studi ed
over 50, 000 pl ants, and out of t hei r several hundred
t housand fowers, he di scovered rare exampl es that
were " sports . " They had gi ant si ze or dwarf si ze, or
twice t he normal number of petal s . When bred to
gether, they produced si mi l ar ofspri ng. Such new
forms de Vri es cal l ed mutants, the changes produci ng
them mutations. I n searchi ng the l iterature, de Vri es
redi scovered t he work of Mendel . These mutati ons
provi ded the genui nel y new characteri sti cs upon whi ch
evol uti on by natural sel ecti on was dependent.
27
. H. Morgan, a pioneer Ameri- Walter S. Sutton, geneticist who
can geneticist. identifed role of chromosomes.
THE NEW SYNTHESIS OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
came i n the earl y years of t he twenti eth century,
marked by recogn i t i on of chromosomes, mi nute th read
l i ke structures i n t he cel l nucl eus, as t he car r i ers of
hereditary characters . Th is di scovery, whi ch al so
showed a l inkage of characters t hat Mendel had not
suspected, was made independentl y i n 1 902 by W. S.
Sutton and by T. Boveri . T. H. Morgan ( 1 886- 1 945) ,
experi ment i ng wi th t he frui t fy, Drosophila, demon
strated t hat t he genetic determinants were present i n
O defnite l inear order i n t he chromosomes and coul d
be " mapped. "
Many wor kers became convi nced t hat i t was sudden,
spontaneous, l arge-scal e mutati ons t hat wer e t he real
basi s of evolut i on rat her t han, as Darwi n had sug
gested, t he mi nor vari ati ons . But why, ot hers obj ected,
shoul d so many characters t hen be adapti ve si nce
many mutati ons proved t o be l ethal rat her t han ben
efci al? The di scovery in 1 927 t hat X- rays, temperature
changes, gamma rays, and var i ous chemi cal s could
i nduce mutati ons proved that the great maj ori ty of
them were mi nute in t hei r efects and t herefore were
more l i kel y to survi ve.
28
Nogned 5egmenf
Chromosomes from the frui t fy Drosophila greatl y magni fed. The
map s h ows l ocat i on of genes al ong part of c hromos ome l engt h.
The s i mpl e Men del i an concept of i ndependent, par
ti cul ar gen et i c devel opment has gi ven way to ac
ceptan ce of an i n di vi dual represent ed by a gene com
pl ex i n whi ch genes are l i nked and i nteract together o
The current synt het i c th eory of evol uti on is based
on ri gorous statistical anal ysi s, study of t he fossil
record, experi mental studies, an d observat i on of nat
ural popul ations . I t accept s as the basi s for evol ution
i ndividual variations, ari si ng from mutat i on and repro
ducti ve recombi nation , an d act ed upon, fi l tered, con
served, int ensifi ed or eli mi nat ed by natural s el ecti on.
Geneti c vari at i on i n Drosophila expressed by stri ki ng diferences i n
form. The fy at left i s the normal wi l d type.
vestigial twisted
norma l wings st r ap abdomen no wings
2
INDICATIONS OF EVOLUTION
The proof requi red for any part i cul ar statement varies
wi th t he nat ure of t he statement . To prove t hat 2 _ 2
4 i nvol ves an appeal to reas on and mat hemat i cal
l ogi c. To prove t hat an at hl ete can r un a fou r- mi n ute
mi l e i nvol ves an appeal to experi ment-the run ni n g of
a careful l y measured di st ance under s peci fed condi
ti ons an d wi th accurate ti mekeepi ng.
But no experi ment coul d prove t hat t he s ame ath
l ete ran a fou r- mi n ute mi l e on June 20t h a year ago.
Proof of t hat woul d i nvol ve an appeal to the record
books and to wi t nesses. No experi ment can provi de
proof of past event s. Ot her ki nds of evi dence are
needed, al t hough observati on and experi ments of ex
i sti ng facts and processes may s upport the probabi l i ty
of a parti cul ar past event . Often proof i nvol ves an ap
peal to everyday experi ence to provi de t he most eco
nomi cal expl anati on. You coul d not prove, for ex
ampl e, that al l of t he sparrows l i vi ng today descended
fr om t hose l i vi ng t hree hundred. years ago, but t he bal
ance of exper i ence woul d s upport t hat i nt erpretati on .
"I wi l l bel i eve i n evol uti on, " Wi l l i am Jenni ngs Bryan
remar ked, "when I can si t i n my garden and see an
oni on t urn i nto a l i l y. " Cl earl y, i f we h ad to rel y on
t hat k i nd of i nstant experi ence, evol uti on coul d not be
proved. But nei t her coul d t he growth of an oni on s eed
i nto an onion be proved i nstantl y. I t, too, i s a s l ow
scarcel y percept i bl e event . We can, however, observe
popul ati ons changi ng and can al so observe the mech
an i s ms by whi ch such change comes about . The proof
of evol uti on al so l i es i n its unique posi t i on as the onl y
adequate expl anati on .for t he ori gi n of t he di verse fea
t ures s hown by l i vi ng things .
30
Frog tadpoles, metamorphose
into frogs by the resorption of
the tail, loss of gills, and
growth of lungs and paired
limbs. Such radical change
within a few weeks makes it
less difcult to visualize evolu
tion over countless years.
CONTI NUI TY of l i vi ng thi ngs i s provi ded by r epro
duct i on . I n di vi dual s l i ve, grow ol d, an d di e, but thei r
ki nd i s per pet uat ed i n thei r offs pri n g. We k now of no
evi dence s uggesting that l i vi ng organ i s ms a ri s e i n any
other way tha n from pa rents of the sa me speci es . I t
woul d be d i ffi cul t to prove, for exa mpl e, that al l frogs
al ive today must have des cended from frogs that l i ved
1 , 000 years ago, but al l of our exper i ence s uggest s
t hat they have.
But if frogs al ways gi ve bi rth to frogs and camel s
t o ca mel s , how do new k i nds ( s peci es) of an i mal s ever
devel op? Two features of cont i n ui ty s uggest pos s i bl e
an swer s. Fi rst l y, conti n ui t y between par ent s and off
s pr i ng i nvol ves both broad res embl ances and indi vi d
ua l differences an d variations . Whatever expl a nat i on
we s el ect must expl ai n bot h feat ur es.
Secondl y, continuous c hange wi thi n the l i feti me of a
s i ngl e i ndi vi dual an i mal i s very great. I f s uch chan ges
can occur i n on e generati on, i t may wel l be t hat on e
s peci es could develop i nto anot her.
3 1
UNlTY OF |lFE | s shOwO by the foct tHot, i n s p| lC of
t heir diversity of for m and variety of habi ts, the n e
arl y
1 % mil l ion speci es of pl ants an d an imal s al l sol ve t he
bas i c probl ems of l ivi ng i n much the s ame way. They
resembl e one another i n composition , cel l ul ar structur e,
l i fe pr ocesses, and basic patter ns of r eproducti on,
adaptabi l i ty, an d devel opment . They al s o s hare a com
mon un ity in the endl ess i nterdepen dence of al l l i vi n g
t hin gs . I f each species i s an entirel y s eparate creati on,
why do al l share these bas i c common pr operti es?
CELLULAR STRUCTURE i s a char
acteristi c of all living material,
and the cells are made of pro
toplasm. Most cells are only a
few thousandths of an i nch in
di ameter, but a few are much
l arger. The yol ks of bi rd eggs
are single cells.
32
ANI MAL CELL
PROTOPLASM
Oxygen
Car bon
Hydrogen
Ni trogen
Phos phor us
Potas s i u m
Su l f u r
Ch l or i ne
z6. cy
I 0 y
I 0 0y
-

'
y
0 1%
c

1y
0. 1y
c . i
%
I n spite of some di ferences,
pl ant and ani mal cell s do have
a si milar basi c str ucture. Even
t he si mplest cel l cons i s ts of
thousands of di ferent mole
cules t hat i nteract toget her i n
coordinati on. A typical cel l
structure i s shown below.
PROTOPLASM is shared by a l l
l i vi ng things. It is composed of
a di sti ncti ve combi nati on of
large mol ecules of non l i vi ng
substances, i ncl uding carbohy
drates, fats, proteins ( i ncludi ng
enzymes) , and nuclei c ac i ds t hat
are organized i nto a col l oidal
mi xt ure i n water. The u n i q ue
propert ies of t his materi al form
the bas i s of l i fe.
METABOLISM i n c l udes t he n u
tri ti on, res pi rat i on , s ynt hes i s , a n d
excret i on t h a t i s c h aract er i st i c of
a l l l i vi ng t h i ngs . Non - l i vi ng food
mat eri al s a re c onverted i nto t he
organi s m' s l i vi n g t i ssues, certai n
of whi c h brea k down t o provi de
t he ener gy t hat i s vi t al to t he
processes ess ent i a l to l i fe. Metab
ol i s m i nvol ves a c ons tan t f l ow of
energy an d mat er i a l s wi t h i n an d
between a n organ i s m an d i t s
envi ronment .
GROWTH of newborn nd v U-
ual s i s a common property of
al l l i vi ng t hi ngs .
REPRODUCTI ON of new dup -
cate i ndi vi dual s i s characteri sti c
of al l l i vi ng t hi ngs . The con
t i n u i ty of form i nvol ved i n re
product i on i s cont rol l ed by t he
act i vi t y of s el f- du pl i cat i ng
che mi cal structu res c al l ed genes
( p. 56).
ADAPTATI ON of al l | v ng
t hi ngs i nvol ves cont i n ui n g ad
j us t ment t o a c hangi ng envi ron
ment. I n d i vi dual adapt i ve re
s pons es i nc l ude reac t i on to
st i mul i , i rri tabi l i ty, physi ol ogi c
changes, heal i ng of I n J U ri es,
and movemen t . Over l ong pe
ri ods, popul ati on s show more
gener al adapt ati ons .
33
Sponges
Despite t hei r diversi ty, al l l i vi ng t hi ngs share common properti es.
THE NATURE OF LI FE i s un
de rs tood l argel y i n terms
of a ser i es of fundament al properti es ( pp. 3 2-33) .
No s i mpl e defn i ti on of " l i fe" i s pos s i bl e, partl y
becaus e of i ts compl exi ty and partl y because i t is
uni que. But we can defn e l i fe i n terms of s ome of its
s i mpl er pr operti es . li vi ng organi s ms cons i st of uni que
an d compl ex combi nati ons of cert ai n nonl ivi ng mate
r i al s , ar ran ged i n l arge mol ecul es t hat are capabl e of
growt h, r eproducti on, adaptati on, an d t he gat her i ng
and usi ng of exter nal food and energy.
Some of t hese i ndi vi dual properti es of l i vi ng thi ngs
are al so pr es ent i n nonl i vi ng th i ngs, but onl y l i v
i ng or gan i s ms exhi bi t t hem al l s i mul taneousl y.
Ot her ki nds of defi n i t i ons of l i fe a re possi bl e and
are equal l y val i d. Sci enti fi c defi ni ti on s or studi es a re
l argel y concer ned wi t h how l i fe devel oped and how
i t i s mai ntai ned . Phi l os ophi cal and rel i gi ous defi ni t i on s
are more concer ned wi th why. Th e two k i n ds of defi
n i t i ons are us ual l y compl ementary, not competi ti ve.
34
I NTERDEPENDENCE is a characteri sti c of a l l l i vi ng
things . Every i ndividual exi sts as part of an i nterbreed
ing popul ation that consi sts of many geneti cal l y si mi
l ar indivi dual s . These popul ati ons of i ndi vi dual s exi st
wi thin commu n it i es of many s peci es that i nteract wi th
one another as prey and pr edator, host and parasi te,
consumer an d producer, and competi tors for space or
food . The i nteracti on cuts across the maj or di vi si ons of
pl ants an d an imal s ; thus, trees shel t er bi rds , i nsects
fertil i ze fowers, her bivores cons ume grass, fsh s up
port par asites, s ea anemones shel ter cl own fs h, etc.
COMMUNI TI ES i n teract wi t h
t hei r phys i cal envi ron ment , con
st i t ut i ng an ecosystem. Changes
i n rai n fol l , t emperat ure range,
soi l type, el evat i on
,
l at i tude,
dept h of sea water, sedi ment i n
strea ms, and cou nt l es s ot her
phys i cal factors al l i nf l uence t he
devel opment of commu n i t i es.
Orga n i s ms i n t ur n may modi fy
t hei r envi ron ment, creat i ng l o
cal s hade i n forests, modi fyi ng
and enr i c h i n g soi l s, prevent i ng
eros i on, a nd i n man y ot her
ways. Thi s i n terdependenc e pro
vides i mportan t data.
Oxygen an d car bon cycl es s h ow i n t erdependence of a l l l i f e.
CARBON- HYDROGEN
OXYGEN CYCLE
( on l and )
T HE SI MI LARI TI ES t hat exi st between l i vi ng organ i s ms
at al l l evel s have certai n i mpl i cati ons . Offs pr i ng of t he
same parents have a mor e or l es s cl ose resembl ance to
one another an d to thei r parent s. Al t hough each i ndi vi d
ual i s un i que, members of the same speci es s hare "obvi
ous" common features t hat are conserved and perpetu
ated i n reproducti on. We do not have troubl e recogni zi ng
a l i on, for exampl e-or even a dog, des pi te t he many
vari ati ons t hat domesti c breedi ng has produced i n dogs .
DEGREES o f resembl a nce al so
exi st

a mong rel ated speci es.

Ocel ots, pu mas, bobcat s, and
domesti c cats, f or exa mpl e, al l
have certai n bas i c c haracteri s
ti cs i n common, and these are
recogn i zed in an i mal cl assi fca
ti on (taxonomy) by grou pi ng
t hem al l together i n t he same
genus-Felis. But genera, too,
exhi bi t degrees of resembl ance
so t hat we can grou p t hem i ntq
fami l i es of s i mi l ar members.
Si mi l ar fami l i es are grouped
i nto orders, orders i nto cl asses,
and cl asses i nto phyl a. Each
" h i gher" group thus i ncl udes
mor e forms, and t hese have
progressi vel y fewer feat ures i n
common ( p. 1 1 ) .
The ori ol es below bel ong to a si ngl e gen us, Icterus. They have dif
ferent . col ors and geographi c ranges, but they share many common
feat ures. They are members of t he s ame f ami l y as bl ackbi r ds.
Torosaurus
Triceratops
Arrhinoceratops
These hor ned ceratops i an d i nosaur s s h ow how degrees of resem
bl an ce s u gges t evol ut i on ary rel at i on s h i ps . Th e
,
geol ogi c progres
s i on i s ar ran ged f r om bot t om to t op. ( After Col bert. )
The mean i n g of t h e va r i ous degrees of resembl a n ce
was at frst t h ough t to l i e i n t hei r approxi mat i on to
t he a rch et ype or i dea l for m, upon wh i ch each s pe
ci es had been " desi gned " or pl anned. But to l ater stu
dents, t hes e cl ust ered r el at i on shi ps, oft en pi ctured as
t he br anches of a t r ee ( as above) s uggest ed onl y de
gr ees of r el at i ons hi p, al though the cl assi fcat i on i tsel f
was establ i s hed before t hi s was recogn i zed ( pp. 1 0-
1 1 } . J ust as t he br anches of a t ree grow by conti nu
ous devel opment from a seed, each branc h bei ng
for med by s l ow and al most i mpercepti bl e modi fcati on
of ear l i er branches from an i ni ti al stem, so t he br anch
i ng pat t ern of cl assi fcat i on suggested a common ori
gi n . The br anches r epresented degrees of rel at i ons hi p
t o t he organ i s ms of t he cent r al ancestral stem.
37
bbbb b N PK T between l i vi ng t hi ngs OU
refect ed by var i ous features . The overal l form and
st r uct ure ( morphol ogy) of al l creatures show varyi ng
degrees of s i mi l ari ty. When we speak of a "deer, " we
thi nk of a part i cul ar ki nd of an i mal , but the deer fam
i l y contai n s 20 di ferent gener a an d many speci es. Al
t hough they di fer i n si ze, antl ers, col or, and geo
graphi c di st r i but i on, al l members of the deer fami l y
share basi c features . Thei r s kel etons resembl e one an
ot her, bon e for bone; t hei r i nter nal organs are si mi l ar;
and t hey di s pl ay many s i mi l ar behavi or al characteri s
t i cs . Thi s comprehens i ve si mi l ari ty, s howi ng O unity of
bas i c for m but a di versi ty of i ndivi dual pattern, sug
gests thei r deri vati on from a common ancestor that pos
sessed these common features.
THE EMBRYONI C DEVELOP
MENT of many s pecies s hows
startl i ng s i mi l ari ti es, even i n
forms t hat have few resem
bl ances as adu l ts. Thus a man,
a pi g, and a c h i c ken have a
general s i mi l ari ty dur i ng t hei r
devel opment. I f each speci es i s
enti rel y di s ti nct from every
ot her speci es, i t makes no s ens e
t hat they s houl d have s uch em
bryoni c resembl ances and t hen
l os e t hem i n adul t l i fe. Al t hough
t hi s embryoni c s i mi l ari ty i s l ess
than was cl ai med by l ate n i ne
teent h cent ury zool ogi sts, i t i s
an i ndi cat i on and an i mpri nt of
t hei r remote ki ns hi p.
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES i n
many organi s ms suggest t hei r
deri vati on f rom common ances
tors. The s kel et ons of cats,
horses, whal es, bats, mi ce, and
men, for exa mpl e, al l have an
essent i al l y s i mi l ar for m. The
structure of t he vertebrae an d
t h e fused bones of t h e s k u l l are
s i mi l ar i n every vertebrate,
from fsh to men. So are the re
l ated nerves, muscl es, and bl ood
vessel s. I n l ess cl osel y rel ated
speci es, homol ogy i s l ess wel l
marked, suggesti ng thei r more
di stant commun i ty of ori gi n.
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES devel
op when an organ i s retai ned
even t hough i ts ori gi nal f unc
t i on i s reduced or l ost. Such
structures are fou nd i n al l an i
mal s. I n man , t he ear muscl es
are usual l y nonfu n ct i onal , but i n
other an i mal s, s u c h as t h e dog,
t hese muscl es move t he ears
and di rect them toward part i cu
l ar sou nds . The human appen
di x has no obvi ous funct i on
and i s a n ui san ce, but i n ot her
an i mal s, t he appendi x i s more
strongl y devel oped and serves a n
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES
s how a s i mi l ari ty of f unct i on but
not of detai l ed structure. The
wi ngs of an i nsect perform t he
same f unct i on as t hose of a
bi rd, but t hey have a very di f
ferent st ruct ure. Such di fer
ences res ul t not from i n h eri
t ance from a common ancestor
but from adapt at i on to s i mi l ar
envi ron ment al condi ti ons . I f
each s peci es had a separate
ori gi n , t hen an al ogous s truc
t ures s houl d be more common
t han homol ogous s tructures, but
t he reverse i s true.
i mportant di gesti ve f unct i on. I n
whol es an d i n some s n a kes, ves
t i gi al h i n d l i mbs ore preserved,
suggesti ng t hat t hey ore t he
remmonts of ancestral structures.
BI OCHEMI CAL SI MI LARI TI ES a l so exi st between re
l at ed organi sms . The most stri ki ng feature of these si mi
l ari ti es is the way t hey confrm i ndependentl y t he vari
ous groupi ngs of pl ants and ani mal s that were estab
l i shed on t he basi s of thei r overal l for m. Thi s i mpl i es
t hat t he cl assi fcati on that has been devel oped ( pp. J-
J7 is not whol l y artifci al but refects t he ancestral - de
scendant ( phyl ogenetic) rel ati onshi ps of organi sms.
Other more general bi ochemi cal si mi l ari ti es i mpl y
t he common ki ns hi p of al l organi sms. These i ncl ude the
use of nucl ei c aci ds as agents of heredi ty ( p. 8l , the
use of a parti cul ar phosphate, ATP, i n energy transfer,
and t he use by pl ants wi th chl orophyl l of thi s green
pi gment as a catalyst i n photosynthesi s.
BLOOD PI GMENTS dier i n
diferent ani mal groups. I n
vertebrates and some other ani
mal s , t he bl ood has a r ed pi g
ment, hemogl obi n, whi ch has a
res pi ratory functi on i n carryi ng
bl ood from t he l ungs or gi l l s
throughout t he body. I n al l ar
thropods, the respi ratory pig
ment i s a bl ue copper com-
pound, cal l ed hemocyani n; i n
mar i ne worms, a green i ron
compound, cal l ed chl orocruo
ri ne. These pi gment s i mi l ar i
ti es confr m the rel at i ons hi ps
between members of t he groups
establ i s hed by ot her cri t eri a.
Protei ns of each s peci es, al
t hough di s t i nct, s how compar
abl e degrees of s i mi l ari ty.
A serol ogi cal test ( p. 4 1 ) i s made by mi xi ng seru m and ant i seru m
and record i ng t he hi ghest di l ut i on of seru m t hat wi l l s t i l l gi ve a
wh i te r i ng of preci pi tate. (After Boyden. )
40
HOMOlOGOUS
TEST
beef ser um and
anti- beef seru m
HETEROlOGOUS
TEST
sheep ser um and
anti- beef ser um
Z J 4 8 colro|

End Point

SEROLOGI CAL SI MI LARI TI ES O|U meas ured by i mmu ni ty
test s. I f bl ood from on e s peci es, s uch as a cow, i s i n
j ected i nto the bl oodst ream of an other, say a gu i nea
pi g, the gu i n ea pi g prod uces a preci pi t at e, a n a nt i
seru m, that i mmu n i zes i t agai n st cow' s bl ood. When
thi s an ti - cow s er um i s mi xed wi th the bl ood of other
an i ma l s, it prod uces preci pi tat es of va ryi n g i nten si ty
that correspon d to the near ness of the other speci es i n
the scheme of c l assi fcat i on . Thus , a n t i - cow ser u m
gi ves 1 00 percen t preci pi t ation wi th the bl ood of a n
ot her cow, 48 percen t wi th a sheep, a n d 24 percen t
wi th a pi g . Thi s bi och e mi ca l i n di cat i on of common
an cest ry i s a method of c l assi fcat i on confr mi n g what
was est abl i shed i n depe n dent l y by c omparat i ve a na
t omi ca l s t udi es .
Serol og i cal t est s made wi t h an t i - h u man ser u m g i ve varyi n g per
cent ages of prec i pi tat i on. Th i s refect s t he qua nt i tat i ve deg rees of
s i mi l ar i ty between ma n an d ot her s peci es.
Gori l l a
Oran gu t an
Kangaroo
ADAPTATI ONS to the parti cul ar envi ronments i n
whi ch they l i ve are shown by al l l i vi ng creatures. Some
that are so general t hey may be overl ooked easi l y i n
cl ude t he wonderful l y efci ent but di sti nct wi ng struc
ture of i nsects, bats, and bi rds ( al so those of t he ex
ti nct pterodactyl s) , the shape and structure of fsh, the
speci al i zed stems of desert cacti , and cou ntl ess other s.
Sti l l ot her adaptati ons are more speci fc. Of the many
exampl es among bi rds, those of the woodpeckers were
frst descri bed by Charl es Darwi n .
Adaptati on i s so wi despread i n both pl ants and
ani mal s that, al t hough not a proof of evol uti on, i t
suggests that natural sel ecti on i s a very probabl e ex
pl anat i on for organi c di versi ty.
PROTECTIVE form and col ora
ti on are adaptations s hown by
many ani mal s. The pupae of
some i nsects resembl e thorns or
twi gs. Others mi mi c l ess vul ner
abl e species by col or resem-
Woodpecker
42
bl ances. The col or of some ani
mal s , such as t he chamel eon,
changes wi t h t he col or of t he
background. Experi ments h ave
s hown the s urvi val val ue of t hi s
col orati on ( p. 84) .
A woodpecker has two l arge
toes di rected backward so t hat
i t s foot forms an anchorl i ke
hol d. I t s st i f t ai l feat hers form
prop as t he bi rd chi sel s wi t h
i t s powerful beak. I t extracts
i nsects wi t h i t s l ong, barbed
tongue. Al l of t he 1 79 speci es
of woodpeckers have essen
t i al ly s i mi l ar structure.
New G&i nea ( 520 species of bi rds)
.. ..| l 2}

Fiji ..|54|

HcndcrtOn ..|4J

THE NUMBES OF ISLAND SPECIES and

t hei r res embl ance to t hose of t he mai nl and
decreas e wi t h i ncreas i ng di stance f rom t he
l and. The n u mber of mammal s peci es s hows a
s i mi l ar decrease, s ugges t i ng t hat t he speci es
were deri ved from t hose on t he mai nl and.
PRESENT LI MITED DI STRI BUTI ON OF MANY SPECI ES, s uch as tapi rs,
can be i nterpreted onl y on t he as su mpt i on t hat t hey are descendants
of more wi despread foss i l ancestors, some of whi c h hove been found
i n i ntermedi at e areas.
+ ......
g . .......
I. ndicus

After 0e 8 r
GEOGRAPHI C DI STRI BUTI ON of many pl ants and
ani mal s shows features t hat can be accounted for onl y
by suppos i ng t hat t hey are t he descendants of com
mon ancestors . The faunas of t he Gal apagos and Cape
Verde I s l ands were major cl ues i n Darwi n ' s devel op
ment of an evol uti onary theory ( pp. ! 8- !l .
Al fred Russel Wal l ace noted t hat l arger groups,
such as orders, have a wi der geogr aphi c di stri buti on
than do s mal l er groups, such as fami l i es or genera.
Speci es most s i mi l ar are found i n adj acent areas, sug
gesti ng t hei r evol uti on from common ancestors.
43
LI VI NG
SPECI ES of pl Onts Ond On| mO | s OrC chO rOc-
t er i zed by t hei r constancy of gener al for m and t hei r
g reat range of i ndi vi dual vari at i on . Each s peci es
breeds "true" and i s r eproducti vel y i sol ated fr om ot her
s peci es, even t hos e t hat are cl osel y si mi l ar . Yet no two
i n di vi dual s of t he s ame speci es are i dent i cal . We n ow
recogni ze t hat t he i n heri ted characteri sti cs of al l l i v
i ng t hi ngs are cont rol l ed by t hei r genes and c h romo
somes and t hat t hese structu res un der go spontan eous
mutat i ons ( p. 7 4) . Thi s i nput of new charact eri st i cs
means t hat over a l ong peri od of ti me speci es are not
Axed enti ti es as once s upposed. Bot h i n nat ur e an d i n
capti vi ty, we see evi dence of var i at i ons wi th i n O spe
ci es, suggesti ng t hei r evol uti onary capaci ty.
SELECTI VE BREEDI NG of do
mest i c pl a nts a nd a n i mal s i ndi
cates t he great var i abi l i t y of
many s peci es. I l l ust rated here,
are dogs of t he s ame s peci es .
Basset Hound
Dachs hu nd
Thi s s uggested to Darwi n t hat
nat ur al sel ect i on mi ght be ana
l ogous i n i t s ac t i on t o ( ar t i f i c i al )
domest i c s el ect i on as a n agent
of c hange.
Beagl e
Vendee Hound St . Hu bert Hou nd Tal bot Hound

Cao|slo|||a:|s |e|oe:| Egypti an Greyhound Sal uki Afghan Hound Sl eut h Hound
POPULATI ONS s how l ocal vari
at i on i n nat ure. The s mal l est
un i ts, cal l ed demes, are on l y
part l y i s ol ated popul at i ons ,
wi t h i n whi ch t here i s cl os e gen
et i c s i mi l ar i ty. Var i at i on be
tween demes i s often random,
bu t between s ome i t i s non-
ra ndom, f or mi ng g raded c l i nes
t hat may s how correl at i on wi t h
di ferent ecol og i c condi t i ons.
Thus l ocal races or subspecies
devel op, each adapt ed to t he
condi t i ons of a part i c u l ar area
a n d i n tergradi n g wi t h on e an
ot her on l y i n over l appi n g areas .
P. major mojor
P. major minor
P. mojointermedius

Zone of Overl op
Zone of Over l ap
Geograph i c al Di s t r i but i on of t he Great Ti t . ( Aft er De Beer )
The Great Ti t of Europe an d
As i a s hows devel opmen t of t yp
i cal geograph i c races or var i
et i es . The most wi des pread race
i s POlus major major, ext endi ng
from Br i tai n to East As i a. P.
ci nereus and P. minor h ave
more restri cted ra nges .
The i n ter breedi n g i n I ran of
P. major wi t h t he cent ral As i an
and I ndi an vari ety P. ci nereus
g i ves a fourt h var i ety-P. i nter-
medi us. I nterbreedi ng of P.
cinereus a n d P. minor i n I ndo
c h i n a gi ves a fft h , P. commix
I us. But P. major a nd P. ci ner
eus occ ur toget her wi t hout i n
ter breedi ng i n nort h cent ral
As i a, as do P. mi nor and P.
major i n nort heastern Ch i n a.
Reproduct i ve i s ol at i on bet ween
geogr a ph i c races s ugges t s on e
mec h an i s m f or t he f or mat i on
of new s peci es ( p. 76 ) .
45
CHANGES IN SPECI ES have been observed even du r
i ng the l i mited t i me that accurate observati ons have
been recorded. Some di sease- produci ng bacteri a have
been successful l y treated wi th drugs, but one of the
si de efects of thi s medi cati on has been the devel op
ment of vari ous drug resi stant strai ns of the bacteri a.
Escherichia coli i s a common bacter i um that has de
vel oped popu l ati ons enti rel y resi sta nt to streptomy
ci n . Th ese resi sta nt groups ari se from mutati ons . When
t hey appear, t hey are t he on l y group abl e to s urvive
an d mu l ti pl y.
Al t hough mos t evol u ti on i s
probabl y t he res u l t of s l ow,
c u mu l ati ve c h an ge, by t hi s
process of " preadapt at i on " i n
whi ch a mu tati on " encou n ters "
a favorabl e envi ron ment, t he
whol e c haract er of a popu l a
t i on may change very rapi dl y.
By a s i mi l ar process, some s pe
ci es of destructi ve i nsects have
devel oped an i mmu n i ty to vari
ous i nsecti ci des. Scal e i nsects of
t he ci t rus regi ons of Cal i forni a
have become i ncreas i ngl y re
s i stant t o hydrocyani c aci d, for
exampl e.
A scal e i nsect, Aonidella ou-
ronf.
I NDUSTRIAL MELANI SM has
been observed i n scores of spe
ci es of mot hs d uri ng t he past
century. I n i ndustri al areas,
many speci es have become pro
gressi vel y darker, or even bl ack,
whi l e members of t he same spe
ci es i n rural areas remai n l i ght
col ored. Thi s demonstrates how
pl asti c and changeabl e many
speci es are, even over short pe
ri ods of t i me. The mechani sm
of t hi s change i s di scussed on
p. 84. I n t he photograph be
l ow, t he l i c hen- covered tree
tru n k provi des conceal ment for
t he l i ght-col ored Peppered
Mot h but makes the darker, i n
dustri al mel ani c form con s pi cu
ous . The soot-covered tree
tru n k from an i ndus tri al area
conceal s t he dar k form of t he
Peppered Mot h but makes t he
l i ght form conspi cuous.
credi t : H. B. D. Kett l ewel l
Peppered mot h, Biton bet ularia, showi ng l i ght an d dar k for ms
on two di fferent backgrou nds .
FOSSI L SPECI ES a re di fcul t to recogni ze becOU8e the
test of reproducti ve i sol at i on, by whi ch l ivi n g speci es
are di sti ngui shed, cannot be used. But we can recog
ni ze i n fossi l s t he s ame degrees of structural di ference
as between rel ated l i vi ng speci es . We can al s o recog
ni ze i ndependentl y devel opi ng fossi l groups, and
t hese, by defni ti on, can be regarded as speci es.
The fossi l record al l ows us to observe changes over
far l onger peri ods of ti me than are ever avai l abl e i n
l i vi ng popul ati ons . I n fossi l s, we c an recogni ze evol u
ti on i n acti on . Al though they tel l us l i ttl e about t he de
t ai l ed mechani s ms of change, fossi l s do provi de pow
erful evi dence t hat evol uti on has occurred.
FORAMI NI FERA a re mi croscopi c
protozoans, most of whi ch se
crete a s hel l . I l l ust rat ed i s a
mar i ne genus , Textularia, st ud
i ed i n rocks of Tert i ary age ( p.
98) i n New Zeal and. When
t raced t hrough a peri od repre-
s ented by t he acc u mu l at i on of
500 feet of st rat a, t here i s a
marked c hange i n s h ape for
each popul at i on . Two s peci es
are recogn i zed. Hori zont al l i nes
represen t s tandard devi at i on
for eac h. ( After Ken nett. )
Fossi l bi val ve cl ams ( bel ow) , from rocks of Pennsyl
vani an and Permi an age ( p. 98) of t he mi dconti nent re
gi on of t he Un i ted States, s how successi ve devel opment
by descent of cl osel y s i mi l ar s peci es of the genus myO-
/ina. Each of the numbers on graphs represents a di ffer
ent speci es, l i sted bel ow.
For m Rat i o
FI GURE A
of ang l es b/ a
Rati o of length
to Hei ght
0.
I . 0
1 . 1
1 . 2
Mi ssouri an
I
Myal i na copha
2 . M. lepta
2 . M. i epta
1
M. wyomi ngensis
Desmoi nesi an
4. M. miopet i na
5, M. pl iapet i na
o. M. copei
z. M. arbo/ a
Atokan
8. M. g/oss idea
?. M. pet i na
1 0 . M. avi cul oides FI GURE B
Fi gure A is a pl ot of t he form
rati o of l ength to hei ght of t he
shel l s, pl otted agai nst t he rati o
of the an gl e b to the an gl e a
(see di agram) . The ri ght - hand
l i ne represent s i n- l i ne evol ut i on,
wher e new s peci es ari se by s uc
cessi ve modi fcat i on of earl i er
popul at i ons. The l eft- hand l i ne
repres ents speci at i on by branch-
i ng or s pl i tt i ng rat her t han by
cont i n uous c hange.
Fi gure B s h ows i nferred evol u
t i onary descent an d rel at i on
shi ps ( phyl ogeny) of speci es of
Myali na. Nu mbers refer to t he
same speci es as t hose i n Fi g. A.
The na mes are t hose of s ucces
si ve roc k di vi si ons. (After New
el l and Moore. )
49
HI GHER TAXA ( genera, fami l i es, etc. ) of an i mal s
an d pl ants are fou n d i n t h e foss i l record al so t o ari se
by des cent wi t h sl ow modi fcati on from ancestral for ms .
Thi s i s evol uti on . The fossi l record provi des repeated
evi dence t hat i t i s t he nor mal met hod by whi ch new
groups of organi s ms or i gi nate.
CE RATOPSI AN DI NOSAURS (al l
drawn t o s ame scal e) l i ved i n t h e
Cretaceous Peri od ( p. 98| , /0mi l
l i on years ago. They s how an
overa l l i n creas e i n si ze and i n
t h e rel at i ve di mens i ons and com
pl ex i ty of t he bon y ar mor t h at
covered t hei r head a n d n ec k ,
Triceratops reac hed a l engt h of
24 f eet an d wei gh ed up to ei gh t
tons. On l y t h ree genera are
s hown. ( Aft er Col bert.)
OlD WORL D
Equus
Styfohipparion
Hipparion
Anchitherium
To Rhi noceroses

Epihtppus
HORSE S provi de a cl assi c exam
pl e of t he evol ut i on of new gen
er a f r om ear l i er ones over a
peri od of 70 mi l l i on year s .
Pfiohippus
GRAZERS

BROWSERS
Orohippus
Aft er S i mpso
L ater modi fc at i ons refected
c h ange in di et from brows i ng
to gr azi n g . Ri g h t u pper mol ar
t oot h s urf aces are s h own .
5 1
"MI SSI NG LI NKS," a s evi dence t hat one g roup de
vel oped from anot her, were oft en demanded by oppo
n ent s of evol uti on i n ear l i er year s of t he evol uti onary
debat e. At t he ti me of t he publ i cati on of On the Origin
of Species, very few of t hese transi ti onal for ms were
known , but many have si nce been di scovered. They
br i dge many of t he maj or groups of exi st i ng organ i s ms .
I n th e vertebrates, for exampl e, t here are transi ti onal
for ms between fs h and amph i bi a, amph i bi a and rep
ti l es, repti l es and bi rds, and repti l es and mammal s .
They i ndi cate t hat these maj or groups, di sti nct an d
separate i n l ivi ng forms, arose from for ms that showed
some characters i ntermedi ate between two groups an d
others now restri cted t o j ust one.
ARCHAEOPTERYX, a n ancestral
fossi l bi rd from t he Jurassi c of
Germany, had many features of
the rept i l i an group from whi ch
i t devel oped. Al t hough i t had
t he feat hers of a bi rd, i t had a
repti l el i ke toot hed bea k an d
cl awed wi ngs. I t had bi rdl i ke
feet but rept i l i an vert ebrae an d
tai l . I t had t h e wi shbone of a
bi rd but a repti l i an brai n .
Archaeopteryx was i ndeed a
mosai c or j u mbl e of vari ousl y
devel oped charact eri st i cs t hat
were s ubsequentl y restri cted to
di ferent groups (p. 1 29).
THE THERI ODONTS " beast
toot hed") were rept i l es t hat
l ived i n Permi an and Tri assi c
t i mes ( p. 98). They s howed
many mammal i an characteri sti cs.
Cynognathus was a typi cal
member of t he group. An active
carnivore, si x feet l ong, i t had
a l ong s kul l wi t h mammal - l i ke
Cynognathus
di ferent i at i on of t he teeth i nto
i nci sors, can i nes, and cheek
teeth. I t had an "u pri ght " mam
mal i an posture, and many de
tai l s of t he s kul l , vertebrae,
h i ps, shoul ders, and l i mbs were
al so mammal - l i ke. Ma mmal s are
bel i eved to h ave devel oped
from these or s i mi l ar repti l es.
Pl atypus
LIVI NG FOSSI LS a re s urvi vi ng
representati ves of anci ent fossi l
groups. The monotremes-t he
duckbi l l ed pl atypus and t he
spi ny anteaters ( ec hi dnas ) of
Austral i a-are very pri mi tive
mammal s t hat retai n many typi
cal repti l i an c haracters i n t hei r
skel etons . They l ay l eat hery,
l arge- yol ked eggs an d s ecrete
mi l k from modi fed s weat
gl ands . Such a n i mal s probabl y
arose from t ransi t i onal repti l
i an - mammal i an forms . Gi n kgos
and araucari as are pl ant l i vi ng
fos s i l s .
53
THE b R ECOR D s hows t hree other general
features whi ch suggest that speci es arose by conti nu
ous evol uti on . I t di spl ays di versi fcati on, envi ron ment
fl l i ng, and compl ex adaptati onal change. These are
preci sel y what woul d be predi ct ed, O priori, on t he
basi s of t he t heory of evol uti on .
THE ADAPTATI ON OF OR
GANI SMS to a greater ran ge of
envi ron ments has devel oped
wi t h t i me. The ol dest organ
i s ms were confned t o t he seas,
but fresh waters, the l and, and
t he ai r were successi vel y col o
nized. Detai l s are gi ven on p.
1 1 8 and t he fol l owi ng pages.
The h i stor of t he vertebrates
s hows an i n creas i ng range of
adaptati on. Bi rds and a few
mammal s and exti nct rept i l es
have col oni zed t he ai r; ot hers
have "retu r ned" to t he aquat i c
l i fe abandoned by t hei r ances
tors. Detai l ed adaptati ons have
devel oped i n each envi ron ment .
Mammal s
Moder n Amphi bi ans
AwUA1IL
Lorllog nou fthe8
4
W w ..wm MW

-
W
C

C
L
c
L c
W

m C L
The c l asses of vert ebrat es show an i nc rease i n compl exi ty ao d d i
vers i ty wi t h t i me. The wi dt h of t he col u mn s i n di cat es t he rel at i ve
abu ndance of each g roup; dotted l i nes s how t he probabl e or i gi n
of each g roup. ( After Si mpson )
THE TOTAL NUMBER of s peci es
has s hown a steady i n crease
th rough geol ogi c t i me. I n sect s ,
for exa mpl e, cons t i t ut e more
t han t h ree-quarters of al l l i v
i ng s peci es , yet t hey di d not
appear u n t i l the Devon i an, 3/5
mi l l i on years ago ( p. 98|, The
cl as s es (above) s h ows i ncreas i n g
n u mbers of s peci es .
GREATER COMPLEXI T of or ga
n i s ms wi t h t i me has acco mpan i ed
t he i n vas i on of n ew envi ron ment s .
"Compl exi ty" i s a n a mbi guous
qual i ty, but mos t woul d agree
t hat f i s h , a mp h i bi an s , r ept i l es ,
an d ma mma l s represen t s uch a
scal e. Th i s i s al s o t he or der of
t hei r appearan c e i n the f os s i l
record.

T H E P R OC E S S OF E VOL U T I ON
I NHERI TANCE provi des t he consta ncy of for m ( a l i on
i s a l i on i s a l i on ) a n d vari at i on i n detai l ( bl ue eyes,
green eyes, brown eyes, bl ack eyes ) t h at are c h arac
teri sti c of al l l i vi n g pl a nts a n d a n i ma l s . lobst ers pro
duce onl y l obst ers; h u mans produce h u man s . B ut no
two l obsters and no two h u man s a re ever i dent i ca l i n
a l l cha racteri st i cs. How are t hes e two, con sta n cy a n d
va ri ety, t ran s mi tted from parents to ofs pri n g?
GENES, as demonst rated by
Gregor Mendel ( p. 26) and by
s ubsequent st udents of genet i cs,
are t he regul ators t hat govern
t he devel opment of charact eri s
t i cs i. n new i ndi vi dual s. Genes
many genes. Each speci es has
a defn i te type and n u mber of
chromosomes. I n al l but t he
most s i mpl e organ i s ms , t he
c hromosomes ar e contai ned i n
t he cel l n ucl eus . Characteri st i cs
are made of deoxyr i bonucl ei c of an organi s m are governed
aci d-DNA ( pp. 72-75)-and by parti cul ar genes ; but i ndi -
reproduce t hemselves exactly. vi dual genes may i n teract wi t h
Genes are i ncorporated i n one anot her or combi ne to
vi si bl e structu res cal l ed c hromo- produce cont i n uous var i at i on
somes, each of whi ch contai ns of some characters .
The h u man c hromosomes shown bel ow carry genes t hat determi ne
i ndi vi dual characteri st i cs. X and Y are t he s ex chromosomes.
2J poi rs
| ll
l

of chromosomes
i n order of si ze
\
l 2 J
7
\
4 5
7


6 1
}
7 8
I 0 I l I 2

P 0 0

V
I J I 4 l 5
Z
0 8
8 4
I #
^
_ I I 7
I 8
7
8
8K
k4

'
I 20 2 I 22

' 7
ch romosomes i n sper matogon i u m
spermatogoni um
| |

THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SPERMS AND EGGS
oogoni um

.p
r r
`
t
rmatocyte
'
l
f

st
t
| | | |

oocy e
.! _ _ frst

; pol ar
j j
seco
n
d
j j second
| |
body
0 spermatocyte
$
oocyte _

/

_
sp

r matds
ooti d
pol a
e
.
+ + + +

| |
'
P
"m'
| ! |
egg
GAMETES are the s peci al i zed
reproducti ve cel l s of pl ant s an d
ani mal s. Most speci es produce
bot h mal e gametes ( sperm) and
femal e gametes ( eggs).
Eac h ga mete contai ns onl y
one c hromosome from each pai r
j [ fert i l i zed egg
(zygote)
of the organi s m' s di pl oi d cel l s.
Un l i ke t he body cel l s, whi c h
have a di pl oi d or 2 n c h romo
some n umber, t he total n u mber
of c hromosomes i n a ga mete i s
h. These cel l s wi t h un pai red
c hromosomes are cal l ed ha pl oi d.
CHROMOSOMES of most speci es occur i n pai rs so
that each cel l contai ns two s i mi l ar ( homol ogous) c h ro
mosomes. Each chromosome i n turn contai ns homol o
gous genes. Such cel l s are cal l ed di pl oi d. The di pl oi d
number i ndi cat es t he total n u mber of chromosomes t hat
t hese cel l s contai n .
I n man , for exampl e, most cel l s contai n 23 chromo
somes, hence t he usual chromosome number ( n) i s 23.
But s i nce t h e chromosomes are pai red i n di pl oi d cel l s,
the total di pl oi d number i n each cel l is 2 n or 4.
57
CELL DIVI SI ON-the constant manufact ure of new
cel l s-is essenti al for t he l i fe and growth of al l mul ti
cel l ul ar pl ants and ani mal s. I nj ured or worn out cel l s
are repl aced by thi s process, too. The new cel l s a re
exact repl i cas of the ori gi nal cel l s, contai ni ng t he same
ki nd and number of chromosomes.
The process of produci ng new cel l s by divi si on of
the ori gi nal cel l i s cal l ed mi tosi s. In most cel l di vi si on,
the process is compl eted i n l ess t han two hours. M|-
tosi s can produce new i ndivi dual s as wel l as n ew body
cel l s . I n most organi s ms that reproduce asexual l y,
thE new cel l is i denti cal to the parent cel l .
58
THE STAGES OF MI TOSI S i n
cl ude: 0 PROPHASE, frs t
st age of mi tosi s , i s marked by
t hi ckeni ng of c hromosomes i n
n ucl eus and separat i on of cen
tri ol es from central body ( cen
trosome ) above n ucl eus. Fi bers
from cen tri ol es form aster. ( b)
SPI NDLE o f fbers t hen grows
between the two s eparated as
ters. Nucl ear membrane di si n
tegrates , and t h e t hi ckened
c hromosomes di vi de l engt hwi se
i nto t wo chromati ds . t I N
METAPHASE, t h e dupl i cated
chromosomes l eave t he n u
cl eus. They arrange t hems elves
i nto pai rs across the equator of
the enl arged s pi ndl e. d l I N
ANAPHASE, one of each of t he
chromosomes pai rs , or c hroma
t i d, mi grat es to opposi t e pol es
of t he s pi ndl e. | o l TELOPHASE,
fnal stage, i s marked by l oss
of spi ndl e, di vi si on of cent ri ol e,
and di vi si on of parent cel l i nto
two i dentical daughter cel l s .
MEI OSI S
:
a . . --
4
:
a . . --

V
OR
:

MEI OSI S is shown for O cell
wi th O di pl oi d n u mber (2N) of
four chromosomes. The frst di
vi si on i nvolves t he random s hor
i ng of exactl y hal f t he nu mber
of c hromosomes between t he
daughter cel l s. I n t hi s reduc
ti on di vi si on, t he shor i ng of t he
ori gi nal chromosomes may pro
duce ei t her of two combi nat i ons
i n t he hapl oi d daughter c el l s ,
eac h of whi ch has N chromo
somes-that i s, hal f of t he ori gi
nal n umber of c hromosomes.
:+

OR
:+
a . . --

The second di vi si on occurs by
mi tosi s, in whi ch each new
daughter cel l d i vi des i nto two
f urt her hapl oi d cel l s , each al so
wi t h N c hromosomes. These form
t he gametes, or reproducti ve
cel l s, eac h of whi c h has one
c hromosome from each of t he
ori gi nal pai rs. The uni on of t wo
gametes, each of whi ch has t he
hapl oi d or N chromosome num
ber, gi ves t he , ofs pr i ng t he
ori gi nal 2N chromosome n u mber
of t he parents.
SEXUAL RE PRODUCTI ON i nvol ves a second an d di f
ferent k i nd of cel l di vi si on, cal l ed mei osi s. I n sexual l y
reproduci ng organi s ms, mei osi s is confi ned to t he tes
ti s of t he mal e and to t he ovary of t he femal e. Al l t he
other cel l s of t he body i ncrease i n n u mber by mi tos i s .
Mei osi s i nvol ves two di sti nct stages of cel l di vi si on .
59
THE PATTERNS OF I NHERI TANCE were frst demon
st rat ed by Gregor Mendel ( p. 26) wi th seven eas i l y
recogni zed charact ers i n garden peas ( si ze, shape,
col or of fowers, and so on) . I n studyi n g t hei r occur
r en ce t hrough successi ve generati ons, he di scovered
t hat characters are control l ed by factors ( now cal l ed
genes) t hat do not bl end i n t he ofs pri ng. He al so di s
covered t hat i n t he second generati on some charac
t er s, such as s hort stems, yel l ow col or , and wri n kl ed
peas , may be mas ked by others, s uch as l ong stems,
green col or , and roun d s hape. The masked features
wi l l reappear i n the t hi rd generati on. He cal l ed t hese
characters domi nant a nd recessive and concl uded
t hat t hey are i nheri ted i ndependent l y of one anot her .
THE I NHERI TED RATI O of one
character to a not her was s h own
by Mendel to be constant He
cross-pol l i nated purebred rou n d
pea pl ants ( R) wi t h purebred
wri n kl ed pea pl ants ( r ) . The F;
(frst fl i al ) generat i on peas were
al l round, but t hose i n the next
genehti on ( F
2
) i ncl uded 25 per
cent wri nkl ed, as s hown here.
RR
R
Rr
1 . Pure
Dominant
60
Pent s

|I
Go met es
F,
Ofs pr i ng
Rr
I . Pure
Recessi ve
Mendel conc l uded that eac h
pl ant had a pai r of genes for
each c h aracter, because some
pl ants ( such as t h ose of t he F; )
wi t h a domi nan t c h aract er pro
duced some ofspr i ng wi t h t he
recessi ve character. F; pl an ts
are s h own as Rr on t h e di a
gram. Purebred pl ants , al so
wi t h pai red genes , are RR or rr
Mendel reason ed t hat t h ese
pai red genes must separate to
form gamet es. At f ert i l i zat i on,
t hey u n i t e randoml y wi t h ot h er
gamet es, produc i ng a predi ct
abl e rat i o of c h aract eri s t i cs i n
t he offs pr i ng. Many f eat ures may
be i nf l uenced by mor e t han two
k i nds of cont ras t i ng c haract ers,
cal l ed al l el es , i n each gene. Con
t i n uous l y varyi ng c h aracter i s t i cs ,
l i k e hei ght , ar e account ed f or
par t l y by t hi s and part l y by t he
f ac t t hat several di fferent pai rs
of genes may cont r ol t he same
c haract er .
The gen otype of a ny orga ni s m i s i ts total compl ement
of geneti c materi a l s . The physi ca l cha racteri sti cs of an
organi sm a re cal l ed i t s phenotype. The genotype Rr
produces t h e p h en ot ype of rou n d peas .
THREE GENOTYPES-RR, Rr, ana
rr-are s hown i n pl a nt s of t he F 1
generat i on an p. 0. A pl ant wi t h
a pai r of t he sa me genes for a
part i c ul ar c haract er ( RR an d rr)
i s cal l ed homozygous_ mean i n g
"sa me pai r. " On e wi t h a pai r of
di fferent genes i n t he genotype
( Rr) i s heterozygous, or "di fferent
pai r. " Genes of t he sa me gene
pai r -R and r, f or exa mpl e, are
al l el es .
BLENDI NG OF SOME CHARAC
TERS may occ ur when one a l l el e
i s not compl et el y domi n ant over
the ot her. I n s hor t hor n cat t l e, a
red bu l l ( RR) an d a wh i t e cow
( ww) p r o d u c e h e t e r o z y g o u s
Because of t he domi nance of
some characters, organ i s ms wi th
t he same phenotype may have
di ferent genotypes. Rou n d
peas , f or exampl e, may have
genotypes of ei t her RR or R.
On l y by st udyi n g t hei r ofs pr i ng
can we di st i n gu i s h between
t h em. Homozygous ( RR) pl ant s
wi l l breed true, produc i ng al l R
ofs pri n g. Heterozygous pl an t s '
produce bot h R a n d r ofs pri n g.
ca l ves t hat are roa n ( a mi xt ure
of red a n d wh i t e h ai rs ) . Cros s
i ng a roa n bul l ( Rw) and a
roan cow ( Rw) g i ves a prob
abl e rat i o of 1 whi te, 2 roan ,
and 1 red.
61
THE LAWS OF I NHERI TANCE are demonstrated bel ow
by the i nteracti on of two di ferent characters i n stud
i es of a combi nati on of pea pl ant si ze ( T tal l ,
domi nant; and t dwarf, recessi ve) and peo shape
( R = round, domi nant; r =wri n kl ed, recessive) . Cross
i ng a pure round-seeded, tal l pl ant ( RT) wi th a pu|e
wri n kl e-seeded, dwarf pl ant ( rt) gi ves the resul ts shown.
Mendel ' s s i mpl e rati os were obtai ned by averagi ng t he
resul ts of crossi ng l arge numbers o_f de|eDl p| oDlS.
PARENTS
RrTt
MENDEL I AN RATI O
V Round-Tol l
3 Round-short
3 wri nkl ed-Tal l
wr i nkl ed-short
62
R =Round ( domi nant )
r =Wri nkl ed ( recessive )
T =Tol l ( domi nant )
t =Short ( recessive )
r RIT
TAI LS
Probabi l i ti es are of maj or i mport ance i n u n der
standi ng geneti c mechani sms. Probabi l ity i s t he l i kel i
hood of a parti cul ar event happeni ng. |f you toss O
coi n, t here is a 50 percent chance that it wi l l come
down heads. We ca n cal cul at e t he probabi l i ty of t hi s .
P i s t he probabi l i ty, i s t he total number of ways | n
whi ch t he event may occur, and U i s t he number of
ways in whi ch some other unfavorabl e event may oc-
cur.
f
P
=
g
f U .
I f we toss a coi n 1 00ti mes, i t i s j ust as l i kel y to come
down heads as i t i s tai l s for any given throw. So the
probabi l ity of t h rowi ng a head ( PH) wi l l be:
f( ---. |
P
H0O+
f| e+: 0| re. : l
50
50 50
50
! 00
0

5
I n geneti cs, gametes are compar abl e to t he coi ns,
and t he zygotes resul t i ng from t he uni on of t he
gametes are comparabl e to t he heads and tai l s. I n man,
wi th 23 pai rs of chromosomes, t here are 2'' or
8, 3 8 8, 608 di fferent combi nati ons possi bl e i n t he pro
duct i on of s per ms and eggs . Si nce any one of these
sper m may ferti l i ze any of an equal number of ki nds
of eggs from a femal e, i t i s theoreti cal l y possi bl e for
one pai r of humans to produce as many ofspri ng as
t he wor l d popu l at i on wi t hout a ny t wo bei ng i denti cal .
63
I NHERITANCE PROBABI LI TI ES ca n be cal cul ated j ust as
pr obabi l i ti es ar e cal cul ated i n fi ppi ng a coi n . Wi th
the coi n, a val ue of P_ 0. 5 means a 50/50 or a
one out of two probabi l i ty of obtai ni ng a head on
any one t h row. Si mi l arl y, t he probabi l i ty Pl of ob
tai ni ng a t ai l i s al so 0. 5. The sum of any dependent
probabi l i ti es i s al ways 1 . I n the case of t he coi ns, t hi s
can be expressed as PH _ P 1
Pr obabi l i ti es range from 0 to 1 . 0. P ~ 1 i mpl i es a
pa rti cul ar event is certai n to take pl ace. P 0 means
an event i s i mpossi bl e. The probabi l i ty of two or more
i ndependent event s occur r i ng s i mul taneousl y is gi ven
by t he product of t hei r i ndi vi dual pr obabi l i ti es, or
P ~ P1 Z P2 I n t hi s for mul a, P i s t he probabi l i ty of
t he event s occur r i ng si mul tan eousl y, P1 i s t he probabi l ity
of one event, and P2 is t he probabi l ity of t he ot her.
Someti mes a si ngl e event can have more t han one
cause. Bl ack col or, i n gui nea pi gs bel ow for exampl e,
may be produced by al l bl ack or by bl ack and whi te
al l el es, if bl ack i s domi nant. Then the probabi l i ty of such
an event ( 2 ) t hat may ar i se i n more t han one way i s
t he $UD of t he probabi l i ti es for each of i ts causes ( p
and q) . Thi s can be cal cul ated by P2 P

P
+
.
Purebred parents Purebred parents Mi xed parents
88 ( purebred bl ack ) 8b ( mi xed bl ack ) 88, Bb Wf bb ( purebred whi te )
64
Checkerboard Cal cul at i on of Possi bl e Genotypes
CHECKE RBOARD s hows met hod
f or cal cul at i ng t h e genotypes i n
offs pr i n g of t wo g u i nea pi gs
t hat are het erozygous f or bl ac k,
s h o r t h a i r. ( B = b l a c k , b =
brown , S=s hort h ai r, a n d s =
l on g hai r. ) The f ou r poss i bl e
gametes f r om eac h are ar
ranged a l ong t he s i des of t he
c hecker board. Thei r combi na
t i ons are pl otted i n t he s quares.
Si nce B and S ar e domi n a nt , a
ZYGOTES, or ferti l ized eggs,
are f or med by two i n d i vi dual
gamet es, eac h of whi c h can be
regarded as a n i ndependent
"event . " I f p i s t he probabi l i ty
of a zygote wi t h a bl ac k
c h romos ome an d q i s t he prob
abi l i ty of a zygote wi th a whi te
chromosome, p + q 1 .
A zygote wi t h one bl ack an d
on e wh i te c hromos ome may be
produced i n two ways-ei t her
pq or qp, each g i vi ng t he i den
t i cal resu
.
l t . We c an cal c ul ate
bl ac k s hort ph enot ype c an be
produced by BBSS, BbSs, BbSS,
and BBSs.
I n t he comb i nat i on, t here wi l l
be 9 bl ac k s hort s [ I BBSS, z
BbSs, 4 BbSs , an d z BBSs) , 3
brown s horts [ I b bSS a n d z
b bSs) , 3 bl ac k l ong [ I BBss and
z Bbss) , an d I brown l ong ( bbss) .
Thi s rat i o of 9. 3 3 I corresponds
to t hat of t he Hardy-We i n berg
Pr i n c i pl e, bel ow.
t he probabi l i ty of t hi s by ran
dom mat i ng i n a l ar ge popul a
t i on f r om t he for mul a t hat gi ves
t he product of the mal e cont ri
but i on ( p +q ) an d t he f emal e
cont ri but i on ( p +q) X( p +q) =
( p +q)
2
=p
2
+
2
pq +q
2
= 1
Th i s rel at i ons h i p, cal l ed t he
Har dy-Wei nberg Pri nci pl e, shows
t hat i n a l arge, s t abl e popul a
t i on, frequenci es of di feren t
genotypes are predi ctabl e an d
conservati ve from on e genera
tion to anot her.
65
THE MECHANI SM OF I NHE RI TANCE reveal ed by t he
studi es of Mendel and l at er genet i ci sts showed t hat
each i nheri ted character, s uch as seed s hape or col or
i n peas, i s cont rol l ed by a pai r of genes . One member
of each pai r ( an al l el e) i s cont ri buted by each parent .
The genes are l cated on vi si bl e rodl i ke chromosomes,
whose behavi or shows a cl ose paral l el t o t hat pre
di cted for genes ( p. 60) . We have al ready seen how
these structures di vi de i n egg and sperm for mati on and
combi ne i n ferti l i zati on. But what deter mi nes t he sex
of t he new i ndi vi dual ?
THE SEX of the ofspr i ng i s
deter mi ned by speci al i zed pai rs
of sex c hromosomes. The femal e
parent has one pai r of s i mi l ar
chromosomes (X chromosomes,
p. 56) , and t he mal e parent has
one pai r of di ssi mi l ar chromo
somes (X and Y). The di vi si on of
the chromosomes when eggs
and sper ms are produced g i ves
the eggs al l X c h romosomes an d
t h e sper m hal f X an d h al f Y
c hromosomes. The ran dom pai r
i n g i n ferti l i zat i on res u l ts i n
o|therXX(femal e) or XY( mal e).
Ot her genes , i n c l udi n g t hos e
t hat pr oduce h emophi l i a an d
some ki nds of col or bl i ndnes s ,
are l i n ked to sex c h romosomes.
These sex- l i n ked c haract ers can
be trans mi tt ed to t he ofs pr i ng
of apparent l y " nor mal " parent s.
Sex of ani mal s i s determi ned by t he sperm. I f i t con tai ns a Y
chromosome t he ofspri ng wi l l be mal e.
66
GENES cont rol i n heri tance, but what cont rol s genes?
How do t hey t rans mi t thei r compl ex genet i c i nfor mati on
from one generat i on to anot her ?
Chemi cal an al ys i s of c hromosomes has s hown t hat
t hey cons i st of fou r basi c compounds : two protei ns,
one wi t h a rel ati vel y l ow mol ecul ar wei ght an d t he
ot her much hi gher, pl us two n ucl ei c aci ds, deoxyr i bo
nucl ei c aci d ( DNA) and r i bonucl ei c aci d ( RNA) . The
combi nat i on of t hese fou r mol ecul es for ms chromatin,
t he "stuff" of whi ch c hromosomes a re made. DNA
carri es and cont rol s genet i c i nfor mat i on .
DNA was f i rst s us pect ed t o be
t he "bas i c component" of genes
when i t was di scovered t hat t he
nuc l ei of bot h reproduct i ve and
body c el l s of any part i c ul ar spe
ci es conta i ned i dent i cal amounts
of DNA for eac h c h romosome
set
.
On e st ra i n of t he bact e
r i u m Pneumococcus cou l d be
t ran sfor med i nto a not her by i n
fect i n g i t wi t h a pur i f i ed ext ract
from dead cel l s of t he second
st rai n . The "t ra n sf or med" strai n
br ed t r ue, an d t he ext ract was
l at er i den t i f i ed as DNA. Thi s
non l i vi n g DNA f r om a s econd
st ra i n t heref or e had t he abi l i t y
to t r an sform t he hered i t ary mec h
an i s m of bacter i a c el l s . S i mi l ar
t ran sfor mat i on s i n duced i n ot h er
bacter i a s how t hat genes ar e
composed of DNA.
The genetic transformation of Poeumococcus Type I I cel l s i nto Type
I l l ce| l s by the addition of an extract from dead Type I | | cel ls.
nutri ent, pl us
Type I I cel l s
steri l e nutri ent
EXPERI MENTAL CULTURE
t ype I l l
cel l s added
t ype I l l cel l s added
CONTROL CULTURE
type I I cel l s
transform to t ype I l l
no col oni es
67
THE CHEMICAL KEY TO INHERITANCE IS DNA ( de
oxyri bonucl ei c aci d) , whi ch control s heredi ty by regu
l ati ng i nstructi ons of growt h and form from cel l to cel l
and from parent to ofspri ng. DNA i s present i n al l l iv
i ng creatures.
I n structure, the DNA mol ecul e i s O doubl e hel i x, re
sembl i ng a l adder that has been repeatedl y twi sted.
Each r ung of t hi s mol ecul ar l adder i s made up of a
pai r or two from four chemi cal bases-adeni ne, thy
mi ne, guani ne, and cystosi ne. The si ze and structure of
these bases is such that each " rung pai r" al ways con
si sts of ei ther adeni ne and thymi ne or of guani ne and
cystosi ne. I t i s the sequence of t he pai rs i n the rungs
that provi des t he code by whi ch growth i nstructi ons are
trans mitted. From these four basi c code substances, an
al most i nfni te vari ety of sequences can devel op.
The porti on of a DNA mol ecul ar model here shows t hat each rung
of t he hel i x l adder i s bui l t of a pai r of chemi cal bases.

ty8M8ho
goon| oe
o
ModeI
MP N06Lv0
The spl i tt i ng of a DNA l adder and t he recombi nat i on of t he un
zi pped r ungs wi t h appropri atel y ftti ng new base un i ts, i dent i cal
to t hei r ori gi nal partners on t he rung, produces t wo new mol e
cul es. Hal f of each new mol ecul e is deri ved from t he ori gi nal
parent mol ecul e.
DNA cont rol s g rowth b
y
havi ng the uni que abi l i t
y
to unzi p down t he mi ddl e of t he mol ecul ar l adder,
thus freei ng the pai red ends of each chemi cal rung.
The exposed compounds then l i nk up wi th si mi l ar new
units that are derived from the organi s m' s food sup
pl y. As t he spl i t of t he mol ecul ar l adder conti nues,
each hal f bui l ds an exact repl i ca of i tsel f by thi s l i nk
age. The ri gi d sequence of pai ri ng i s preserved by t he
ft of the ori gi nal structure. I n t hi s way t he DNA mol e
cul e can reproduce i tsel f over and over agai n.
69
PROTEI N MANUFACTURE. RNA ( ri bon ucl ei c aci d ) h as
a structure muc h l i ke that of DNA. Unl i ke DNA, how
ever, it is not confned to the cel l n ucl eus . It is t he es
senti al messenger i n the manufacture of protei ns by
cel l s. Protei ns are i nvol ved i n every body process . They
form the basi c materi al of l i vi ng organi s ms . They are
very l arge mol ecul es, made up of vari ous combi nati ons
of 20 essenti al ki nds of ami no aci ds.
RNA i s man ufactured from DNA, from whi ch i t di f
fers i n havi ng one more oxygen atom i n i ts sugar
( ri bose) and i n havi ng uraci l i nstead of thymi ne i n t he
mol ecul ar structure. Sl i ghtl y di ferent " messenger " RNA
mol ecul es cont rol t he manufacture of each of the many
ki nds of protei n . Each is i mpri nted wi th a coded tem
pl ate of i ts struct ure. Sel ected ami no aci ds are t hen
t agged by sti l l ot her di sti ncti ve "tr ansfer " RNA mol e
cul es, each i mpri nted wi t h a structure t hat enabl es i t
t o br i ng t he parti cul ar ami no aci d t o t he messenger
templ ate. When these ami no aci ds are arranged and
combi ned i n correct sequence, RNA may separate from
newl y produced protei n and perform its tas k agai n .
The mes senger RNA bar carri es t he code, whi l e each of t hree
s ma l l er component s of t he RNA u n i t is st ruct ured to accept a par
t i cul ar ami n o aci d s hape. I n t he bac kground is a DNA hel i x.
Transf er RNA un i ts l ocate ( Lef t ) and trans port t hei r ( Ri gh t ) vari
ous ami no aci ds toward t he coded RNA templ at e bar.
Transfer RNA u ni ts u n i te wi t h O
messenger u n i t opposi t e t hei r
pai red par t ner compounds, so
arranged as to bui l d an a mi no
aci d s equenc e i nto a part i cul ar
protei n mol ecul e.
The new protei n mol ecul e
construct ed f r om a sequence of
ami no aci ds, separates f r om t he
RNA. Most protei ns consi st of
h u ndreds of a mi no ac i d un i ts
that are a rranged toget her.
7 1
WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF VARI ABI LITY? l fgeneti c
equi l i bri um i n any popul ati on i s so conservative, how
does change ever take pl ace? How coul d evol uti on i n
pl ants and ani mal s occur? What are the sources of
vari ati ons i n pl ants and ani mal s?
No two i ndivi dual s are ever exactl y al i ke. These
i ndivi dual di ferences are as recogn i zabl e i n dogs or
i n gol dfs h as t hey are i n man. Some di ferences are
acqui red dur i ng l i fe through behavior or from t he en
vi ron ment . Di eti ng, or l ack of i t , i nfuences wei ght . Res
pi ratory di seases may be produced by s moki ng or by
l i vi ng i n a pol l uted at mosphere. But many i ndi vi dual
characteri sti cs are heredi tary, not envi ronmental . These
i ncl ude such physi cal features as eye col or, compl ex
i on, col or bl i ndness, and hei ght . How do t hese di f
ferences ari se?
Vari at i ons of t hi s ki nd are produced i n two ways :
by a s hufi ng and redi stri buti on of genes duri ng re
producti on ( recombi nati on} and by spontaneous
changes i n gene structure l eadi ng t o n ew characteri s
ti cs ( mutati on} .
Crowd scene i l l ust rates vari abi l i t y of our own speci es.
RECOMBI NATI ON i s the chi ef source of var i ati on. I t
may occu r ei t her by a s i mpl e recombi nat i on of the
chromosomes when ferti l i zati on between parents takes
pl ace or by a crossi ng-over that i nvol ves an exchange
of genet i c materi al between chromosomes . Recombi na
ti on i nvol ves t he format i on of new genotypes by the
res h ufi ng of exi st i n g ones ( p. 64 ) . I n organ i s ms t hat
reproduce asexual l y, much l ess potent i al vari at i on i s
possi bl e t han i n those that reproduce sexual l y. Th i s
has put an evol uti onary " premi u m" on sexua l repro
ducti on . Sexua l reproduct i on i s the maj or source of
the wi de var i at i on i n pl a nt a n d an i mal speci es .
CROSSI NG-OVER of chromo
somes somet i mes takes pl ace
duri ng mei osi s, t he format i on
of sex cel l s. Thi s resul ts from
c hromosome strands st i c ki ng to
get her so t hat an exchange of
genes takes pl ace between
chromosome pai rs. Where t hese
chromosomes are j oi ned and the
exchanges occur are cal l ed
chiasmata. Eac h cross-over dou
bl es t he n u mber of ki nds of
gametes and modi fes the l i n k
age of genes, t hus provi di ng an
i mportant source of vari abi l i ty.
I n the i l l ustrati on of cross i ng
over bel ow, d i ferent col ors rep
resent di ferent genes.
CROSSI NG-OVER
73
Horned HereIord Po| | ed HereIord
Pol l ed Hereford cat t l e l ack horns because of t he efects of mu tat i on
of a gene whi c h regul ates horn secreti on.
MUTATI ONS are changes i n genet i c materi al that
produce new characteristi cs. The change may be obvi
ous ( as exampl es, wi ng for m i n fi es, hornl ess pol l ed
Hereford cattl e, short- l egged Ancon sheep, or doubl e
fowers) , or i t may be an i nconspi cuous and subtl e
chemi cal and physi ol ogi cal di ference. Parti cul ar genes
may mutate i n more t han one way, and many can re
verse the di recti on of change . . Each gene has a di s
ti nctive mutati on rate. Some wi l l mutate only once per
mi l l i on gametes, for exampl e, whi l e others undergo
mutati ons more than 00 ti mes as frequentl y. The rate
of mutati on can be i nfuenced by vari ous factors, such
as temperature changes, radi ati on, and chemi cal sti m
ul ants . Conspi cuous mutati ons are more often harmful
to t he organi sm t han are t he s mal l er ones.
Mutati on seems t o be caused by sl i ght i mperfections
i n the sel f-copyi ng chemi cal structures of the DNA
mol ecul es that make up the genes. They may afect the
number and structures of the DNA mol ecul es of the
genes. They may al so afect the number and structure
of chromosomes. Occasi onal l y the chromosomes divi de
but t he cel l does not, resul ti ng i n a whol e new set of
chromosomes ( pol ypl oi dy) . The new mutants breed true
and do not revert to the ori gi nal type.
74
GENETI C DRIF was di scovered by t he American
geneticist Sewal l Wri ght, who studi ed the mathematics
of popul ati on geneti cs. The gene pool-that i s, the
total gene contri buti on of a parti cul ar popul ati o,n to its
ofspri ng-i s greatl y i nfuenced by the si ze of t he pop
u| Of On . I n very s mal l popul ati ons, such as those i so
l ated from thei r parent group, chance pl ays rel ativel y
a much greater rol e i n produci ng geneti c change,
someti mes l eadi ng to non- adaptive changes. Al though
the real ity of geneti c drift has been confrmed i n l ab
oratory experi ments, i ts rol e i n evol uti on i s sti l l not
cl ear. I t may be of some i mportance i n smal l popul a
ti ons that l ater i ncrease i n si ze and may account for
some of the puzzl i ng, persistent non- adaptive or neu
tral changes observed i n diversifed wi l d popul ations.
Vari abi l i ty t hus ari ses from four possi bl e sources
recombi nati on, crossi ng-over, mutati on, and geneti c
dri ft. Of these, recombi nati on is by far t he most i m
portant . Once i t was thought that vari abi l ity al one
coul d produce evol uti onary change, wi thout ai d from
additi onal factors . Statisti cal anal ysi s showed, how
ever, that onl y natural sel ecti on coul d account for t he
perpetuati on and refnement of t he endl ess adapta
ti ons shown by l i vi ng t hi ngs. Vari abi l ity i s not the
whol e of t he evol uti onary reci pe, but i t i s t he essenti al
raw materi al on whi ch everythi ng el se depends.
75
I SOLATI ON of gene pool s
d
i st i ngui shes speci es from
races and demes, whi ch are popul at i ons capabl e of
i nterbreedi ng when t hey come i nto contact . The de
vel opment of i sol at i on between once i nterbreedi ng
groups i s an i mportant factor i n evol uti on . Once i so
l at ed, each popul ati on wi l l undergo i ndepen dent,
gr adual geneti c change unt i l it i s no l onger compati bl e
wi t h t he grou p wi th whi ch i t once i nterbred. Si nce cl i
matic and ecol ogi c conditi ons undergo sl ow changes,
there i s a dynami c i ntera.cti on between them and spe
ci es di stri bution . Many now- di vi ded ranges of speci es
refect i sol ati on of ori gi nal l y wi despread popul at i ons .
I sol at i on may ar i s e i n di ffer ent ways . I t may be geo
gr aph i c, as i n s ome i s l and popul at i ons ( p. I | . Rel at ed
speci es t hat do not over l ap i n t er r i t or y are cal l ed al
l opat r i c; t hos e t h at do, sympat ri c . Genet i c i s ol at i on
may ari s e between ei t h er ki nd of popul at i on . I t may
i nvol ve ecol ogi cal , behavi or al , mor phol og i cal , or phys
i ol ogi cal di ffer ences , a ny of whi ch may pr event mat i n g.
Even i f mat i ng does t ak e pl ace, var i ous i nt er n al cel l u
l ar or devel opmental bar r i er s may prevent fert i l i zat i on
or produce nonvi a bl e, wea k or st eri l e hybri ds .
GEOGRAPH I C
I SOLATI ON i s
s hown bel ow i n s c hemat i c for m :
( A) wi des pread s peci es wi t h n o
geograph i c var i at i on, (B) di f fer
ent popu l at i ons devel op i n ex
t remes of ra nges, ( C) part i al
geograph i c bar r i er devel ops ,
( D) barri er becomes O total pre
ventati ve to i n ter breedi ng of
two popul Ot i ons @ ( E) cu mu l ati ve
genet i c di ferences become so
great t hat genet i c s epar at i on
produces two speci es, even i f
t he bar r i er i s el i mi n at ed.
MI GRATI ON of popul ati ons i nto new areas may l ead
to permanent col oni zati on . I n some cases, di ferent
areas may have very cl osel y s i mi l ar cl i mates and ter
rai ns but be separated by such barri ers as oceans,
deserts, or mountai ns . Over l ong peri ods, a few i n
di vi dual s may cross these barri ers and become estab
l i shed i n thei r new envi ronment. The new col ony wi l l
i nterbreed i n i sol at i on from t he parent popul ati on and
may i n t i me devel op i nto a new speci es.
Some of t he greatest transformati ons i n the hi story
of l i fe have ari sen by mi grati on. These i ncl ude t he col
oni zati on of t he l and by pl ants and ani mal s.
I NTERCONTI NENTAL
MI GRA
TI ON of some Pl ei s tocene mam
mal s is s hown h ere. Asi a and
North Ameri ca were periodi
cal l y j oi ned by t he Beri ng
Strai t s. The "fl ter" efect of
t hese i s l and con n ecti ons con
f ned s ome mammal s ( ci rcl ed )
to t hei r ori gi nal conti nents .
( After Kay and Col bert. )
NATURAL SELECTI ON is t he second maj or component
of t he evol ut i onary process. Left t o t hemsel ves, l arge
an d randoml y i nt er breedi ng popul ati ons wi l l move to
ward geneti c equi l i br i um ( p. 5| , Nat u ral sel ecti on i s
t he net resul t of al t t he physi cal an d bi ol ogi cal envi ron
mental factors t hat t end t o di st urb t hi s equi l i br i um an d
change a popul ati on' s gen e pool . Nat ur al sel ecti on does
not i t sel f c reate new vari ati ons; i t sel ects, wi nnows, an d
pr eserves exi sti ng vari at i ons . The genet i c components of
a popul at i on deter mi ne what i t may become; sel ect i on
deter mi nes what i t wi l l become. I n heri tance provi des i t
wi t h i ts potent i al ; sel ecti on transfor ms potenti al t o
actual i ty.
THE ACTI ON of natural se
[
ec
ti on depends on t he tendency
of al l speci es to produce more
ofspri ng t han can normal l y sur
vi ve ( p. 24) i n an envi ron ment
of l i mited capaci ty. Better
adapted organi sms wi l l l ive
l onger than the l ess wel l adapt
ed, hence produce a greater
number of descendants. The
descendant popul ati on wil l i n
cl ude an i ncreas i ngly l arge pro
porti on of i ndivi dual s t hat have
i nherited favorabl e features
from t hei r parents.
Natural sel ecti on is rarely a
"struggl e for exi stence" be-
fWeeh fW0 compet ng i ndivid
ual s. fedol0h ohd dfecf c0m-
Qeff0h ofe 0h
[
y fW0 0
many factors i nvol ved, i ncl ud
i ng such ot her t hi ngs as mo
bi l ity, physi ol ogi cal and struc
tural efci ency, resistance to
di sease, and sexual vi gor.
Natural sel ection produces
di ferenti al reproductioh. |t is
the "surival of the fttest" only
in the sense that t he fttest
produce more ofspri ng. In ef
fect, i t not only el i mi nates t he
l ess wel l adapted characteris
tics but al so produces posi tive
resu l ts.
Strong bu l l-many ofs pri ng Weak bu l l-no ofspri ng
bLbM FKbKb varies
from season to season and from
place to place. It is i nfuenced
by such fuctuati ng factors as
cl i mate, popul ati on si ze, food
supply, and mi grati on. Sel ection
general ly does not lead to l ong
term stabi l ity because so many
of these and other factors un
dergo more or l ess conti nuous
change and are rei nforced by
such maj or changes as col oniza
ti on of a new envi ron ment, iso
I Qti on, or change in the existi ng
geography of an area.
Natural sel ection does not
operate as a steam- roUer efect
on one character, but as O
subtl e series of i nteracti ng
"compromi ses" t hat afect t he
Carn ivore
whole organi sm and may i nfu
ence many diferent characteri s
tics. Sel ection is a cumulative
process. Even over a s hort pe
riod, its efects can be s ubstan
tial ( p. 84) . Over l ong periods
its efects can be enormous.
The i ncreasi ng adaptation of
a popul ati on to i ts envi ronment
is the resul t of natural sel ecti on.
Each ni che is general ly fl l ed
by only a si ngl e species, but
a number of species may share
the same area by thei r various
adaptations to specifc food
suppl ies or to habi tats. The bet
ter adapted l eave more of
spri ng, gradual l y changi ng the
character of the descendant
population.
Contrasti ng efects of mutation
( B) and natural sel ection ( C)
are shown on a "normal " dis
tri bution curve ( A) of a char
acter in a l arge popul ati on.
( After Hardi n. )
79
PROOF OF NATURAL SELECTION come | ong ofter
Darwi n presented t he theory i n The Origin of 5pe-
cies. Darwi n compared i t with artifci al domesti c
sel ection and demonstrated i ts probabl e causes an d
apparent efects, but t he process itsel f h ad not been
demonstrated. Many l aboratory studies have si nce
been conducted t hat i l l ustrate both the operati on and
the efects of natural sel ection . I n these, the bi ol ogi st
attempts to dupl i cate and to isol ate certai n natural en
vi ronments and t o anal yze thei r i nteracti ng processes.
I N MI CE an c other wi l d an i
mal s, col or changes are often
cl osel y associ at ed wi t h t he pre
domi nant col or of t he back
grou nd soi l and vegetat i on
where t he ani mal s l i ve. I n
Fl or i da, for exa mpl e, t h e deer
mouse (Peromyscus maniculatusJ
shows a cont i nuous col or t ran si
t i on from very l i ght on t he coral
sand of i sl and reefs to dark i n
i n l an d areas of darker soi l .
I s t hi s t he res ul t of n atural
sel ecti on ?
Researchers worked wi t h two
col or vari et i es-gray and buf.
Two cont rast i ng backgrou nds
were set up i n a l arge dar k
ened cage. The s oi l i n t he cages
more or l ess mat ched t he col or
of each of t he shades of mi ce.
Ei ght mi ce, four of each col or,
were exposed to a bar n owl for
1 5 mi nutes. The backgrou nds
were al t ernat ed wi t h eac h ex
per i ment . After 88 exper i
ment s, " i t was fou nd t hat t he
owl had t aken 1 07 of t he " non
matc hi ng" mi ce and on l y 2 of
t he better conceal ed ones. Thi s
s hows how powerful a sel ecti ve
factor protecti ve background
col orati on can be, even over a
s hort peri od.
Z Matchi ng
Non- matchi ng
. ..
. ..
8
f
.

..

..

8
8
. .

A
L
D
Vi abi l ity of seven strai ns (A-G) of homozygous 0rosoph||o frui t
fi es wi th del et eri ous genes, before and after t he experi ment
descri bed bel ow. The vi abi l ity i s shown as of nor mal vi abi l ity
( 1 00%) . Bl ack col u mns i ndi cat e t he vi abi l i ty before t he exper i ment;
the red col u mns , vi abi l ity of untreated stocks after 50 genera
t i ons; t he yel l ow col u mns , of stocks i r radi ated wi t h X- rays after
50 generat i ons. (After Dobzhans ky and Spass ky.)
POORLY ADAPTED ANIMALS
are rarel y fou n d i n nat ure, but
t he efect of nat ura l sel ect i on
upon such poorl y adapted
forms can be observed under
experi ment al condi t i ons. Dobz
hans ky and Spassky rai s ed sam
pl es o f t he frui t f y Drosophi la
t hat were homozygous for
seven di ferent c hromosome
combi nat i ons ( A-G) . Eac h was
associ ated wi t h some abnor
mal ity s uch as retarded devel
opment or defor med wi ngs ,
l egs , and abdomens-t hat re
su l ted i n a l ow vi abi l i ty.
Each of t hese stocks was
rai sed for ffty generat i ons and
kept i n crowded c u l t ure bott l es
t o i ncrease s el ect i on pressure.
The popul at i ons were s ampl ed
at regu l ar i n terval s to s t udy t he
chromosomes of representati ve
i ndi vi dual s. I n most cases, there
was a rapi d and marked de
cl i ne i n the abundance of t he
del et eri ous combi nat i ons . The
experi ment i ncl uded exposu re
of one sampl e of each stock t o
X- ray radi ati on, but t h ese pro
duced no s i gn i fcant di feren ces.
Of t he 1 4 st ocks, 1 1 s howed
marked i n creas e i n vi abi l i ty, 2
decl i ned i n vi abi l i ty, an d 1 re
mai ned unc hanged. Of the con
t rol groups, u n mi xed wi t h t he
stronger nat ural popul at i ons, 8
showed a mar ked det eri orat i on ,
were u n changed or s howed
onl y sl i ght i mprovements.
8 1
NATURL POPULATI ONS a re a l so studi e
d
to deter
mi n e the efects of natural sel ecti on . One exampl e is
how natural sel ect i on mi ght have produced the .di fer
ences that exi st between the vari ous ki nds of Darwi n' s
fnches on t he Gal apagos I sl an ds |p. 1 8 ) . Typi ca l
fnches, s uch as s parrows a n d cardi na l s, h ave s t ron g
con i ca l beak s t hat are used t o cr ush seeds . But t he Ga

l apagos f nches show a great vari ety of beaks . Some

are stout a n d con i cal , ot hers s l ender, a n d sti l l ot h ers
adapt ed for qui te di feren t di ets .
Thi s di versi ty was probabl y
produced by the presence of
many vacant ecol ogi cal ni c hes
when t he fn ches frst beca me
establ i shed on t he Gal apagos.
I ncreas i ng n u mber s of bi rds
feedi ng on a l i mi ted seed s up
pl y provi ded t he sel ecti ve pres
s ure t hat favored t hose t hat
coul d exi st on new food.
DARWI N' S FI NCH ES ( GAL APAGOS I SLANDS )
Z
The grou nd- l ovi ng f nches re
tai ned t hei r seed- eat i ng habi ts,
al t hough i ndi vi dual s peci es
show marked vari at i on i n beak
proport i ons t hat seem rel ated
to parti cul ar types of seed
preferences. Ot her f nches
t urned to ki nds of food and
habi ts t hat are c haract eri st i c of
speci es of other fami l i es on
t he cont i nents. Some beca me
tree-dwel l ers, i nc l udi ng types
that are war bl er l i ke i n secti vores
and ot hers t hat are parrot l i ke
vegetar i ans. Sti l l others beca me
speci al i zed for feedi ng on
cacti . An i nsecti vore devel oped
a st rong beak t hat i t. uses t o
bore i nto bark. Lacki ng t he l ong
tongue of true woodpeckers ( p.
42| , i t uses a cact us spi ne t o
extract t he i nsects from t he bur
rows.
Al l fn ches are rat her s i mi l ar
i n t hei r general s i ze an d have
dul l pl u mage, probabl y because
of t he dar k vol can i c roc ks t hat
out crop over muc h of t hei r ter
ri tor.
The Gal apagos fn ches prob
abl y arose from an ancestral
Sout h Ameri can form, but t hey
now di fer so g reat l y from al l
exi st i ng mai nl and f nches t hat
t hei r ancestry can not be recog
n i zed. Thi s mar ked di ference
suggests t hat t he f nches
reached t he i s l ands earl i er t han
other speci es, whi ch are muc h
c l os er t o t he mai n l an d for ms.
The ancestral fn ches pres um
abl y reac hed t he i s l ands by be
i ng "acci dental l y" carri ed t here,
perhaps ai ded by oceani c cur
ren ts . I t seems most u n l i kel y
t hat t he Gal apagos I s l ands were
ever j oi ned to t he mai n l a

d.
I n cont rast t o t he di versi ty
of t he Gal apagos fnc hes, Davi d
Lack has s hown t hat i n t he
nei ghbori ng Cocos I sl an d t here
i s onl y a s i ngl e speci es of fnc h,
al t hough t he i sl an d provi des
var i ed habi tats and l acks many
ot her typi cal s peci es of con
t i nent al bi rds. Thi s seems t o re
s ul t from the s i ngl e i s l and of
Cocos l acki n g the n u mbers of
s mal l , i sol at ed envi ronments t hat
are provi ded by t he arc h i pel ago
nat ure of t he Gal apagos I s
l ands . ( See map p. 1 9 )
Tool-us i ng Fi nch
(Aa:o,ausa|||J as)
NATURAL SEL ECTI ON I N ACTI ON is s hown by t he
peppered mot h ( p. 47| , whi ch i s an exampl e of a
speci es t hat has s hown a stri k i ng change i n t he fre
quency of a dar k ( mel ani c) form i n the l ast cent ury.
Thi s mot h was wel l known to t he many amat eur
entomologi sts i n Br i tai n i n t he ea rl y years of t he 1 9t h
cent u ry. Unt i l 1 845, i t was known on l y i n t he "pep
per ed" for m, whi ch has dar k mark i ngs on a l i g ht wi ng
backgrou n d. I n t hat year, a dar k for m was di scovered
i n t he i ndust ri al ci ty of Manchester. At that ti me t he
dark for m made up l ess t han 1 per cent of t he total
popul ati on. Wi thi n fi fty years i t made u p 99 per cent
of t he popul at i on i n t he Manchester area. The bl ack
mot h i s now t he predomi nant form over much of Engl and,
and t he ori gi nal peppered for m i s abundant onl y i n
non- i ndust ri al areas where pol l ut i on has not bl ackened
t he t rees on whi ch t he mot h l i ves . I n s ome of t he non
i ndust r i al easter n areas of t he cou nt ry where heavy s mog
i s car r i ed i n, t he bl ack for m al so domi nates t he not h
popul ati on .
Recent st udi es i n Manc hester
and other i ndust ri al ci ti es where
st ri ngent ant i - pol l ut i on ordi
nances h ave been enforced,
h ave s h own a reversal of t he
trend towar ds darker for ms ,
and a s l ow but marked i n
crease i n abundance of t he
l i ghter peppered forms .
PEPPERED MOTH DI STRI BUTI ON
I N BRI TAI N
( red ) Maj or i ndus tr i al ci t i es
o ( wh i te ) l i ght form predomi
n an t
( bl ack ) dar k form predomi
nant
( gray ) i n ter medi at e popu
l at i on
84
I NDUSTRI AL MELNI SM (the
predomi nance of dar k vari eti es)
i s al so s hown by about 70
other speci es of mot hs i n
Europe. I n the Uni ted States, the
Pi ttsburgh regi on s hows a com
parabl e predomi nance of once
rare bl ack forms i n al most 1 00
speci es of mot hs.
The cause of i ndust ri al mel
an i s m l i es i n t he i nteracti on of
a domi nant gene, produci ng t he
bl ack mutati on, and nat ur al se
l ect i on. H. B. D. Kettl ewel l has
demonstrated t he i mportance of
nat ural sel ect i on by studyi ng
rates of bi rd predat i on on t he
two forms of t he peppered
moth . He rel eased known n u m
bers of marked mot hs of each
f or m i n t wo areas and an
al yzed t he n u mber of each
f or m t hat he recaptured by at
tract i ng t hem to a l i ght at
ni ght . I n t he i ndustri al Bi r mi ng
ham area, where t he l ocal pop
ul ati on has 90 percent bl ack
forms, he rel eased 477 bl ack
and 1 37 l i ght i ndi vi dual s . He
recaptured 40 percent of t he
bl ack for ms but onl y 1 9 percent
of t he peppered.
I n t he un pol l uted coastal area
of Dorset, from al most 1 ,000 of
t he two col ors of mot hs re
l eased, 6 percent of the bl ack
and 1 2. 5 percen t of t he l i ght
forms were recaptured. So i n
pol l uted ar eas, t he bl ack- whi te
recapture rat i o was 2 : 1 . I n u n
pol l uted a reas i t was exactl y
reversed-1 : 2 .
I n both areas, caref ul ob
servati on and f l mi ng of bi rds
eati ng t he mot hs from tree
tru n ks confr med that t hese
rat i os were t he resu l ts of rel a
t i ve predati on.
85
FOSSI LS al s o demonst rate the efects of natural se
l ecti on. B. Kurten has shown i ts efects i n the European
cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) t hat i nhabi ted norther n Eu
rope dur i ng t he Pl ei stocene. Kurten col l ected fossi l s
from caves i n t he Odessa regi on of t he U. S. S. R. By
compar i ng these wi th s kel etons of the cl osel y rel at ed
l i vi ng bear (Ursus arctos), he was abl e to di vi de each
of t he fossi l popul ati ons i nto growth stages. The fossi l s
from al l l ocal i ti es showed strong separati on i nto s i mi l ar,
yearl y growth stages, probabl y because t he caves i n
whi ch they were col l ected were i nhabi ted onl y duri ng
an nual " h i ber nati on. " The anal ysi s of t hese growth
stages demonstrates the efects of nat ural sel ecti on .
YOUNGEST STAGES of t he cave
bear eq u al i n si ze to newborn
cubs of l i vi n g bears . are rare,
probabl y because of the f ragi l
i ty of t he bones. The most
abundant growt h st age has a l l
t h e per manent t eet h devel oped,
equi val ent to about 4 or 5
mont hs i n l i vi ng bears, s uggest
i ng bi rt h dur i ng t he peri od of
wi nter dor man cy, but a h i gh
mortal i ty of c u bs toward t h e
end of t hi s t i me. The next
growth st age i s 1. 4 year s, i n
di cat i n g t he next a n n ual " hi
ber nat i on . " At 4 years, bears
were f ul l y grown . Li fe expecta
t i on at bi rt h was about 3. 5
year s; maxi mu m age, 1 8 years.
Di vi di ng t he total n u mber of
i n di vi dua l s i n a given age
group by the s u m of these and
a l l ol der i n di vi dual s gi ves t h e
mortal i ty i n dex f or t he group.
P l ei stocene Cave bear
8
000
00

! 00 0
- Man
-
Cave bear
.
00 200 J00 4000
Age i n % devi ati on from meon l ongevi ty
Survi vors h i p curves from bi rt h
for cave bears and man , s how
i ng t he s i mi l ari ty of t he curves .
( After Kurten . )

24 2 28 J0 J2
Mol ar M' Paracone I ndex
Sel ecti on press ure on form of
paracone of secon d mol ar teeth
of cave bear i s i n di cated by
reduct i on of var i at i on an d de
vel opment of a rel ati vel y s mal l
er paracon e wi t h i n creasi n g
age. ( Aft er Kurten . )
Mol ar M'
of Cave bear
TEETH of fossi l cave bears are very sen si ti ve t o n at ural
sel ecti on, because survival depends on successful feed
i ng pri or to h i bernat i on. Kurten studi ed t he form
of t he second mol ar teeth (M2) . The rat i o 1 OOx t he
l engt h of t he l argest cusp ( paracone) to t he total l engt h
of t he second mol ar showed a si gni fcant change, be
comi ng s mal l er wi th i ncreasi ng age. The you nger age
groups were far more vari abl e tha n the ol der, but
for ms wi t h l ess wel l - adapted teeth were el i mi nated.
Ol der tooth meas urements gave compar abl e resul t s.
Sampl es from other caves gave s i mi l ar but not i dent i cal
resul ts, suggesti ng di ferences i n sel ecti ve pressure
between di ferent l ocal envi ronmental ni ches i n whi ch
the bears l i ved.
87
PPLM i s t he cont i nui ng resu| t of nat ural
sel ecti on. Many organi sms are very preci sel y adapted
to parti cul ar ni ches or to parti cul ar ways of l i fe. The
bi rds of Hawai i provi de a cl assi c i l l ustrati on of how an
ancestral group becomes adapted t o speci al ni ches i n
a new envi ronment . Hawai i cons ists of a group of i so
l ated vol can i c i sl ands si tuated i n the mi d- Paci fc . Li ke
most oceani c is l ands, t he number of l and bi rds i s s mal l .
The hi gh degree of speci al i zat i on of s ome of t he bi rds
makes t hem vul ner abl e t o envi ronment al change.
L OBEL I A
SI CKLEBI LLS, or drepani di ds ,
are a fa mi l y of bi rds fou nd onl y
i n Hawai i . L i ke Darwi n ' s f nches
i n t he Gal apagos I s l ands ( p.
8 3 ) , t hey h ave adapted t hem
sel ves to a wi de di ver s i ty of
condi t i ons. The ori gi nal for ms
see m to h ave f ed on t he i n
sects and nect ar of s hortbel l ed
fowers. They probabl y had
88
Kouoi okepo
uowo| | o\| o| eo
(na| qot|ese|s:ees ebs:ees)
s hort, s l ender beaks. Ot her
for ms s how di versi ty of adapta
t i ons to di ferent d i ets, i nc l ud
i n g s ome wi t h remar kabl y l ong,
cured beaks f or feedi n g on
t he l ong, t ubul ar fowers of
t he Hawai i an l obel i a. Some of
t he vari ous for ms of s i ckl ebi l l s
are i l l ustrated. Ni ne of t he zz
known speci es are now ext i nct .
Pseudonestor
Psittirostra kona
Hemi gnathus obs c urus procerus
Hemi gnathus lucidus
Probabl e evol ut i on of one group of drepa ni di ds from
an ancestor, poss i bl y s i mi l ar to t he Honeyeat er ( p. 8 8 )
i s s hown above. Drepani di d beaks s how adopt i on to
var i ous di ets . Hemignat hus obscurus uses i ts el ongated
beak chi efl y to probe for i nsects i n bar k cavi ti es, al
t hough ot her s peci es us e t hei r l ong "s i ckl e- bi l l s " chi efl y
to pr obe l obel i a fl owers for nectar . The now ext i nct H.
lucidus had a s hort l ower mandi bl e, whi ch i s r educed
even further i n H. wilsoni, whi ch uses i t, woodpecker
fas hi on, as a c h i s el . The l ong t ubul ar ton gues of i nsect
eati ng s peci es refl ect t hei r devel opment from n ecta r
feedi ng for ms . Pseudonestor has a par rot l i ke bi l l , whi l e
seed-eati n g speci es, s uch as Psittirostra kona, have heavy
fi nch- l i ke beaks .
89
MI MI CRY i s rel at i vel y common i n i nsects and i n
some fowers . I n i nsects i t seems to have ari sen chi efy
for defense; in fowers, for pol l i nati on . The i nfuence of
natural sel ecti on i n the devel opment of mi mi cry is
shown by the di stri buti on of mi mi c speci es onl y i n
areas where t hei r model s are common. Where the
model s are abundant, the mi mi cs show greater vari
abi l ity, whi ch can be expl ai ned only by assumi ng t hat
t he l ower predator fami l i ari ty wi t h t he model s i n such
areas has produced l ower sel ecti on pressure on t he
mi mics. Devel opment of mi mics depends not on "acci
dental " paral l el mutati ons but on a seri es of i nteracti ng
genes t hat have undergone strong sel ecti on.
THE SLI PPER ORCHI D of Europe
and the Mi ddl e East emits a
perfume that attracts a wasp
whi ch pol l i nates i t. Other re
l ated Ophrys orchi ds have
bri ght, i nsect l i ke fowers t hat
ai d i n attracti ng mal e wasps.
I NSECTS h ave devel oped var
i ous protective s hapes and col
ors . The har ml ess bumbl ebee
mot h, for exampl e, i s a mi mi c
of t he sti ngi ng bumbl ebee. The
treehoppers bel ow l ook l i ke
thorns.
Treehopper on
rose st em
Ophrys orchi d
an d pol l i n at i ng
wasp
90
SEXUAL
SELECTI ON i s t he s um of vari ous characters
by whi ch one partner, general l y the mal e, of a spe
cies attracts a mate and repel s ri val s of the same sex.
Si nce i t i ncreases the i ndi vi dual ' s reproductive produc
tivity, it consti tutes a di sti nct ki nd of sel ecti on . El abo
rate mal e pl umage and song i n bi rds, courts hi p di s
pl ays, more i ntense mal e col orati on, greater si ze and
antl ers i n vari ous ani mal s-these are some of t he char
acteri sti cs t hat may resul t. The rel ati ve i mportance of
sexual sel ection as a component of natural sel ecti on i s
sti l l not cl ear . Darwi n was convi nced i t was of maj or
i mportance, but subsequent wri ters have been l ess sure.
MALE SUPERB LYREBI RD of Aus
tral i a stands wi t h i t s el aborate
tai l feat hers extended and qui v
eri ng, as it performs its court
s hi p di spl ay. The f emal e re
sembl es the mal e i n col or but
l acks t he speci al i zed tai l feath
ers. Young mal e bi rds are l i ke
t he femal es. They do not de
vel op t he tai l feathers unt i l t hey
are about t hree years ol d.
Each mal e establ i s hes a l arge
terri tory, and t hroughout t hi s
area, he bui l ds a seri es of
mounds of earth , each about a
yard i n di ameter. He patrol s
h i s terri tory by vi s i t i ng each
mound and perfor mi ng hi s di s
pl ay on i t. The di s pl ay begi ns
wi t h a vocal performance t hat
i ncl udes a seri es of mi mi c ki ng
sounds and c al l s .
91
NATURAL SELECTI ON I N MAN i s reduced i n i ts ob
vi ous efects by t he structures of soci ety and by t he
el aborate patter ns of fami l y car e. Even so, many body
features show t he i nfuence of nat ur al sel ecti on . Some
gene changes al so demonstrate i t s efects. Si ckl e- cel l
anemi a, a di sease caused by a si ngl e gene, i s marked
by di stort i on of t he bl ood cel l s from t hei r nor mal di s c
shape t o si ckl e s hape whi ch bl ocks t he fow of bl ood i n
capi l l ari es an d t hus causes anemi a. Someti mes death
resul ts when suferers are short of breath or wor k at
hi gh al ti tudes. I n West and Cent ral Afri ca, where ma
l ari a i s endemi c, popul at i ons wi th a si ckl e- gene equi
l i bri um frequency of up t o 20 percent are common .
Among descendants of these peopl e i n t he United
States, frequency of si ckl e- cel l anemi a has dropped to
percent i n two centuri es. How has thi s come about ?
The frequency of a si ckl e- cel l gene i n Africa i s pl ot t ed bel ow as
percent of popu l at i on . Hi g h frequen ci es are rest ri ct ed to equat ori al
areas i n whi c h terti a n mal ari a is an i mportant cause of deat h .
Nor t h and s out h of t h i s bel t , mal ari a is l ess com mon and i s
beni gn. Si mi l ar hi gh f requenci es occur i n mal ar i al areas of Si ci l y,
Greece, Tur key, and I n di a. (After Al l i son. )
Equator
92
1 0- 1 5%
5 - 1 0%
0- 5%
THE 5| Ck| GN was demon
strated by bi ol ogi st Ver non
I ngram to have t he abi l i ty t o
change one of t he t hree hun
dred ami no ac i d u ni ts i n t he
hemogl obi n mol ecul es t hat mak e
up t he r ed bl ood c el l s . At one
poi nt i n t he cha i n of n i n eteen
di ferent ami n o ac i ds t hat make
up t he protei n , val i n e is sub
st i t ut ed for g l utami c aci d. The
res ul t i s t hat nor mal red bl ood
corpuscl es become s i ckl e-s haped.
HETEROZYGOUS si ckl e genes
have c omparat i vel y l i tt l e ad
verse efect under nor mal con
di t i ons, but t he homozygous
condi t i on has f ar mor e seri ous
efect s, often ca us i ng bl ood
cl ott i ng or premat ure deat h .
Why do s i c kl e genes st i l l per
s i st i f nat ural s el ect i on i s efec
t i ve? I t so happens t hat s i ckl e
s haped he mog l obi n i s resi stant
t o i nfect i on by t he mal ar i al
parasi t e Pl asmodi um, whi c h
feeds on r ed bl ood c el l s . I n
mal ar i al areas, t herefore, a se
l ect i ve equ i l i br i u m exi st s, wi t h
t he het erozygous s i c k l e- cel l i n
di vi dual s res i st ant an d t h u s
favored. The homozygous i n
di vi dual s (wi t h 2 s i c kl e- cel l
Ami no aci ds
i n normal
hemogl obi n
Ami no aci ds
i n si ckl e cel l
hemogl obi n
genes) oft en di e. An equ i l i br i u m
t ends to occur between t he
n u mber of peopl e wi t h no
s i ckl e- cel l gene ( t hes e are t he
" normal " i ndi vi dual s) who di e
of mal ar i a and t hose wi t h two
s i c kl e- cel l genes wh o di e of
an emi a or bl ood cl ot t i n g. I n
t hi s case, a n apparent l y har m
f u l genet i c efect may be pre
served beca us e of si de beneft s .
I n mal ari a- f ree U. S. , t h e con
di t i on h as n o s u rvi va l va l u e.
Th us , n at ura l s el ect i on repre
sents not a bl i nd, cr us h i n g wave
of ext i nct i on but the resol ut i on
of conf i ct i n g envi ron ment al de
mands on a popul at i on. I t i n
vol ves s ubt l e i n ter pl ay of i n
ternal a n d exter n al i n f uences.
o
MI SSI NG LI NKS p. 52 | confr m t he act i on of n at ura l
sel ecti on an d demonst rate t he way i n whi ch i t oper
ates. Once i t was a rgued t hat nat ura l sel ecti on cou l d
n ot possi bl y have produced t he el aborate compl ex of
changes requi red to bri ng about such maj or evol uti on
ary changes as t he devel opment of amphi bi ans from
fsh or bi rds from repti l es. Transi ti onal fossi l for ms, or
"missi ng l i nks, " show how the process took pl ace.
A Devoni an l obef i n crossopte
rygi an fi sh c l i mbs as hore.
RANDOM NATURAL SELEC
TI ON, the cri ti cs once argued,
cou l d not have produced t he
el aborate seri es of vari at i ons
that gradual l y t ransfor med rep
t i l i an ar ms i nto bi r d wi ngs and
gave bi r ds a l i ght and modi fed
skel eton, feat hers , and s i mi l ar
features . Each of t hes e en
d
l ess
mi nor modi fcati ons, i t was
t hought , mi ght ofer no speci al
advant age-not enough to bri ng
about t he var i ous su pposedl y
i nterdependent and coordi nated
changes t hat were i nvol ved.
But Archaeopteryx and other
transi t i onal fossi l forms ( pp.
4
Labyri nthodont amphi bi an, a de
scendant, goes as hore c l ums i l y.
52-53) s how that change from
one maj or g roup to anot her was
a pi ecemeal process. There was
not one big j u mp or a syn
chroni zed devel opment of al l
t he vari ous characters i nvol ved.
I n Archaeopteryx, some features,
such as t he brai n , cl aws, teeth ,
and ster nu m, were pr i mi ti ve and
repti l i an; others, such as wi ngs
and feat hers and t he general
body s hape, were al ready f ul l y
bi rdl i ke. Thi s j u mbl ed mosai c
evol ut i on i s exactl y what we
shoul d expect i f nat ur al sel ec
t i on has been an efect i ve agent
of change.
MOSAI C EVOLUTI ON is shown
wel l i n t he i cht hyostegi ds, pri m
i t i ve amph i bi ans of t he De
von i an ( p. 98) . They had many
fs hl i ke f eat ures. The chart gi ves

8
m
1
1
1
1
lchthyostega, a pri mi ti ve De
voni an a mphi bi an from East
Greenl and. About 3 feet l ong.
A reconstructi on .
Skel eton of lchthyostega prob
abl y resembl es cl osel y that of
the ancestors from whi c h
phi bi ans evol ved.
Diplovertebron, a l abyri nt hodont
amph i bi an of t he Carboni ferous,
wi t h many resembl ances to the
i chthyostegi ds.
Eusthenopteron, a Devoni an
l obefn crossopterygi an fs h
2 feet l on g, has man y resem
bl ances t o t he ichthyostegi ds.
a breakdown of t hei r amphi b
i an vers us fs hl i ke c haracteri s
ti cs, wi t h 1 00 poi n ts f or f ul l y
devel oped amphi bi an form and
0 for ful l y fs h l i ke form.
bkvl tlfvf0fo

0 f
o
6

L
M
bh0vdor uU hp gfde
kv 0tftvUl0
4l m
95
TI ME is the fi nal component of the evol ut i onary
reci pe. Earl y opponents of evol uti on contended t hat
the age of the earth, t hen regarded as l ess t han 40
mi l l i on years, di d not al l ow enough t i me for t he sl ow
process of change t hat evol uti on i nvol ved. These es
t i mates were based on t he rate of cool i ng of a sup
posedl y once mol ten eart h . But t he devel opment of
ot her met hods of dati ng suggested a much g reater
age, and t he use of radi oacti vi ty now i ndi cates that
t he eart h i s probabl y about 5 bi l l i on years ol d. Thi s i s
ampl e ti me for evol uti on to have taken pl ace. The de
vel opment of a geol ogi c t i me scal e puts t he fossi l rec
ord i nto perspecti ve, and reveal s the order and se
quence of t he vari ous for ms of l i fe.
THE GEOLOGI C
CLOCK
Shows l ast
mi l l i on
years of earth ' s
hi story, each
hour represent i ng
mi l l i on years.
ANALOGI ES hel p U to appre
ci at e the enor mous i nterval of
t i me t hi s represents. Su ppose a
cos mi c h i stori an wri t i ng a hi s
tory of t he ear t h began t o
wri te at t he creat i on of t he
ear t h and wrote one l i ne every
t hous and years. I f the books h e
produced were t he s i ze of t h i s
one you are readi ng, h e wou l d
by now have produced 94,000
books.

Most Fossi l s
RADI OACTIVE ELEMENTS, such
as urani um an d radi um, have
unstabl e atomi c nuc l ei t hat un
dergo spontaneous breakdown
at a const an t, meas urabl e rate
to form ot her, more stabl e el e
ments . Uran i u m, for exampl e,
produces a ser i es of "daugh
t er " el ement s an d fn al l y yi el ds
l ead and hel i u m. One gra m
of uran i um produces 1 /7000
grams of l ead every mi l l i on
years. Thi s r at e i s u n afected
by any c han ges i n heat or
pres s ure. Meas uremen t of t he
rat i o of "ol d" uran i u m t o " new"
SCALI NG DOWN EARTH'S HI S
TORY i nto a model s i ngl e cal
endar year wi t h t he ori gi n of
t he eart h on J an uary 1 st and
t he pres ent day on December
3 1 st woul d make each second
equ i val ent to 1 67 years and
eac h mi n ute t o 1 0,000 years.
l ead i n uran i u m mi n eral s pro
vi des an i n di cat i on of the age
of the rocks in whi c h t hey are
found.
Ot her radi oact i ve el ements
used in age meas urements i n
c l ude l ead- t hori u m, potassi u m
argon, rubi di um- stront i um, and
carbon . St udi es of meteori tes,
whi ch seem to be "l eft over"
fragment s from the devel op
ment of t he sol ar system, and
t he rate of ex pa n si on of t he
un i verse tend to conf i r m a f i gure
of about 4. 5-5. 0 bi l l i on years for
t he age of the eart h.
URANI UM T O L EAD
BREAKDOWN
Ol dest
undi sputed
fossi l
The ol des t undi s puted fos
s i l s wou l d appear about J ul y
1 ; t he ol dest abundant fos s i l s ,
about November 1 8. Man woul d
appear at about 1 1 :50 p. m. on
December 3 1 . Al l recorded hi s
tory wou l d f a l l i n t he fn al 40
seconds of t he year.
7
U

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I VU 4
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2 8 U
J Z 4
J4 Z U
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PE RI OD
THE GEOLOGI C TI ME SCALE
QUATERNARY
1Lk1I AkY
CR ETACEOUS
J U RASSI C
TRI ASSI C
PERMI AN
PENNSYLVANI AN
MI SSI SSI P P I AN
DEVONI AN
S I L URI AN
ORDOVI CI AN
CAMBRI AN
PRECAMBRI AN

HE GEOLOGI C TI ME SCALE de
oped from a study of strati fed
rocks a nd thei r fossi l s, i s di vi ded
i nto four eras, fossi l s bei ng abun
dant onl y i n t he l ast th ree. The
names of most of t he peri ods are

deri ved from pl aces where rocks of

t hat age were frst studi ed . Thus,
we speak of Devoni an fsh j ust as
we speak of Roma n arch i tecture.

When t hei r rel ati ve sequence i s
known, both ca n t hen be ftted i nto
a numer i cal ti me scal e. Precam
bri an t i me covers al most 9 /1 Ot hs
of a I I earth hi story.
RATES OF EVOLUTI ON var
y
enor mousl
y
from one
speci es t o anot her. The s mal l br achi pod Lingula, an i n
habi tct of war m, s hal l ow seas, has scarcel y changed
i n t he l ast 400 mi l l i on years. But t he spectacul ar di
versi fcati on of mammal s has taken pl ace wi thi n t he
l ast 60 mi l l i on year s. Devel opment of a geol ogi c ti me
scal e al l ows u s to anal yze an d i nterpret t hese di feri n g
rates, whi ch may be expressed i n vari ous ways.
I N STRUCTURES, rates of
change can be measured for
some foss i l groups. I n t he evo
l ut i on of earl y Terti ary horses,
changes i n d i mensi ons of mol ar
t eet h were onl y 0. 1 5 mm per
mi l l i on years. Thi s i s about
equal to t he di ameter of a
human hai r. Si ngl e popul at i ons
often contai ned up to twenty
t i mes as much vari at i on i n tooth
di mensi ons. Such s l ow trans for
mat i on can be observed onl y i n
foss i l s.
ECOLOGI CAL REPLACEMENT of
some ext i nct g rou ps by others
of s i mi l ar envi ronmental habi ts
suggests t hat compet i t i on be
tween the two groups may have
been a factor i n some cases of
ext i nct i on. The wi dt h of each
col u mn i n t he di agram i s pro
port i onal to the di versi ty of
t he group.
1 00
TRANSFORMATI ON OF SPECI ES
from one i nto another for Ter
t i ary mammal s ( p. 1 32) has
been cal cul ated t o be a bout
500,000 years. Wi th such s l ow
rat es, i t is not surpri s i ng t hat
few exampl es of t he devel op
ment of new speci es can be
observed i n l i vi ng popul at i ons.
Such rates al so al l ow ampl e
t i me f or t he operati on of
"s l ow" evol ut i on ary mecha
ni sms, s uc h as t he sel ect i on of
s mal l vari ati ons.
RAP I D DI VE R S I FI CATI ON of
Mi ocene horses f rom brows i ng
to grazi ng corresponded t o
t he wi despread change from
l owl a n d f or es t s t o u pl a n d
prai ri es i n North Ameri ca and
t he f i rst appearance of fos s i l
grasses. Thi s i nteracti on seems
t o conf i r m t h e i mportan ce of
nat ural sel ect i on (p. 1 01 ).

BROWSI NG TEETH
( low.crowned-no cemen t )
HYPOHI PPUS
PARAHI PPUS
ANCHI THERI UM
EVOLUTI ON OF HORSES
( Teeth drawn to scal e-After Si mpson )
GRAZI NG TEETH
( Hi gh crowned-cement )
PATTERNS OF CHANGE become
evi dent i n some groups when t he
t i me f act or i s consi der ed. The
ra pi d di vers i f i cat i on of horses i n
Mi oc en e t i me s r epr es e n t ed a
c hange i n feedi ng habi t f rom
brows i ng t o grazi ng, correspond
i ng to t he wi de spread change
f rom l owl and forests t o u pl and
prai ri es i n Nort h Ameri ca and
t he f i rst appearan ce of fossi l
gras ses. Thi s seems t o be an i n
teract i on conf i r mi ng t h e i mpor
ta nce of nat ural sel ect i on ( p. 5 1 ) .
1 01
A RECI PE FOR EVOLUTI ON s h owi n g t he i n ter pl ay
of t he vari ous factors i nvol ved, can be s ummed u p for
any popul ati on as demonstrated i n the di agram bel ow.
Such a si mpl e reci pe does not mean t hat evol uti on i s
i tsel f si mpl e or t hat i t fol l ows a cl ear l y predi ctabl e pat
tern . The reverse is the case. The i nteracti on of t hese
vari ous processes produces an enormousl y compl ex dy
nami c system. Both the compl exi ty and the potenti al i ty
for novel ty of the evol uti onary process are i ndi cated
by t he great di versi ty of l i vi ng thi ngs.
VARIATI ON:
Geneti c

I SOLATION:
Recombi nati on
oo
EVOLUTI ON STI LL CONTI NUES.
Many geographi c races are po
tent i al l y new s peci es i n t he
maki ng. Cont i n ued i sol at i on of
r aces of t he gol den wh i st l er i n
1 02
Nt SPECI ES
t he Sol omon I s l ands a l l be
l on gi ng to a s i ngl e s peci es,
Pachycephal a pectoralis, woul d
probabl y conver t t hem i n to re
prod uct i vel y i s ol ated s peci es .
MUTATI ONS a re i mportant i n
t h e evol ut i onary process, even
though so many i n l i vi ng popu
l at i ons seem to be har mf ul . I n
a popul at i on wel l -adapted to a
part i cul ar envi ron ment , t he
most benefci al mutat i ons have
often al ready been i ncorporat
ed. I n addi t i on, mut at i ons wi t h
l i mi ted vi s i bl e efects are
known to be com mon.
Not al l har mf ul t ra i ts are
el i mi nated from t he gene pool
of a popul at i on . Sel ect i on i s
al ways a compromi se. Even
har mf ul charact eri st i cs may have
some benefci al s i de efect s ( p.
93) . Preservati on of such genes
provi des a reservoi r of poten
t i al c hange t hat may be of
cri t i cal i mportance i f envi ron
mental condi t i ons change.
COLOk CHANOE5 l N Ml NK or e t h e resu| t ol mutot ons.
FACTORS ACCOUNTI NG FOR
NEW SPECI ES ori g i n s eem ade
quat e to accou nt al so for al l
evol ut i onary c hange. Some
wr i t er s re.f er t o mi c ro- evol ut i on
. an d macro-evol ut i on, but t hes e
ar e not f u n damental l y d i fferent .
Cu mu l at i ve devel opment of new
5
W
4
2
J
l l
speci es l eads to what we l at er
cl assi fy as new genera an d
hi gh er groups.
Separat i on of descen dan ts
from an cest ra l popu l a. ti on s by
ti me rei n forces geographi c di f
ferences between con te mporary
races, as s hown bel ow.
I V
ARABI C NO' S.
( SPECI ES)
ROMAN NO' S.
( GENERA)
li ne-Evol uti on of O Speci es
Cont i nues to Exist
Becomes Exti nct
1 03
T H E C OU RS E L E VOL UT I ON
Pre-organi c evol uti on t hat occurred before t he appear
ance of l i fe on earth l eft l i ttl e di rect evi dence of the
processes i nvol ved. Much s mal l er mol ecul es were i n
vol ved t han i n organi c evol uti on, however, and the
process resul ted i n bodi es of much greater di mensi ons,
such as stars and gal axi es. The ori gi nal materi al prob
abl y consi sted of sub-atomi c parti cl es, such as neu
trons, protons, and el ectrons, that l ater produced hy
drogen . Much of the materi al in the vi si bl e universe
seems to be hydrogen, whi ch cons i sts of a s i ngl e pro
ton. Heavi er el ements were probabl y produced from
the l i ghter hydrogen by a process of neutron capture.
Each neutron t hat was added yi el ded a new i sotope.
The process by whi ch hydrogen aggregated to form
bodi es such as stars, i n whi ch el ement- bui l di ng took
pl ace, is sti l l t he subj ect of specul ati on . It may be a
conti nuous process i n whi ch new hydrogen i s bei ng
created constantl y. Al ternati vel y the apparent expan
si on of t he uni verse may resul t from t he " bi g bang" of
a si ngl e epi sode of creati on about 5 t o 1 0 bi l l i on years
ago. The uni verse mi ght under go pul sat i ng movements,
so t hat t h e presen t expa nsi on wou l d be fol l owed by
cont ract i on . The " bi g bang " hypot heses t ends to be
t he curren t favori t e.
EARTH an d t he res t of t he sol ar system probabl y or i gi nated by
the aggr egat i on of a c l oud of cos mi c du s t . Eart h ' s s t r uct ures s ug
gest t hat i t formed from c ol d rat her t han from mol ten materi al .
THE PRI M
I T
I VE EARTH on whi ch l i fe ori gi nated was
an envi ronment very di ferent from any on earth today.
Three l i nes of evi dence suggest that the eart h' s pr i mi
tive at mos phere pr obabl y consi sted of hydrogen, he
l i um, met hane, an d ammoni a. The present at mosphere
of ni trogen, carbon di oxi de, and oxygen came l ater.
METEORI TES a ppear t o be ma
t eri al " l eft over" f rom t he ori gi n
of t he sol ar system. Anal ys i s of
t hei r composi t i on provi des an
i ndi cati on of t h e poss i bl e " bu l k
composi t i on " of t h e eart h. Most
meteori tes are made of i ron
ni ckel or "st ony" materi al . A
few ( t he carbonaceous chon
dri tes) contai n car bon com
pounds of extraterrest ri al ori gi n .
Dark l i nes i n s pect ru m ana l ysi s
are produ ced by a bsorpt i on by
cool er gas i n f ron t of gl owi ng
sou rce.
34- ton meteori te
f r om Gr een I a nd
SPECTROSCOPI C ANALYSI S of
l i ght f rom ot her pl anets s hows
t hat the s i x "basi c" el ements of
l i vi ng t hi ngs are wi del y di stri b
uted. Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
and ni trogen are a mong t he
most abundant el ements i n t he
sol ar system. Sul fur i s n i nt h;
phos phorous , s i xteent h . Thi s i m
pl i es t hey =ere al s o proba bl y
present i n t he pr i mi t i ve ear t h.
PAL EOZOI C
L
O
THE ATMOSPHE RES of pl anet s
most di stant f rom t he s un have <

probabl y c hanged t he l east . _

Th ei r at mos ph eres i nc l ude hydro-
gen , hel i u m, met hane ( CH4 ) and, g
in J u pi t er and Sat urn , a mmon i a
( NH3 ) . Proba bl e c h anges in t he H
eart h' s at mos phere ( wat er om i t
ted) are bas ed par t l y on anal ogy
wi t h t hes e.
THE ORI GI N OF LI FE must have i nvol ved t he devel op
ment of protei ns from thei r ami no- aci d component s.
An experi ment by Stanl ey Mi l l er and Harol d Urey dem
onstrates one possi bl e way i n whi ch t hi s mi ght have
taken pl ace on the pr i mi ti ve earth.
AMMONI A, methane, hydrogen,
and st eam were mi xed toget her
i n a cl osed ci r cul at i ng system
and then s ubj ected to

an el ec
tri cal di scharge. After several
days t he condensed water was
fou nd to contai n a mi xtu re of
ami no aci ds. The efects of
l i ght ni ng on t he pr i mi ti ve at
mosphere may have produced a
s i mi l ar non- bi ol ogi cal synt hes i s
of orga
_
ni c mol ecul es.
Mi l l er- Urey apparat us, shown n
di agrammat i c for m.
1 06
I norgani c synt hesi s of ot her
mol ecul es, s uch as carbohydrates
and n ucl ei c aci ds, has al so been
demonstrat ed. These vari ous
compounds were probabl y pre
served on the earl y earth by
t he absence of oxygen and of
ot her l ivi ng t hi ngs.
A|| || V| NG 1M| NG5 today de
pend, di rect l y or i ndi rectl y,
upon green pl ants for t hei r
food. The ear l i est organi s ms
probabl y "fed " by s ome fer
mentat i on - l i ke process upon t he
organi c "broth" from whi ch
they arose, but t hi s food
source was l i mi ted. Changes i n
t he eart h ' s at mos phere caused
both by s ol ar radi at i on and by
t he efects of t he ear l i es t or
gan i s ms produced an envi ron
men t wi t h i n creas i n g quant i t i es
of ni t rogen and carbon di oxi de.
Thi s probabl y encouraged t he
devel opmen t of al tern ati ve
feedi ng mech an i s ms , i nvol vi ng
frs t t he s ynt hes i s of more com
pl ex mol ecul es . The more so
phi s t i cated process of photosyn
t hesi s i n whi c h s u n l i ght s up
pl i es t he en etgy f or t he con
vers i on of at mos ph eri c carbon
di oxi de i n to carbohydrat es
came l ater. Photosynt hes i s re
l eas es oxygen, s o t he ear l y at
mos phere un derwen t tran sfor
mat i on from a reduci ng to an
oxygenat i ng envi ron ment .
REPRODUCTI ON arose by du
pl i cat i on of I or ge mol ecu l ar ag
gregat i ons by au tocatal ys i s , i n
whi c h el ect ri cal l y act i ve com
pounds , s u c h as protei ns , cou l d
prec i pi tate d ropl ets of col l oi dal
agg regat es t hat were c apabl e
of devel opi n g i n to o s urf ace
membrane.
When i n creas i n g oxygen i n
t h e at mos phere r eached a l evel
to al l ow devel opment of res
s pi rot i on, h ar mf ul ul travi ol et
s ol ar radi at i on was i ncreas i ngl y
f i l tered out as r el eas e of free
oxygen produced o I oyer of at
mos pher i c ozone. Col on i zat i on of
s urface waters , an d l at er of t he
l and, depended on t he growi ng
effect i venes s of t he ozone
screen. The "sudden" appear
an ce of h ard- bod i ed i nvert ebrat e
an i mal s i n Earl y Cambr i an t i mes
may refl ect t he devel opment of
t he ozone I oyer, whi c h provi ded
a protect i ve envi ron ment.
EVOLUTI ON OF LI FE
b| ll i ons of years
before present
EVOLUTI ON OF EARTH'S
ATMOSPHERE & HYDROSPHERE

O
w
u
X
~=

3
0
2
O

~
0
7
u

<
V
O
O
.
O
m

N
L
2
o
o
m m
O

-
u o

0 u
Earl i es t known fossi l mar i ne
an i mal s
* Fossi l green a l gae ( mu l ti - cel l ed,
sexual reproduct i on)
* Foss i l bacteri a and bl ue- green
al gae
* Ear l i est known foss i l s ( s i ng l e
cel l proti sts ( bacter i a) and s i mpl e
pl ants ( b l ue-g reen a l gae) . Devel
opment o f cel l membrane
Col l oi dal CO!cervates
Protei n and macromol ecu l es
Ami no aci ds
Si mpl est compounds of C, H, O,
and N
=I =
w)^
3~
~4-
Free oxygen s ufficen t fcr ani mal
respi rati on
Free oxygen i nvades atmosphere;
starts to form ozone I oyer whi ch
screens out ul travi ol et rays
Weat heri ng of tock begi ns
Free oxygen i n hydrosphere i n
creases; oxi dizes i ron
Devel opment of photosynthesi s; re
l eases free oxygen to hydrosphere
Fermentati on ( ?) ; adds carbon
di oxi de to hydrosphere
Pri mi t i ve at mosphere probabl y
H2, H20, CH4 and NH3; no free
oxygen . I ntense ul travi ol et radi
ati on
FORMATI ON OF PLANET EARTH
Cri t i cal events i n the ear l y h i story of l i vi ng matter and i n the devel opment of
atmosphere and hydrosphere. denote fossi l s, the earl i er part of the h i story
bei ng hypotheti cal ( After F l i nt and others)
THE FOSSI L RECORD i s the basi s of our understand
i ng of t he hi story of l i fe and t he course of evol uti on.
Fossi l s are t he remai ns of or i ndi cati ons of prehi stori c
ani mal s and pl ants preserved i n t he rocks of the eart h' s
crust. Fossi l s are of many ki nds and ar e formed by
vari ous processes, but the chan ces of any organi sm be
comi ng fossi l i zed are s mal l . Thus, the fossi l record i s
a very i ncompl ete and rat her bi ased record of t he
hi story of l i fe. Recogni ti on of t hi s i s i mportant i n i nter
preti n g the fossi l record. Organi sms l acki ng hard
parts, for exampl e, are rarel y found as fossi l s. For t his
reason records of the earl y devel opment of l i fe are
parti cul arl y meager .
WHOLE ANI MALS AND PLANTS
are very rarel y preserved i n t he
fossi l record. Wool l y mammot hs,
up t o 1 0 feet tal l , fou nd i n Si
ber i a and Al as ka are exampl es
of such preservat i on by a deep
freeze process.
AN OUTLI NE of soft parts of
organi s ms buri ed in fn e mud
i s someti mes preserved as a
carbon fl m, t he more vol at i l e
components di s t i l l ed of by heat
and press ure i n rocks . Exampl es
are t he tri l obi tes and l eaves.
Wool l y mammot h
preserved i n
Cambr i an
tri l obi tes
frozen ground
Fos s i l pl ant
l eaves from
Pen n syl van i an
Growth ri ngs a re preserved i n
s i l ica i n petri fed wood.
MOST FOSSI LS consist of onl y
the hard parts of an i mal s an d
pl ants, such as shel l s, bones,
teeth, and wood. I n a few cases
these are al most u nal tered, but
usual l y t hey are l eached and
partl y or whol l y repl aced by
other mi neral s, especi al l y s i l i ca
( Si 0
2
) and cal ci t e (CaC0
3
) . The
repl aci ng mi neral s may some
ti mes preserve t he ori gi nal mi
crostructure, as i n some s i l i ci
fed wood, but t hi s i s unusual .
IMPRESSI ONS AND CASTS of
ani mal s an d pl ant s may be
formed in porous rocks, such as
sandstone, when al l the ori gi nal
component s are d i ssol ved away.
Thi s l eaves a cavi ty, whi ch may
l ater be tl l ed by new mi neral s,
car r i ed i n sol ut i on, to g i ve O
cast of t he ori gi nal out l i ne.
BURROWS, TRAI LS AND TRACKS
may be preserved in sedi ments
t hat are l ater con sol i dated i n to
rocks.
STONE ARTI FACTS a re the most
common remai ns of prehi stori c
man. They represent vari ous
types of tool s and weapons.
Thi s cl am s hel l i s al most unal
tered except f or l eachi ng.
Ammoni t e, cal ci um carbonate,
repl aced by pyri te ( FeS2 ) .
i mpressi on
or mol d
Di nos a u r t r acks i n s an ds tone
Prehi s tori c h an d axe
1 09
THE OLDEST FOSSI LS fou nd i n rocks est i mated t o be
.
,
about 2. 7 bi l l i on year s ol d, consi st of si mpl e pl ants,
i n cl udi ng l i me-secreti n g al gae, bacteri a, and fungi .

Vari ous organi c ami no- aci d resi dues are al so known
frol these very anci ent rocks. Wel l - preserved an i mal
fo
i
i l s frst appear i n rocks 600 mi l l i on years ol d.
Mi croscopi c col oni es of al gae
f r om 1 .6 bi l l i on years ago.
.Gunf l i nt Format i on, Ont ari o
szoo,
Precambr i an Fos s i l s
Seg mented wor m
Spriggina founderi i . s i n.
(After Gl aessner)
Jel lyfsh
Medusian mawsoni
about 1 i n.
( After Gl aessner)
THE OLDEST PLANTS are pre
served i n cherts from Nort h
Ameri ca, Afri ca, and Aust ral i a
an d range i n age from 2 to
about 3 bi l l i on years. They i n
c l u de fl amentous a n d spher i cal
al gae and bacteri a and ot her
mi croscopi c st ruct ures t hat are
not eas i l y cl assi fed. Some are
cl osel y s i mi l ar to l i vi ng for ms .
Ot her mor e wi des pread Precam
bri an foss i l s i ncl ude opt i cal l y
act i ve organi c compounds of
s u pposed organ i c ori gi- n.
Stromatol i tes, wi del y di stri b
ut ed in rocks of Precambr i an
age, are mou n dl i ke, l ami nated
struct ures, a few feet i n di am
eter, fou nd i n cal careous roc ks.
They represent t he deposi t s of
l i me-secret i ng bl ue- g reen al gae.
THE OLDEST ANIMALS are
known from Ed i acara, Sout h
Aust ral i a, i n Precambr i an rocks
that l i e onl y soofeet bel ow t he
Cambr i an. They are soft- bod i ed
ani mal s, i ncl udi n g j el l yfsh, seg
ment ed wor ms, sea pens, and
some an i mal s of u n k nown afni
t i es. I n contrast t o t he ol dest
pl ant s, whi ch are pri mi t i ve, t he
ol dest an i mal s are rel at i vel y ad
vanced types, s ugges t i ng a l ong
earl i er h i story.
Obolella, lower Ca mbr i an
brach i opod About 0. 2 i n .
0/ene//us, a l ower Cambr i an
t ri l obi t e. Lengt h to 9 i n.
The " s udde n " appearan ce of fossi l an i mal s about
600 mi l l i on years ago i s one of t he maj or evol utionary
probl ems . I t has been vari ousl y s uggested t hat : ( a) no
Precambri an an i mal s exi sted; ( b) Precambr i an ani mal s
di d exi st but l acked hard parts and were not fossi l i zed;
( c) Precambri an ani mal foss i l s have been destroyed
by erosi on an d metamor phi s m; an d ( d) Precambri an
ani mal s were confned to i sol at ed, oxygen- ri ch areas
and ar e as yet undi scovered or u nexposed as fossi l s .
None of t hes e expl anati ons i s necessari l y u ntrue.
Ear l y Cambri an di versi fcati on of ani mal s extended
over 30 mi l l i on years, hence was not real l y " sudden . "
I t seems probabl e that ani mal s di d not ori gi nate i n
l ate Precambr i an ti mes, t hat t hei r earl i est represent a
ti ves were soft- bodi ed for ms of restri cted di stri buti on,
and t hat t he l at er wi despr ead appearan ce of hard
bodi ed for ms i n Cambr i an ti mes may mar k a response
t o some envi ronmental change, s uch as t he atmo
spher i c composi t i on or cut-of of ul travi ol et radi at i on
( p. 1 06) . I t was probabl y r api d because of t he rel a
tive "empti nes s " of many envi ronments t o ani mal l i fe,
and t he strong sel ecti ve pressure t hat t he devel opment
of hard parts by any one group woul d exert on others .
1 1 1
Mi.ddl e Cambri an sea based on s peci mens from Burgess Shal e of
Bri t i sh Col u mbi a : ( 1 ) j el l yfs h, ( 2 ) sponge, ( 3 ) t ri l obi te, ( 4 )
worm, ( 5 ) brachi opod, ( 6 ) xenopod ar t hropod
MARI NE I NVERTEBRATES were t he most di sti ncti ve
ani mal s of Cambri an, Ordovi ci an, and Si l ur i an ti mes
a peri od of some 200 mi l l i on years. Al though verte
brate fragments are found i n Ordovi ci an rocks, t hey
were rare unt i l Devoni an t i mes. The earl i est i nverte
brates ( p. 1 1 0) i ncl uded j el l yfsh, sea pens, and seg
mented wor ms, but Cambr i an faunas were domi nated
by tri l obi tes, row exti nct arthropods . Sponges, s nai l s,
echi noderms, and s mal l horny bi val ved brachi opods
were abundant i n shal l ow seas. I n t he Ordovi ci an,
coral s, b ryozoans ( moss a n i mal s ) , an d many new
k i nds of brach i opods a n d t ri l obi t es appeared. Pro
tozoans were rare. Squi dl i ke cephal opods, some 1 5
feet l ong, devel oped . I n t he Si l uri an, eurypter i ds, ar
t hropods to 6 feet l ong, l i ved i n del tas and estuari es.
1 1 2
Represent ati ves of al l t he maj or l i vi n g i nverte
brate phyl a an d nearl y al l t he cl asses were establ i shed
by Ordovi ci an ti mes. Si nce t hen, the maj or patter ns of
i nvertebrate l ife i n the seas have changed l i ttl e. A few
maj or groups have become exti nct, di ferent geo
graphi c areas and di ferent envi ronments have sup
ported di ferent faunas, and genera and speci es have
shown vari ed patterns of modi fcati on and exti ncti on.
EARLY PALEOZOI C ANIMALS
showed many adaptat i ons to
diferi ng modes of l ife. They i n
cl uded fxed bent hi c forms, such
as coral s and brach i opods; va
grant benthi c types, such as
starfsh and s nai l s ; free-swi m
mi ng for ms, s uc h as cephal o
pods and eurypteri ds; and free
foat i ng forms, such as j el l yfs h.
Comparabl e diversi ty exi sted
i n feedi ng habi ts. The phyto
pl an kton, on whi ch many l i vi ng
mari ne i nvertebrates feed, have
s i l i ceous and cal careous hard
part s. These t ypes are unknown
i n t he Earl y Pal eozoi c, perhaps
because thei r forerunners were
soft- bodi ed. The hard parts of
Early Paleozoic i nvertebrates are
composed of vari ous mi neral s.
Cambri an forms consi st chi efy
of phosphat i c, s i l i ceous , and
ch i ti nous materi al s, but cal ci u m
carbonate became t he predomi
nant s hel l s ubstance i n Ordovi
ci an t i mes . Li ttl e i s yet known
of the s i gn i fcance of t hi s bio
c hemi cal evol ut i on. Or i gi nal
shel l composi ti on i s often modi
fed by subsequent al t erati on
duri ng fossi l i zati on ( p. 1 08 ) .
A Devoni an coral reef : ( 1 ) t ri l obi te, ( 2) cephal opod, ( 3) bryozoan,
(4) brachi opod, ( 5) coral , || coral , (7) coral
*
THE OLDEST VERTEBRATES a re fragments of a rmored
fsh found i n rocks of Ordovi ci an age i n Wyomi ng and
el sewhere. Fi sh remai n rare as fossi l s unti l l ate Si l ur
i an ti mes. They become diversi fed and abundant dur
i ng t he Devoni an.
The or i gi n of vertebrates i s obscure. They bel ong
t o the Phyl um Chordata, contai ni ng some members
t hat l ack a vertebral col umn ( acorn worms, sea squi rts,
l ancel ets, and t hei r ki n) though t hey do have a sup
porti n g notochord and other features s hared wi th the
" hi gher " vertebrates . Larval acorn wor ms show stri k
i ng s i mi l ari ti es to l arval echi noder ms, suggesti ng that
both groups may have ari sen from a common but un
known ancestral stock.
AGNATHA, the most pri mitive
group of fsh, are represented
today only by t he hagfsh and
l ampreys. Agnat ha l ack t he true
jaws and pai red fns typi cal of
most l i vi ng fsh.
Many of these ol dest and
most di versi fed of t he earl y fs h
had a bony armor. Cal l ed ostra
coderms (" bony s ki n"), they
brkeno
An Si l uri an ag nat han
f i s h about 4 i n. l ong.
1 1 4
rarel y exceeded a foot i n
l engt h. They l ived chi efy i n
streams and estuari es where
pres umabl y they fed on bottom
muds or on suspended material .
They are not known i n rocks
younger than the Devoni an, per
haps because they were soft
bodied-l i ke t hei r l ivi ng repre
sentatives.
Fferosps
Upper Si l ur i an to De
von i an. About 6 i n .
Dreponosps
lower Devon i an.
To 1 ft.
PLACODERM$ ( l at e Si l uri an to
Per mi an) are t he onl y vertebrate
cl ass to have become exti nct.
They reached thei r peak i n t he
Devoni an and are rare i n
you nger Pal eozoi c ro'ks. Pl aco
derms di fer from Agnatha i n
havi ng pai red fns and pri mi tive
jaws, i mportan t feat ures i n
l ater diversi fcati on of verte
brates.
Pl acoder ms i ncl uded bot h
freshwater and mar i ne forms,
such as t he 30-fool, j oi nted
necked arl hrodi res; s mal l fresh
water s pi ny acant hodi ans; and
mass i vel y armored, strong- fi nned
ant i arch s.
Clacoselache, a shark from the
Upper Devoni an, wi th a stream
l i ned naked body. To 4 ft.
SHARKS AND RAYS bel ong to
t he Chondri chthyes, a cl ass of
predaceous, cart i l agi nous, open
gi l l ed fsh. Sharks show many
adaptati ons to l i fe i n t he open
oceans, i ncl udi ng streaml i ni ng,
wel l - devel oped teet h, and spi ny
ski n scal es. Some l i vi ng s harks
reach a l engt h of 50 feet . The
earl i est members of t he group,
whi ch appeared i n Devoni an
t i mes , l i ved i n f r esh water.
Climatius, Upper Si l uri an to De
voni an, was a spi ny acanthodi an
"shark" with rhomboi d scal es, 2
spi nes on back, and 5 pai rs of
ventral fns. Lengt h 3 i n.
Dunkl eosteus was a j oi n t ed
necked mar i ne art h rod i re to 30
ft. l ong. It was the l argest verte
brate of Devon i an l i mes.
shark j aws
and teeth
Teeth of CarchOrocon, a
40- to 50-foot shark from
t he Mi ocene
Skates and rays, fatten ed for
bottom- dwel l i ng exi stence, h ave
fattened teeth for crus hi ng
shel l s.
Loss of t he bony armor, de
vel opment of efci ent jaw sus
pensi on, and more fexi bl e fns
provi ded both s harks and bony
fsh wi th an advantage over
t hei r pl acoder m ancestors. I so
lated teeth and spi nes are t he
most common fos s i l s.
! ! 5
Recen t
I
EVOL UTI ON OF FI SH
Terti ary
Cretaceou s .
Bony Ray- Fi n ned Fi s h
J u rassi c
L u n gfs h
Tri assi c
Crossopteryg 1 a1
Permi an
Cart i l agi nous Fi sh
Pl acoder ms

Ordovi ci an
Agn at ha
BONY FI SH (Ostei cht hyes) i n
c l u de nearl y al l l i vi ng fres h
water and mar i ne speci es. They
have strong, but fl exi bl e, bony
skel etons and ei ther scal es or
pl at es. Most ki nds have an ai r
bl adder. Bony f i s h l i ve i n every
ki nd of aquat i c envi ron ment
(even caves), and t hey out n um
ber al l ot her vertebrates com
bi ned, both i n n u mbers of spe
ci es an d of i ndi vi dual s. The
Cheirolepis, a Mi ddl e Devoni an
f n ned fsh. Lengt h about 1 1 i n.
ol dest members wer e fres hwater
for ms from the Mi ddl e Devo
n i an. They i ncl ude fi sh wi t h two
types of f i ns .
The ray-f i n ned f i sh were a
rare, f reshwat er group i n t he
Pal eozoi c, but t hey became t he
domi nant gr oup i n t he Mesozoi c
and Cenozoi c. Thei r scal es be
came t hi nner, an d t hei r j aws
and s kel etons s howed progres
si ve i mprovement.
ray
,
l
r
/
Detai l of ray f n , wi t h
typi cal s u pport i ng bones.
! !
bYL| U1| LN OF AMP HI BI ANS
Urodel es
To Rept i l es
Stereos pon dyl e

|abyri n t hodon t s
Amp h i bi a n s
AI R-BREATHI NG BONY FI SH
( Choa n i c ht hyes) , a s mal l er g rou p
t han t he ray-fn ned fs h, have
i nter nal nostr i l s t hat open i nto
t he mout h, as do t hose i n l and
l i vi n g vert ebr at es. | i vi ng for ms
i nc l ude t he l u ngfs h ; t hree gen
era are known, one from each
of t he sout her n cont i nent s. h e,
have powerfu l fn s , s upport ed
not by a fan of s l ender bones
as i n t he ray-fn ned fsh but by
Osteolepis, from Mi ddl e Devo
ni an, wi th t hi ck, rhomboi d scal es
and short, l obed f ns. To 9 i n.

.
, .

,

, , . .

.eO:ed y I e
a strong bony axi s . hey us e
t hese st out fns to " wal k " f r om
pool t o pool dur i ng t he dry sea
s on.
Lobef i n s, t he ot her ma or
gr oup, i ncl udes t he l i vi ng ma
r i ne coel acant hs and t hei r more
general i zed, freshwater, car ni v
orous, Devoni an crossopterygi an
forebears. I t was t hese t hat gave
rise to the terrest r i al vertebrates
( pp. 94-95).
_fr nqe
Lobe fn, showi ng t he
strong s u pport i ng bones
from wh i ch feet devel oped.
1 1 7
LI FE ON THE LAND was a CoDpa Ioti Vel y | ote de-
vel opment . li fe probabl y ori gi nated i n the s hal l ow
seas, where t he maj ori ty of i nvertebrate groups are
sti l l restri cted. Li fe on the l and i nvol ved maj or changes
for these creatures that ori gi nated and l ived i n t he
oceans . The modi fcati ons i ncl uded changes necessary
for protecti on agai nst dryi n g up, new methods of sup
port i n ai r as opposed t o the more buoyant water,
breat hi ng oxygen as opposed to extracti ng i t from the
water_ new sources of food and water, and new repro
ducti ve mechani sms to assure ferti l i zat i on i n the ab
sence of water. Col oni zati on of rivers and l akes was
onl y sl i ghtl y l ess formi dabl e, for i t i nvol ved devel op
ment of mechanisms to prevent di l ution of body fui ds
ARTHROPODS have exceeded
al l ot her grou ps i n t he di ver
si ty and n u mber of t hei r terres
tri al and fl yi n g representat i ves.
They gai ned a "f l yi ng start"
by t hei r tou gh , f l exi bl e outer
coveri n g and by t hei r st rong
appendages. The ol dest l an d
art h ropods a re l ate Si l ur i an
mi l l i pedel i ke f or ms t hat may
have been part l y aquat i c. I n
sects f i rst appeared i n t he De
von i an. By Car boni f erous t i mes,
a var i ety of art hropods, i nc l ud
i n g pri mi t i ve wi nged i nsects,
coc kroaches , s pi ders, and scor
pi ons , had appeared. Most
groups arose i n t h e Mesozoi c.
ARTHROPODS
that, in al l ani mal s, contai n dissol ved sal ts precisel y
adj usted to the osmoti c bal ance of sea water.
land dwel l i ng, i n spite of i t s probl ems, ofered al l
the advantages of an empty envi ronment. Because of
the del i cate i nterdependence of al l l i vi ng t hi ngs, it i s
not surpri si n g that both pl ants and ani mal s seem to
have col oni zed t he l and at about the same ti me duri ng
the Si l uri an and Devoni an. The i nvasi on of the l and
al most certai nl y i nvol ved t he earl i er i nvasi on of fresh
waters. Many l ivi ng groups, whi ch are essenti al l y ma
ri ne, contai n a few freshwater col oni sts ( cl ams and
crustaceans, for exampl e) , but onl y t he pl ants and
t hree maj or groups of ani mal s ( snai l s, arthropods, and
vertebrates) have become ful l y establ i shed on the l and.
VERTEBRATES havO establ i shed
t hemselves on t he l and wi th
varyi ng degrees of success. Most
amphi bi ans are l i mi ted to areas
near enough to water to al low
t hem to return to i t to repro
duce. Most rept i l es are restri cted
to areas from the tropi cal to t he
temperate zones. Mam mal s and
bi rds are more wi del y di stri b
uted and adapted. Some verte
brates, i ncl udi ng turt l es and
other ext i nct rept i l es, porpoi ses,
whal es, and pengu i ns, have un
dergone a secondary adaptat i on
to mari ne l i fe (p. 1 28) .
SNAI LS have i nvaded fresh
waters and t he l and. Some
have retai ned t he protective
s hel l , but ot hers ( sl ugs) are
naked. Land for ms move and
feed by brows i ng, muc h l i ke
aquat i c for ms. They have de
vel oped l ungs for breat hi ng.
Skel eton of Permi an a mphi bi an,
Eryops. L engt h about 5 feet.
Land Snai l , Helix
1 1 9
00
Psi l ophytes
Sphenophyl l s
Cycads
teri ds
LND PLNTS probabl y arose from green al gae,
whi ch now exi st i n both the seas and i n fresh waters.
Li ke ani mal s, di ferent groups of pl ants show varyi ng
degrees of adaptation t o l and l i fe.
BRYOPHYTES ( mosses and l iver
worts ) need water i n reproduc
tion and f or protecti on from
desi ccati on . Thei r parti al adap
t at i on t o l and l i f e i s an al ogous
t o t hat of t he amphi bi ans .
Smal l pl ants, wi t h l eaves and
st ems, they l ac k woody t i ssues
for s u pport and ci rcul at i on .
1 20
'
THALLOPHYTES, hi ch i ncl udes
the al gae, f ungi , and bacteri a,
l ack t he roots, st ems, l eaves,
and vascul ar s upport i ng and ci r
cu l at i ng system typi cal of h i gh
er pl ants. They are ei t her u n i
cel l ul ar or consi st of l oosel y or
ganized groups of cel l s. li mi ted
to damp envi ron ments.
Angi osperms
Gi nkgo
Cordai tes
Conifers
VASCULAR PLNTS ( Tracheophytes ) i ncl ude t he ma
j ori ty of l i vi ng pl ants. Al l have speci al i Zed vascul ar sys
tems of con ducti ng ti ssues that transport water and
n utri ents from t he s oi l t hrough t he roots t o t he other
parts of the pl ant. Thi s system al so provi des support,
al l owi ng some of these pl ants to grow to great si zes.
They al so have an outer l ayer ( cuti cl e) that prevents
desi ccati on . The ear l i est vascul ar pl ants were seedl ess
ki nds, such as those shown i n Devoni an forest bel ow.
Devoni an forest scene. Shown are: (1) a pri mitive l ycopod (Proto
lepidodendron), ( 2) tree fern (Eospermatopteris), and ( 3) scouri ng
rush (Calamophyton). Psi l opsids are low growi ng pl ants in fore
ground
PSILOPSI DS, which incl ude the
ear l i est known vascul ar pl ants,
l ack roots . They have ei t her
pri mi tive l eaves or are l eafess.
Though wi despread i n Devoni an
t i mes, t hey remai ned smal l i n
s i ze. Onl y two genera survi ve.
SPHENOPSI DS i ncl ude the liv
i ng scouri ng rushes and s i mi l ar
Pal eozoi c pl ants t hat grew to
40 feet tal l . They have roots
and l ong, segmented, ri bbed,
cone beari ng stems wi th ci rcl ets
0 l eaves at the nodes.
SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS i ncl ude psi l opsi ds, l yco
pods, ferns, and sphenopsi ds. The adul t pl ant produces
spores that devel op i nto s mal l speci al i zed l eafess
pl ant s ( gametophytes ) . These l ater pr oduce gametes,
or sex cel l s. Because sperm requi re water to reach t he
eggs, these seedl ess pl ants are restri cted to damp
envi ronments . Wi despread i n t he Pal eozoi c, they de
cl i ned as seed-beari ng pl ants expanded i n Mesozoi c.
LYCOPODS i ncl ude the l i vi ng
cl ub mosses and gi ant represen
tati ves from t he Pennsyl vani an
coal forests.
1 22
FERNS, which sti l l survive i n
l arge n umbers, are spore- bear
i ng pl ants. Some foss i l and l i v
i ng for ms grew to 50 feet tal l .
SEED-BEARING PLANTS ore of two bos| c k| nds: non

foweri ng and foweri ng. I n the non-foweri ng groups

(gymnosper ms) , t he seed i s not protected; i t i s "naked"
-as i n pi ne cones. I n foweri ng pl ants ( angi osperms) ,
the seeds are protected. I n both ki nds, resistant pol l en
and eggs are produced di rectl y from parent pl ants.
Pol l en ferti l i zes the egg, whi ch devel ops i nto o seed
whi ch i s protected from dryi ng. As a resul t, seed-bear
i ng pl ants have col oni zed a great vari ety of l and areas
and are the domi nant l ivi ng group of pl ants.
GYMNOSPERMS i ncl ude ( 1 ) ex
t i nct seed ferns, perhaps ances
tral to other groups; (
2
) cycads
and thei r exti nct rel ati ves, whi ch
were abundant i n the Mesozoi c;
(3) exti nct cordaites, perhaps
ancestral to conifers, (4) the
l i vi ng ginkgos; and (5) the
widespread, abundant conifers.
FLOWERI NG PLANTS ( angio
sperms) are represent ed today
by over 250,000 speci es. They
appeared in the Mesozoic an d
rapi dl y di spl aced t h e gymno
sperms, whi ch were then domi
nant. Thei r fowers are repro
ducti ve structures, many of t hem
speci al ly devel oped t o attract
i nsects that carry the mal e pol
l en to ferti l i ze t he femal e
fowers. Encl osure of t he seed
i n a protecti ve coveri ng al so
represent s an advance over the
gymnosper ms. Fl oweri ng pl ants
s how nu merous adaptati ons to
diferent envi ronment s, rangi ng
from desert cact i to tropi cal
s wa m p t r e e s a n d f l o we r s .
Changes i n s ome an i mal groups
appear rel at ed to changes i n
vegetat i on ( p. 5 1 an d 1 01 ) .
Earl y
cycad
Fl oweri ng Pl ants
of t he Cretaceous
AMPHI BI ANS were t he f rst teIIest r i al Ve|teb|atesg
but they are onl y partl y adapted to l i fe on l and. They
need to return to water to l ay t hei r eggs, and t hei r
young devel op i n water. Most ki nds are confned to
damp envi ronment s as adul t s.
The ol dest amphi bi ans, the i cht hyostegi ds from the
Upper Devoni an, arose from the crossopterygi an l obe
fn ned fsh, possi bl y i n response to popul ati on pressure
i n the pool s where the l atter l i ved ( p. 5| . The stout
bony axi s and muscl es of the fns and the presence of
l ungs adapted l obefns i deal l y for mi grati on from stag
nant and seasonal ponds. Li fe on t he l and provi ded
unl i mited oxygen suppl ies, the poss i bi l ity of addi ti onal
food sources, escape from predators, a nd t he means of
reachi ng other bodi es of water.
LATE PALEOZOI C AMPHI BI ANS
showed great di versi ty. Thei r
adaptive radi ati on onto l and
was rapi d, and some forms un
derent a secondary ret urn to
: he water. Some l abyri nt ho
donts were 1 5 f eet i n l engt h.
Amphi bi ans domi nated t he l and
f or over 1 00 mi l l i on years.
They decl i ned i n t he earl y
Mesozoi c, per haps as a res u l t
of compet i t i on wi t h t hei r better
adapted reptil ian descendants .
Li vi ng amphi bi an s i ncl ude
newts, s al aman ders, frogs ,
toads, and caeci l i ans .
Late Pal eozoi c cool -for mi ng swamp wi t h l abyri nt hodont amphi bi ans.
Earl y rept i l es di fered f rom t hei r amphi bi an ancestors i n onl y mi
nor ways. They un derwent rapi d di versi fcat i on i n Permi an ti mes.
THE RI SE OF THE REPTI LES marked o nev stoge of
adaptati on to l i fe on l and. Repti l es devel op from an
egg wi th a toug h outer coveri ng, provi di ng a bui l t- i n
food suppl y and a seal ed, l i qui d-fl l ed capsul e for t he
devel opi ng embryo. The i nfant repti l es emerge from
the egg more or l ess ful l y for med. Repti l es were t hus
abl e t o col oni ze t he l and areas far removed from
streams and l akes . Repti l i an s ki n is scal y or corni fed,
O protecti on agai nst dryi ng up; t he l i mbs and ci rcul a
tory systems of repti l es are general l y superi or to those
of amphi bi ans. Repti l es underwent great di vers i fca
ti on i n Mesozoi c t i mes, domi nati ng l i fe not onl y on
the l and but al so i n the seas and i n t he ai r. Thei r de
cl i ne, sti l l not ful l y understood, was marked by t he ex
pansi on of t hei r descen da nts, the bi rds an d mamma l s.
1 25
Turtl es
' '

Pl esi osaurs
JURASSI C
AQUATIC REPTI LES were abun
dant i n t he Mesozoi c, as rep
ti l es mastered every major en
vi ronment . Some were fs h l i ke,
ot hers resembl ed the l at er
seal s , and s ti l l ot h ers were ser
pent l i ke.
1 26
Rhyncocephal i ans

I chthyosaurs
FLYI NG REPTI LES had l i ght ,
st rong s kel eton and wi ngs , sup
ported by an el ongated fnger.
Some were s mal l ; ot hers had
20-foot wi ng s pans . They were
con temporari es, but not ances
t ors, of earl y bi rds.
li zards
DI NOSAURS domi nated l and
l ife for t he 1 40 mi l l i on years of
the Mesozoi c. Ari si ng from t he
codont ancestors, t hey i ncl uded
two groups wi t h di st i nct hi p
structures : rept i l e- l i ke sauri s
chi ans and bi rdl i ke orni t hi s
chi ans. Worl dwi de i n di stri bu-
Bi rds
Crocodi l es

:. Sauropods
t i on, t hey were adapted to
many di ferent envi ronments.
They i ncl uded herbi vores and
carni vores and al so t he l argest,
most heavil y armored l and ani
mal s t hat have ever l i ved.
Reasons for t hei r ext i ncti on i n
the l at e Mesozoic are obscure.
1 27
ADAPTI VE RADI ATI ON of repti l es i nto forms adapted
to l i fe i n di ferent envi ronments was par al l el ed by
bi rds and mammal s after the repti l es became exti nct .
Adaptive radi ati on occurs i n the earl y hi story of many
groups, usual ly fol l owed by more speci al i zed adapta
ti ons to ni ches withi n the wi rer envi ronments .
OCEANS
FRESHWATER
EVOLUTI ONARY CONVERGENCE
i n form between geneti cal l y un
rel ated pen gui ns , dol ph i ns , i ch
thyosaurs and s h arks res ul t s
from adaptati on to s i mi l ar en
vi ronmental condi t i ons . I t i s
al so pres ent i n many ot her
1 28
LAND
groups. Al t hough each of t he
mammal i an tetrapod cl asses
represents a new or di s ti ncti ve
adopti on to l i fe i n vari ous en
vi ron ments , t he t h ree " h i ghest "
cl asses h ave each s uccessf u l l y
adapted to al l envi ron ment s .
['"''
/
1

Loons
Grebes
Rali tes
Crones, Rai l s,
and Al l i es

Cl i mbi ng Bi rds
Per chi ng Bi rds
ond Rol l ers
BI RDS are rare as fossi l s, because of t hei r fragi l e
skel etons and because many bi rds l i ve i n a reas where
buri al condi ti ons that l ead to preservati on are uncom
mon . Bi rds share t he egg- l ayi ng characteri sti cs of rep
ti l es from whi ch they arose, but t he i mportant, di sti nc
tive features i n t hei r di versi fi cati on and survival are
t hei r superb adaptati on to fl yi ng, t hei r care of t he
young, t hei r feat her cover i ng, and t hei r warm- bl ooded
ness . The hi story of some i mportant groups of bi rds i s
shown above.
1 29
EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS [Tr i Os s c to Recent) from
t he mammal - l i ke therapsi d repti l es ( p. 1 24) i s wel l doc
umented i n the fossi l record. Some fossi l s are so
transi ti onal i n character between the two groups that
there i s doubt whi ch t hey represent. Mammal s are
typi cal l y covered wi th hai r or fur, have di ferenti ated
teeth, are war m- bl ooded, and have hi ghl y devel oped
senses. Nearl y al l mammal s gi ve bi rt h t o t hei r young
onl y after a l ong peri od of protective embryoni c de
vel opment wi thi n t he mother ' s body, and t hen t he
mot her fee9s the young mi l k secreted from her mam
mary gl ands . These features and t he hi ghl y devel oped
br ai ns of most mammal s must have been of maj or i m
portance i n t he evol uti onary success of t he group.
Mammal s ' regul ated body temperature enabl e them to
survive i n a much greater envi ronmental range t han
di d the repti l es.
Ancest ral fos s i l mammal
bc h i dn a
1 30
THE OLDEST MAMMALS were
s hrew- si zed creat ures, a few of
whi ch reached about one foot
in l engt h. They are knon
from t hei r ti ny fossi l bones.
These mammal s remai ned i n
conspi cuous t hroughout t he
Mesozoi c.
MONOTREMES, l i ke the echi dna
(spi ny anteater) and pl at ypus
(p. 53) , l ay eggs and secrete
mi l k from modi fed sweat
gl ands. Thei r pri mi ti ve repti l i an
characteri sti cs s uggest t hat t hey
are an anci ent group, and t hey
are l i mi ted to t he Austral i a
area.
Pl at ypus
n u rs i n g you n g
SOUTH AMERI CA

Mars upi al Carni vore

Camel - l i ke Li toptern

Horse- l i ke Li toptern
Toxodont

Homal odot here
MARSUPI AL MAMMALS (Creta
ceous to Recent), s uch as kan
garoos and opossu ms , gi ve bi rt h
to very i mmature you ng t hat
are shel tered and fed i ns i de
t hei r mot her' s pouc h. Marsu pi al s
were wi despread i n South
Ameri ca i n t he Cenozoi c, s how
i ng many exampl es of conver
gence (p. 1 28) wi t h pl acent al
mammal s as i l l ustrated above.
The j oi ni ng of North and
PLACENTAL MAMMALS i ncl ude
most l i vi ng mammal s. Because
t he embryo i s nouri shed and
sustai ned by t he pl acenta wi t h i n
t he mot her ' s womb, t he new-
NORTH AMERI CA
Sout h Ameri ca by t he e mer
gence of the I st h mus of Panama
i n t he l at e Cenozoi c ended t he
i sol ati on i n whi ch t hes e marsu
pi al s had devel oped. Competi
t i on wi t h the better adapted
North Ameri can pl acent al s re
s ul ted in the ext i nct i on of most
mars upi al s. Many have s urvi ved
i n Aust ral i a because of t hat
cont i nent ' s conti n ui ng i sol at i on.
( After Si mpson )
born are more mat ure t han are
marsupi al s, pres umabl y a n i m
portant evol uti onary advantage.
The ol dest ( Cretaceous ) were
s hrewl i ke i n secti vores.
1 3 1
EARLY CENOZOI C MAMALS s howed a peri od of ex
pl osive radi ati on, repl aci ng the Mesozoi c rul i ng repti l es
i n al most every envi ronment. Reconstructi on above of
scene some 50 mi l l i on years ago i ncl uded ancestral l e
mur Notharctos ( 1 ) , carnivores Oxyaena ( 2) , Mesonyx
( 3) , hoofed mammal s Palaeosyops |4l, a titano
there ( 5) , and the ambl yods Eobasileus ( 6) , Uinta
therium |7|, and Coryphodon ( 8) .
Phenacodus
AR C H A l C H E R B I V OR OU S ,
HOOFED MAMMALS i ncl uded
Phenacodus, an adva nced con
dyl ar t h , wi th a l ong tai l , fve
t oes, and O carn i vorel i ke s k u l l .
Con temporari es were ambl y
pods and u i n t at heres ( above ) ,
wi t h t eet h modi fed for chew
i ng veget ati on . The cl awed
toes of ances tral for ms l ater
became modi fed t o hooves.
u
" Z
u
^ L
' L
J ~
J

J o

u
r
u
'
" L
O
L u
EVOLUTI ON OF CARNI VORES (After Col bert)
ARCHAI C CARNI VOROUS MAM
MA L S -t he creodon ts -were
mostl y smal l , sl ender, l ong
tai l ed creatures. They devel
oped cl aws, s harp teet h, and
s uppl e l i mbs. Some reached t he
s i ze of l i ons. Most creodonts
became ext i nct i n t he Eocene.
Fr om weasel - l i ke members of
t hi s group t here s ubs equent l y
devel oped t he ancestors of l i v
i ng cats, dogs, an d bears.
LATER CARNI VORES i ncl uded
ancestral for ms of fs s i ped (s pl i t
footed) cat s, dogs , hyenas , and
weasel s, al l of whi c h appeared
at di ferent t i mes . Web- footed
carn i vores (seal s, wal ruses) i n
vaded t he oceans i n Mi ocene
t i mes. The c l osel y rel at ed ceta
ceans, i nc l udi ng dol ph i n s an d
whal es, appear ed i n t he Eocene
and are s u perbl y adapt ed to
mar i ne l i fe.
1 33
MODERN MAMMALS arose i n Eocene and Ol i gocene
ti mes. Pl ei stocene reconstructi on shows gi ant ground
sl oth Megatherium ( 1 ) , bi son | 2l , saber-tooth cat ( 3) ,
horses ( 4) , wool l y mammoth ( 5) , camel - l i ke Camelops
( 6) , gl yptodont | 7l , a huge beaver Castoroides ( 8) , and
ground sl oth Mylodon | | .
MODERN HOOFED MAMMALS
( Ungul ates ) i ncl ude odd- toed
horses, t api rs , and rhi nos, and
even- toed, cl oven - hoofed cat-
ti e, pi gs, camel s, and deer,
whi ch di spl aced the earl i er
odd- toed ungu l ates. Changes
i n vegetati on had an ef fect .
Camel s
1 34
Pri mi tive

Rumi nant

Cottl e
Chevrotoi ns
FAMI LY TREE OF
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES
Pri mates
I nsecti vores
D
er mopterans

Chi ropterans
Pyrotheres
Adapti ve radi ati on of pl acent al mammal s . ( After Col bert. )
Radi at i on of ma mmal s i nto every envi ronment
i s typi fed by t hei r mastery of t he ai r and t he oceans
as wel l as t he l and. Bats and ancestral whal es both ap
peared i n t he earl y Tert i ary. On t he l and, speci al i zed
mammal i an groups devel oped. Rodents and rabbits
adapted to a vari ety of foods and ways of l ife, i ncl ud
i ng burrowi ng. Pri mates, many adapted t o l ife i n t he
trees, arose earl y i n t he Terti ary. El ephants and eden
totes ( sl oths and ar madi l l os) represent further speci al
i zati on i n adaptati ons.
!35
O
c
O
%
O
.

J
O
c
O
%
O
u
5
O
O

O O
c
O

%
,
~
O
2 u
O
c
O
%
O
u
EVI DENCE OF EVOLUTI ON of one speci es i nto a n
ot her over geol ogi c t i me i s provi ded by many mam
mal i a n groups. Two typi ca l exampl es are gi ven here.
TITANOTHERES were O group
of l arge Terti ary mammal s. Thei r
evol ut i onary devel opment i s
shown i n hi stori cal sequence

Brontotherium
platyceras
Manteoceras
manteoceros

Mesatihius
petergon1

bel ow. Ot her for ms al so ex

i sted, and t hei r evol ut i on i s al so
wel l document ed. (After Os
born. )

,f Brontotherium

leidyi
Dol ichorhinus '
hyognathus

Lambdotherium
popagilum
Eotitanops
princeps

Eotitanops
gregoryi
EVOLUTI ON OF PROBOSCI DEANS, GREATLY SI MPL I FI ED.
Elephas
Pl ei st. - Rec .
Pl i o.
Mammut
Mi o. - Pi i o.
Moeritherium
Eoc "Ol i g.
Palaeomastodon
Ol i g.
( AFTER OSBORN. )
Gomphotherium
Mi o. - Pi i o.
Stegodon
Pl i o. - Pi ei st.
1 37
GEOGRAPHI C DI STRI BUTI ON of l i vi ng mammal s re
fects the pattern of i nterconnecti on between conti
nents duri ng the geol ogi c past.
EUROPE, ASIA, AND NORTH
AMERI CA were connected for
much of Cenozoi c t i me, al l ow
i ng mi grat i on an d expl ai ni ng
many si mi l ari ti es of t hei r pres
ent fau nas . The di ferences t hat
do exi s t refect di feri n g cl i
mati c envi ron ments and recen t
devel opment of desert and
Rei ndeer
Bi son
Hedgehog
PlAEARCTI C
' *
.

mountai n barri ers to mi grat i on .

The faunas of South Ameri ca,
Austral ia, and Afri ca south of
the Sahara are qui te di st i nct .
These conti nents have been
separated from one anot her
t hroughout t he Cenozoi c. North
Afri can mammal s are more s i m
i l ar t o those of Europe.
Wi l d Horse
ORI ENTAl
" ~
Marco Pol o
Sheep
I ndi an El ephant
Fl yi ng
Phal anger
Koal a
Kangaroo
AUSTRAli AN
I SOLTION of South America
and Austral i a produced very
diferent mammal i an faunas, i n
which marsupi al s were at frst
the domi nant forms. They re
main abundant in Austral ia be
cause of its conti nui ng isol a
tion. I nterconnection of North
and South Ameri ca i n the l ate
Tertiary l ed to competition
and exti ncti on of many Sout h
American pl acenta l s.
Convergent evol uti on i n ex
ternal form between North
American placental mammal s
and fossi l South American mar
supi al s (p. 1 31 ) demonstrates
the i nfuence of natural selec
tion i n adaptation to si mi l ar
modes of l ife.
Geographi c di stri buti on of
other ani mal groups does not
necessari l y show same bound
ari es as mammal s. Pl ants and
mari ne i nvertebrates, f or ex
ampl e, have qui te di ferent di s
persal means, and therefore
diferent di stri buti on patterns.
Mountai n Goat
Cari bon
NEARCTI C
Musk Ox
Porcupi ne
Pronghorn Antel ope
Ki nkaj ou
Howl er Monkey
Capybara
1 39
Arboreo|
i osec|i vores
Rel ati ons hi ps between the mai n groups of pri mates. ( After Col
bert. )
PRIMATES are t he mammal i an order to whi ch l e
murs, tarsi ers, monkeys, apes, and man bel on g. They
tend to be rather rare as fossi l s, l argel y because of
t hei r char acteri sti cal l y arboreal habi ts. Most pri mates
show two fundamental adaptati ons to t hei r tree-dwel l
i ng exi stence: stereoscopi c vi si on and hands capabl e
of graspi ng. These two features, present i n al l but the
most pr i mi ti ve members, al l ow the pri mates to j udge
di stances accuratel y and t o swi ng from branch to
branch. They were al so i mportant, together with hi s
l arge brai n, i n t he devel opment of ground- dwel l i ng
man, al l owi ng hi m t o devel op i ncreasi ng ski l l s i n mak
i ng and usi ng tool s.
1 40
PROSI MI ANS (pre- monkeys) i n
cl ude l i vi ng l emurs, aye-ayes,
bushbabi es, and the more mon
key- l i ke tarsi oi ds. They arose i n
the Pal eocene, probabl y from
arboreal i nsecti vores, and be
came diversi fed duri ng the
earl y Tert i ary. They decl i ned
i n numbers duri ng l at e Tert i ary
t i mes, probabl y because of
compet i t i on from t hei r descen
dants, t he ant hropoi ds. Prosi m
i ans st i l l s u rvi ve i n such pl aces
as Madagascar and Sout heast
Asi a. Prosi mi ans have l ess wel l
devel oped bi noc ul ar vi si on and
graspi n g l i mbs t han ot her pri
mat es.
ANTHROPOI DS i ncl ude mon
keys, apes, and men. They de
vel oped i n t he Ol i gocene and
Mi ocene from pri mi t ive pros i m
i an ancestors . Ol d Worl d mon
keys show fundamental di fer
ences from those of t he New
Worl d. Fl at - nosed, prehens i l e-
PL EI STOCENE
Notharctos, an Eocene prosi m
i an, about 1 8 i nches hi gh.
tai l ed South Ameri can forms,
such as marmosets, capuchi ns,
and spi der mon keys, seem t o
be more pri mi ti ve. Ol d Worl d
and New Worl d mon keys arose
i ndependent l y from prosi mi ans .
Thei r s i mi l ari t i es are t he res ul t
of convergent evol uti on.
Ne
w
Worl d
Monkeys
onkey
PI i opi t hecus
Austral opi thecus-Homo

, , ,

-
_ Oreopec
_ _
,
_
,
_
,
_ _ _ _
,
_

Ramapi thecus
APES MEN
EVOLUTI ON OF PRI MATES
( After McAl ester)
Gi bbon
M
7 :
= .

'q
#



Chi mpanzee

Gori l l a
Hyl obati dae , Pongi dae ( Apes)
RECENT
PLEI STOCENE
PLI OCENE
MI OCENE
.
.
.
t
|
Oreopi theci dae
.
.
.
.
.
-
. .
g ~
Pl i opi thecus
Oreopi thecus

.
-.
```
: l

e

Dryopi thecus
HOMI NOI DS-apes and men-are cl assi fed together
i n a si ngl e superfami l y, Homi noi dea. They show fewer
di ferences from one another t han do the Ol d Worl d
from the New Worl d mon keys, whi ch are i n separate
superfami l i es. The hi story of the homi noi ds above
shows thei r possi bl e evol uti onary rel ati onshi ps as re
veal ed by skul l s and by dental patterns.
1 42
W``P
=

=
#
e
e
4 o
Orangut an Austral opi thecus
Homo
t
|
t
t

|
|
I
o = = = = =
Ramapithecus
l
|

- = = = = = = = = m = = = = = = = = = =.
?
Ramapi thecus
LIVI NG APES i ncl ude the chi m
panzee and gori l l a, whi ch are
chi efy ground l i vi ng forms, and
t he gi bbon and t he orangutan,
whi ch are beauti f ul ly adapted
to arboreal l i fe. Al l l ack the
typi cal tai l of mon keys. Al l , OA^
cept perhaps the gi bbons, seem
to have ari sen from general -
Homi ni dae ( Men)
Austral opi thecus
i zed apes that were wi des pread
i n t he Ol d Worl d i n Mi ocene
and Pl iocene ti mes. Dryopithe
cus (Proconsu/J, whi c h i ncl uded
several forms most probabl y of
apel i ke proporti ons may al so
h ave gi ven ri se to t he a ncestors
of man . ( I l l us trat i ons adapted
from many au t hors . )
1 43
THE FAMI LY OF MN wh i ch s pans t he l ast 2 mi l l i on
years, i ncl udes t hree genera. Two of t hem are now ex
t i nct . Because of the rari ty of pri mate fossi l s and per
haps al so because of the i ntense i nterest i n the ori gi n
of man, there i s some di sagreement con cer ni ng t he
detai l ed rel ati ons hi ps of parti cul ar speci es wit hi n t he
broad patter n of evol uti onary devel opment . New di s
coveri es are sti l l bei ng made, and the provi si onal ac
count gi ven here may wel l requi re l ater modi fcati on .
RAMAPI THECUS, a sti l l poorl y
known homi nid, has been
fou nd i n l ate Mi ocene and Pl io
cene rocks of I ndi a and Afri ca.
The pa.ttern of its teeth s hows
a rat her s mooth semi ci rcul ar
outl i ne, whi ch is far more si mi
l ar to that of l i vi ng man t han
to t he quadrate pattern of the
apes (p. 1 42). Li ttl e is known
about other parts of t h
.
e s kel e
ton; and because of t hi s, the
reconstruct i on shown bel ow is
very ten tati ve. But the tooth
pattern i s so " h umani st i c" t hat
i t seems probabl e t hat Ramapith
OCU was closel y rel ated to
modern man.
AUSTRALOPJ THECUS (Sout hern
ape) i s al so regarded as cl osel y
rel ated to modern man , prob
abl y di rectl y ancestral to t he
genus Homo t o whi ch we as
sign our. own species, Homo
sop|oos.
Aust ra l opi t heci nes, once wi de
s p r ead i n Af r i c a, a r e n ow
t hought t o i nc l ude two speci es ( p.
1 43) . They were g round dwel l er s
about 4 f eet tal l . Al ready, how
ever, t hey had an upr i ght pos
t ure. Bones f ou n d wi t h t hei r re
mai n s s uggest t hat t hey were
car ni vores, but t h i s i s not cer
ta i n . I n denta l patt ern an d i n
gener al s k u l l for m, t hey were
very manl i ke, despi te thei r rat h
er protrudi ng j aws and brow
ri dges. Thei r brai n capaci ty
(about 600 cc) was onl y hal f
that of modern man.
There i s sti l l s ome doubt
whet her crudel y c hi pped stone
tool s associ ated wi t h fossi l de
posi ts were made and u sed by
aus tral opi t heci nes or by t hei r
descendants and ul t i mate con
temporari es, Homo erectus.
Austral opi t heci nes became ex
t i nct about hal f a mi l l i on years
ago. Recent di scoveri es i n
Kenya suggest t hat earl y forms
may dat e back as far as 2. 6
mi l l ion years.
1 45
WHAT I S MAN? Thi s quest i on is s urpri si ngl y d i ffi cul t
t o answer when appl i ed t o foss i l s . I t seems better to
restri ct t he t erm "man" to our own speci es, Homo sa
piens, and to regard ot her cl osel y r el ated for ms as pre
human, t hough some of t hese manl i k e creatu res di d
s hare t he human cha racter i st i c of tool man ufact ur e.
Moder n man appea red about 500, 000 yea rs ago.
HOMO ERECTUS i s known from
fos s i l s fou nd i n t he Pl ei stocene
sedi ments rangi ng from about
750,000 to 200,000 years i n
age. Though someti mes de
scri bed by other names ( most
commonl y Pithecanthropus}, i n
di vi dual s of t he speci es are
known from Java, Chi na, Af
rica, and Asia. N. erectus was
an erect, grou nd- dwel l i ng i ndi
vi dual who fash i oned vari ous
tool s and was apparentl y a
hunter. Manl i ke i n structure and
i n appearance, N. eredus had
a brai n capacity of 900- 1 1 00
cc, i ntermedi ate between t hat of
Austrafopithecus and modern
man. H. erectus was a contem
porary and perhaps a competi
tor of l ater austral opi t heci nes
from whose earl i er members
"he" evolved. H. efecfUs used
fre and l ed a communal l ife.
MODERN MAN, Homo sapiens,
seems to have ari sen from N.
erectus. For al most 200,000
years, t he two s peci es were
con temporari es. Modern man i s
characteri zed by l ess cons pi Cu
ous brows and j aws t han t he
earl i er homi ni ds and had a
much l arger brai n ( av. capa
ci ty about 1 350 cc ) .
Several races were i nvolved
in the fossi l h istory of man. Ne-
garded as a race of our own
speci es, l i ved t hroughout Eu
rope, the Medi terranean area,
and parts of Asia Mi nor from
about 1 1 0,000 to 35,000 years
ago, a peri od that i ncl uded
t hree epi sodes of gl aci at i on.
Neandert hal men l ived i n caves
and were s ki l l f ul tool makers
and h unters. They were not t he
st upi d brutes t hey ar e often
pi ctured as bei ng.
CRO-MAGNON MAN repl aced
Neandert hal Man i n Europe
about 35,000 years ago, prob
abl y mi grati ng from the Mi d
dl e East. Physi cal l y s i mi l ar to
modern man , Cro- Magnon man
man u fact ured s u peri or t ool s
and produced mast erpi eces of
art and scu l pt ure ( p. 1 49 ) .
anderthal man, l ong regarded
as a di sti nct speci es, was a race
of heavy- browed, muscul ar i n
divi dual s. The l ater Cro-Magnon
race had faci al features t hat
more cl osel y resembl ed those
of modern man. Al though these
diferences are real , t hey seem
anal ogous only to those of l iv
i ng human races, between
wh i ch i nterbreedi ng frequentl y
takes pl ace.
1H bVLU1 M 1LLb. Wea pon s, soci et i es, a n d
cul t ures ari se from and refect man ' s physi cal an d
ment al evol uti on . Bi nocul ar vi si on , manual dexteri ty,
and i ncreasi ng ment al capacity were paral l el ed by t he
i ncreasi ng perfecti on of man' s work as a craftsman .
THE OLDEST TOOLS were prob
abl y used but not made, con
si sti ng of stones and boul ders
conven i entl y shaped by nature.
Later tool s were crudel y chi pped
and s haped axes and scrapers .
These were gradual l y suppl e
mented and repl aced by del i
catel y chi pped bl ades and ar
rowheads of a vari ety of mate
r i al s , i ncl udi ng bone.
BONE AND ANTL ER WEAPONS
Magdel i ni an
About 1 0,000 years ago, t he
earl y c ul t ure of c h i pped i m
pl ements, t h e Pal eol i t h i c, gave
way in Europe to t he Neol i t h i c,
whi ch was mar ked by f i nel y
grou nd and pol i shed tool s an d
weapons. About 5,000 years
ago, man f i rst l earned to fas hi on
i mpl ements of metal . The "stone
age" sti l l pers i sts a mong some
l i vi ng peopl es .
HAND AXES
Acheul i an
SCRAPER
Mousteri an
SPOKESHAVE
Auri gnaci an
WEAPON HEADS
Sol utrean
CULTURAL EVOLUTI ON of man
i s gl i mpsed i n cave pai nt i ngs
and carvi ngs t hat dat e t o about
2 8 ,000 years ago. Bot h are
chi efy depi cti ons of h unt i ng
an d ferti l i ty. They may h ave
had " magi ca l " s i gn i fcan ce.
MAMMOTH CARVI NG
Magdel i ni an
Man ' s an ci ent bel i ef i n s ur
vi val after deat h is s hown by
Neandert hal and Cro-Magnon
s kel eton s bu ri ed i n fet al or
s l eepi ng pos i t i ons , wi t h i mpl e
men ts and tokens to be used
i n t he new l i f e.
4v
EVOLUTI ON OF HUMAN SOCI ETI ES arose from man' s
growi ng adaptati on to his envi ronment. Such l and
mar ks as t he di scovery and us e of fr e by Homo erec
tus and the devel opment of crop cul tivation, ani mal
husbandry, and pottery by Neol i thi c men produced
radi cal changes i n the patterns of human l i fe. Man,
ori gi nal l y a nomadi c hunter and herbi vore, coul d then
construct dwel l i ngs and gather i nto groups who estab
l i shed settl ements.
The need for communi cati on fostered the devel op
ment of i ncreasi ngl y sophi sti cated l anguage. The grow
i ng si ze of communi ti es necessi tated the divi si on of the
vari ous tasks i nvol ved i n survival and the creati on of
some form of govern ment. We know l i ttl e of t he de
t ai l ed devel opment of any of these, for writi ng was
not i nvented unti l about 5, 000 years ago. Earl y re
corded hi story i s very patchy, bei ng i nfni tel y more
compl ete for some parts of the worl d, such as Egypt,
t han for others . The earl i est soci eti es and thei r unwrit
ten l anguages, unl i ke the i mpl ements of earl y man, l eft
no records i n t he stone.
1 50
1Hb NbN N L bVLLU1 LN
Even before Darwi n publ i shed The Origin of Spe
cies, some rel i gi ous l eaders attacked t he concept of
evol ut i on because t hey t hought it t hreat ened t hei r
viewpoi nt; ot hers have embraced i t as a new i nsi ght
i nto t he wor k of God i n t he created worl d. Evol uti on
ary t heori sts h ave cl ai med evol ut i on as a j usti fcat i on
for mi l i tant pol i ti cal tacti cs; others have endorsed i t as
i l l ustrati ng t he i nevi tabi l i ty of harmoni ous pol i ti cal de
vel opment. Some economi sts have cl ai med i t as an ar
gument for laissez-faire economi c pol i ci es, whi l e a few
sci enti sts have used it as a basi s for a new code of
et hi cs. Some popul ar writers, attacki ng tradi ti onal re
l i gi ous bel i ef, have adopted evol uti oni sm as a new re
l i gi on . Sel dom has a sci enti fc theory so qui ckl y become
al l t hi ngs t o al l men. Sel dom has a natural process
been so carel essl y used as an expository basi s for the
whol e pattern of human l i fe.
Cont emporary cartoon and
verse i ndicates Vi ctori an i nter
est i n the meani ng of evol uti on _
Am I Satyr or Man?
Pr ay tel l me wh o con,
And sett l e my p l ace i n t he s cal e,
A mon i n ape' s s hape,
An ant h ropoi d ape,
Or mon key depri ved of hi s tai l ?
T h e Vest i ges tau gh t ,
Th at al l c ame f r om naught
By "devel opment , " so c al l ed,
' ' prog ress i ve; "
That i nsects and wor ms
Ass u me h i gher for ms
By modi f i cat i on excess i ve,
Then DARWI N set fort h ,
I n a book of m uc h wort h
The i mportance of "Nat u re' s sel ect i o
M N KbYNA.
Vi ctor i an cartoon depi ct s a pu zzl ed Darwi n an d h i s an cestors.
The I mpl i cati ons of Evol uti on
The process of evol u t i on i s a
fact . Nu merou s l i nes of evi
dence i n di cate t he descent of
new s peci es by modi fcat i on of
ancest ral forms over ext ended
peri ods. Al t hou gh t he mecha
n i s m i s s ti l l t heoret i cal , t here
is very s tron g evi dence t hat
nat ural s el ecti on, genet i c var i
at i on, and i s ol ati on are t he
c h i ef components . ( p. 1 02 )
Evol ut i on, l i ke any ot her nat
u ral process or sci ent i fi c t he
ory, i s t heol ogi cal l y neutral . I t
descri bes mechan i s ms, but not
mean i ng. I t i s based u pon t he
recogni ti on of order bu t i n
corporates no concl u s i on con
cerni ng t he ori gi n of t h at or
der as ei t her purposef u l or
pu rposel ess.
Al t hough evol u t i on i nvol ves
t he i n terpret at i on of nat ural
events by nat u ra l processes, i t
1 52
nei t her as s u mes nor provi des
part i c ul ar conc l us i ons concern
i ng t he u l t i mate s ources or t he
si gn i fcance of materi al s, event s
or processes.
Evol ut i on provi des no ob
vi ous concl us i ons concern i ng
pol i t i cal or economi c syst ems .
Evol ut i on no mor e s upports evo
l ut i onary pol i t i cs ( whatever t hey
mi ght be) t han does t he Second
L aw of Thermodyna mi cs s up
port pol i t i cal di sorder or eco
nomi c c haos.
Evol u ti on ofers no bas i s for
et hi cs. I t i s not sel f - evi dent t hat
s u rvi va l i s t he h i ghest good
an d t hat any mea n s of i t s at
tai n ment i s vi rt uous . T.H. Hu x
l ey wrote "The et h i cal prog
res s of soci ety depends , not on
i mi tati n g t he comi c process , s ti l l
l ess i n r u n n i n g away from i t,
but i n combat i ng i t . "
EVOLUTI ON PROVI DES A PERSPECTIVE for man,
hence i s a si gni fcant contri buti on to human under
standi ng. Recogni ti on of the i mmensi ty of the span of
geol ogi c ti me, t he awesome scal e of cos mi c di men
si ons and processes i nvol ved i n t he l ong peri od of pre
organi c evol uti on, an d the pl ace of man hi msel f wi t hi n
the endl ess di versi ty of t he teemi ng l i fe on t he frai l
surface of our pl anet-al l these hel p t o enl i ght en and
sustai n man as he faces the chal l enge, the di l emma,
and t he mystery of hi s human conditi on .
Man k i n d, t he prod uct of organ i c evol ut i on, i s now
tec h ni cal l y equ i pped wi t h power, i f not t le wi l l , to con
t r ol t he f ut ur e devel opment of l i fe on eart h . Psyc hosoci al
evol ut i on has now di s pl aced t he ol der proces s es of
organ i c evol uti on i n h u man commu n i t i es . Knowl edge,
t r adi ti ons , val ues , and s k i l l s are now t ran s mi tt ed from
on e gener at i on to anot her t hrou gh book s an d teac h i n g
i n st i t ut i on s r at h er t han bei n g l ear ned an ew "from
scrat ch" by eac h n ew i n di vi dual .
Psyco-Soci al
Evol uti on
Appearance of ol dest known
fossi l s
Each segment
represents
approxi mat el y
50 mi l l i on
years
of
Earth
1 53
THE FUTURE EVOLUTION OF MN, of other speci es,
and perhaps of the whol e i ntri cate ecosystem of whi ch
we are a part now stands i n j eopardy. The pol l uti on of
the atmosphere on whi ch our existence depends has
now reached a cr i si s of maj or proporti ons i n most i n
dustri al i zed areas of t he worl d. Rapi dl y dwi ndl i ng re
serves of such essenti al commodi ti es as petrol eum and
many metal s threaten t he future not onl y of i ndustri al
producti on but al so of technol ogi cal l y based soci ety.
A conti nui ng expl osi on of human popul ati on, espe
ci al ly i n the l ess i ndustri al i zed areas of the worl d,
rai ses t he awesome possi bi l ity of wi despread fami ne
and starvati on withi n the next J0years.
Man al ready possesses the techni cal power to solve
these three maj or probl ems : pol l uti on, dwi ndl i ng mi n
eral resources, and overpopul ation . Whether he has
the wi sdom, t he wi l l , and the energy to solve them re
mai ns to be seen . I t i s i roni c that the future of the age
l on g process of organi c evol uti on may now depend on
the consci ous choice of man, a product of that process.
The danger, the chal l enge, and t he choi ce i nvol ve man
ki nd i n a common peri l and a common hope.
Evol uti on provi des no easy answers to man' s l ong
search for meani ng and no i nstant sol uti ons to man's
most pressi ng probl ems. It i s rather for man hi msel f
now to provi de the i nput-i n the recogni ti on of an
ethi c beyond t hat of survival , of a purpose beyond
t hat of gai n, and of a vi si on of l ife beyond that of
mechani sm and process. On such col l ective commi t
ments of men and of nati ons depend the survival of
manki nd and the future course of evol ution.
1 54
Pol l uti on of at mosphere in i ndustri al areas is a worl dwi de prob
l em. Worl d fami ne poses an i ncreasi ngl y s evere t hreat as bur
geoni ng popul at i on competes for l i mi ted resources. Worl d popu
l at i on proj ecti ons suggest gl obal popul ati on of 25 bi l l i on by 2070.
25 bi l l i on peopl e by 2070
Worl d popul at i on quadr upl ed
by 2044
Asi a : quadrupl ed by 2040
Worl d: doubl ed by 2007;
possi bl e fami ne
Asi a : doubl ed by 2005
i 6
T
` o
O
J
i L
5
. .
u
. .

M O k b I N f O k M A T I O N
The fol l owi ng l i s t of books i s on l y an i ntroduct i on to the vol u mi nous l i terat ure
on evol ut i on . Many mu seums al so provi de di spl ays, ta l ks , and l i terat ure.
Hi stori cal
Darwi n, Char l es, The Ori gi n of Species, Oxf or d Un i vers i ty Press, N. Y. , 1 956.
( 6th ed . , 1 872 repr i nted: The Wor l d Cl as s i cs . )
Greene, J . C. , Darwi n and t he Modern World Vi ew, Mentor Books, N. Y . , 1 963 .
Moorehead, A. , Darwi n and t he Seagl e, Harper and Row, N. Y. 1 969.
The Proce ss of Evol ut i on
DeBeer, G. , At las of Evol ut i on, Nel son and Sons , london, 1 964 .
Mayr, E . , Animal Species and Evolution, Oxford Un i vers i ty Press, N. Y. 1 963 .
Moore, R . , Evolution, Ti me- L i fe, I nc . , N. Y. , 1 962 .
Savage, J. M. , Evol ut i on, Hol t , R i nehar t ond Wi nston , N. Y. , 1 963.
Sheppard, P. M. , Nat ura/ Selecti on and Heredity, Hutch i n son , london, 1 95 8 .
Si mpson, G. G. , T h e Maj or Features of Evol ut i on, Col u mbi a Un i vers i ty Press,
N. Y. , 1 953 .
Smi th, J. M. , T h e Theory of Evol ut i on, Peng u i n Books, Harmondswort h , 1 95 8 .
Tax, S . , Evol ut ion after Darwi n, Un i vers i ty of Ch i cago Press, Ch i cago, 1 960.
The Course of Evol ut i on
Col bert, E. H. , Evol ution of the Vertebrates, J ohn Wi l ey, N. Y. , 1 95 5 .
Rhodes, F. H. T. , T h e Evol ution of l ife, Peng u i n Books, Bal t i more, 1 974.
Rhodes, F. H. T. , H. S. Zi m, and F. R. Shaffer, Foss ils, a Guide to Preh istor ic
L ife, Gol den Press, N. Y. , 1 963 .
The Evol uti on of Man
Dobzhansky, T. , Manki nd Evol vi ng, Yal e Un i versi ty Pr ess, New Haven , 1 962 .
Howe l l , F. Cl ark, Early Man, Ti me- l i fe Books, N. Y. , 1 965 .
LeGros Cl ark, W. E . , History of the Primates, Br i t i s h Museu m of Nat ur al Hi s
tory, london, 1 954; The Fossi l Evidence of Human Evol ut ion , Un i versi ty of
Ch i cago Press, Ch i cago, 1 964.
Oakl ey, K. F. , Man t he Tool-Maker, Bri t i sh Mu seu m af Nat ura l Hi story, l on
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The Meani ng of Evol ut i on
Barbour, | . G. , Issues in Sci ence and Rel i gi on, SCM ltd . , london , 1 966.
Lack, D. , Evol utionary Theory and Chri sti an Befief; the Unresolved Confl i ct ,
Meth uen and Co. , l td . , london , 1 957.
Si mpson, G. G. , The Meani ng of Evol ution, Ment or Books , N. Y. , 1 95 1 .
Tei l hard de Chardi n, F. , The Phenomenon of Man, Harper and Brot hers, N. Y. ,
1 959.
FHO\O Ck D| \5: p. 6- 7, To ur go Phot o Servi ce; p. 1 0, Bett mon n Ar ch i ves; p. 1 2,
Drawi ng by Smuel l awrence, phot ograph repri n ted by permi s s i on of George
Rai n bi rd, ltd . , Bett man n Archi ves; p. 1 4, Bettman n Arc h i ves; p. 1 5, Cu l ver Pi c
t ures; p. 1 6, George Rai n bi rd, ltd . , p. 1 8, Reynol d H. Ch ose; p. 1 9, Reynol d
H. Chose; p. 20, Bett man n Arc h i ves; p. 2 2 , Cul ver Pi ct ures; p . 23, Bet t monn Ar
c h i ves; p . 24, Uni ted Not i ons ; p. 26, Bettman n Arc h i ves; p. 27, Bell man Arc h i ves;
p. 28, Vi ctur A. McKus i ck; p. 46, The Ameri can Museu m of Nat ural Hi story;
p. 47, The Amer i can Mus eum of Nat ur al Hi s tory; p. 72, Photo Resear chers;
. 1 1 0, E. S. Borg hoor n, ( Harvard Un i vers i t y) ; p. 1 5 1 , Pu nc h Magazi ne 1 86 1 ;
p. 1 52, from Evol ut i onary Theory of Chr i s t i an Bel i ef, p . 1 54, Un i ted Not i ons ;
p. 1 55, Un i ted Not i ons .
1 56
Acant hodi an, 1 1 5
Acorn wor ms , 1 1 4
Ada m, 6
Adaptat i ons , 25, 3 3 , 42,
54, 79, 8 1 ' 88
Agnat ha, 1 1 4, 1 1 6
Al gae, 5, 1 1 0, 1 20
Al l el e, 6 1 , 66
Amb l ypod, 1 3 2
Ami no ac i ds , 70, 71
Ammon i a, 1 05, 1 06
Ammon i te, 1 09
Amph i bi an , 1 1 7, 1 1 9, 1 24
Anal ogous s t r uc t ures , 39
An con s heep, 7 4
Anemi a, s i c kl e- ce l l , 92
An gi os per ms , 1 2 1 , 1 22,
1 23
An i mal s , n u mber of, 5
ol dest , 1 1 0
An kyl osau rs , 1 27
An t eat er, s pi ny, 53 , 1 30
An t h ropoi ds , 1 4 1
Ant i arc h , 1 1 4
Ape, 1 40, 1 4 1 , 1 42, 1 43,
1 44
Arauc ar i a, 53
Ar chaeopteryx, 52, 94,
1 29
Ar i s t ot l e, 7, 1 0
Ar mad i l l o, 1 35
Ars i nat her es, 1 35
Art hr odi re, 1 1 5
Art h ropods , 5, 1 1 2 , 1 1 8,
1 1 9
Art i f act s , 1 09
Ar t i odactyl s , 1 3 5
Astrapot heres , 1 35
At mos phere, 1 07
ATP, 40
Aus t ra l i a , 1 1 0, 1 3 8, 1 39
Aust ral opi t h ecus, 1 43 ,
1 45, 1 46
Aye- aye, 1 4 1
Bacter i a, 1 1 0, 1 20
Bat , 1 35
Beagl e, voyage of, 1 6,
1 7, 1 9
Bea r , 86, 87
Beaver, 1 34
Beri ng St r ai t s , 77
l Mt
Berkender, | C . , 1 07
"Bi g bang" t heory, 1 04
B i rds , 1 1 9, 1 27, 1 28, 1 29
B i rkeni a, 1 1 4
Bi s on, 1 34
Bi ston bet ulari a, 47
Bl en di n g, 6 1
B l ood pi g ment s, 40
Bover i , T . , 28
Brac h i opods , 1 1 1 , 1 1 2, 1 1 3
Breedi n g , s el ect i ve, 44
Bryan , Wi l l i am Jen n i ngs ,
30
Br yophytes, 1 20
Bryozoan , 1 1 2, 1 1 3
Bus h boby, 1 4 1
Coec i l i o n , 1 1 7, 1 24
Co l omoi t es , 1 20
Col omophyt on, 1 2 1
Cambr i an, 1 07, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2,
1 1 3
Ca mel , 1 26, 1 3 1 , 1 34
Camel ops, 1 34
Cope Ver de I s l and, 43
Capuch i n , 1 4 1
Car bon , 35, 97, 1 05
Car bon di oxi de, 1 05, 1 06
Ca r bon i fer ous , 1 1 8
Carchorodon , 1 1 5
Car n i vores , 1 33, 1 35
Car t i l agi nous f i s h , 1 1 5,
1 1 6
Castoroides, 1 34
Cot , 1 33 , 1 34
Cotos t r oph i s i s , 1 4
Cot t l e, 1 34
Cove bear , 86
Cel l di vi s i on , 58
s t r uct u re, 32
Cen ozoi c , 1 1 6, 1 29, 1 3 1 ,
1 32, 1 34, 1 38
Ceph al opods , 1 1 2, 1 1 3
Cerotops i on s , 1 27
Cetaceans , 1 33 , 1 3 5
Cho l i cot her es, 1 3 1
Ch amel eon , 42
Ch i as mat a, 73
Ch i mpa nzee, 1 42, 1 43
Ch i ropterons , 1 3 5
Ch oon i c h t hyes, 1 1 7
Chondr i c ht hyes, 1 1 5
Chondr i tes, c ar bonaceous,
1 05
Ch ordat a , 1 1 4
Ch ordat es, 5
Chr omat i n , 67
Ch r omos omes , 28, 29, 56,
57, 58, 59, 63, 65,
66, 67, 73, 74
Clodose l oche, 1 1 5
Cl oms , 49, 1 09, 1 1 9
Cl as s i f i c at i on , 36
Cl i mat i us, 1 1 5
Cl u b mos s , 1 20, 1 2 1
Cockr oac h , 1 1 8
Cocos I s l and, 83
Col or b l i ndness, 66
Commu n i t i es , 35
Condyl ort h , 1 32, 1 3 5
Con i fer s, 5, 1 2 1 , 1 23
Convergence, 1 28
Coral s , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3
Cordai tes , 1 2 1 , 1 23
Coryphodon, 1 32
Cot ylosaurs, 1 26
Creodent , 1 33
Cretaceou s , 50, 1 23 , 1 29,
1 3 1 ' 1 32
Crocod i l es , 1 27
Cr o- Mog n on , 1 47, 1 49
Cr oss i n g- over , 73
Crossopteryg i an , 94, 95,
1 1 6, 1 1 7, 1 24
Cr ustacean , 1 1 9
Cu l t u re, evol ut i on of,
1 49
Cuvi er , Geor ges, 1 4
Cycads, 1 20, 1 23
Cynognat h us, 53
Dar wi n , Char l es , 1 5, 1 6,
I 7, 1 8, 1 9, 20, 2 1 ,
22, 23, 24, 25, 28,
42, 43, 44, 80, 82,
91 ' 1 5 1
Dar wi n , E ras mu s , 1 2, 1 3
Deer, 1 34
Demes , 45, 76
Democr i t on, 7
Der mopterons , 1 3 5
Devon i an , 55, 1 1 2 , 1 1 4,
1 1 5, 1 1 6, 1 1 7, 1 1 8 ,
1 1 9, 1 2 1 , 1 22 , 1 24
I 57
de Vri es , 27
Diot rymo, 1 29
Di cynodont s, 1 26
Di n os aurs , 37, 50, 1 09,
1 26
Di pl oi d, 57
Diplovertebron , 95
Di s t r i but i on, geograph i c ,
43
DNA, 56, 67, 68, 69, 70,
74
Dobz hon s ky, 8 1
Dog , 1 23
Do l ph i n , 1 28, 1 33
Dreponospi s, 1 1 4
Dreponi di ds , 88, 89
Drosophi l a, 28, 29, 8 1
Dryopi t hecus, 1 42, 1 43
Dunk losteus, 1 1 5
Eart h , 96, 97, 1 04, 1 05,
1 07
Ec hi dna, 53, 1 30
Echi noder m, 1 1 2, 1 1 4
Ecosystem, 35
Edentotes, 1 35
Eggs , devel opment of, 57
El ephant s , 1 35
Embryoni c devel opment ,
38
Eobosi l eus, 1 3 2
Eocene, 1 33, 1 4 1
Eospemotopteri s, 1 2 1
Eryops, 1 1 9
Escheri chia col i , 46
Essay on Populat i on, 20
Eu rypt er i ds , 1 1 2, 1 1 3
Eust henopteron, 95
Evo l u ti on , 23
and f ut ure of man , 1 54
course of, 1 05
i ndi cat i ons of, 30
patter ns of, 1 02
perspect i ve prov i ded
by, 1 53
pre- organ i c , 1 04
processes of, 56- 1 03
role, 1 00
s ynt hes i s t heory of, 28
Fer n, 5, 1 20, 1 22
t ree, 1 2 1
F i j i , 43
F i n c hes, Ga l apagos , 1 9,
82, 83, 88
I 58
F i s h , 1 1 4, 1 1 5, 1 1 6, 1 1 7
Fi s s i peds, 1 33
F l ower i ng p l ant s , 5, 1 22,
1 23, 1 3 2
Fora mi n i fer a, 48
Fos s i I s , 48- 53, 86
l i v i n g , 53
ol dest , 1 1 0
record, 54
types of, 1 08, 1 09
Frog , 1 24
Fucus, 1 20
F u n g i , 5, 1 20
Gal apagos I s l ands , 1 8,
1 9, 43, 82
Gametes, 57, 63 , 75
Genes, 56, 60, 63, 66,
67, 72, 74
Genes i s , Book of, 6
Genet i c dr i f t , 75
Genotype, 6 1 , 65, 73
Geol ogi c t i me s cal e,
98- 99
Gi bbon, 1 42, 1 43
Gi n kgo, 53, 1 2 1 , 1 23
Gl ossopler i ds , 1 20
Glyptodan, 1 7, 1 34
Gor i l l a, 1 42, 1 43
Gradu al i s t , 1 4
Gymn osperms , 1 23
Hapl oi d, 57
Hardy- Wei n berg
pr i nc i pl e, 65
Hawa i i , 88
Hel i u m, 97, 1 05
Hel i x, 1 1 9
Hemop h i l i a, 66
Hender s on I s l and, 43
Her bi vores, 1 33
Hereford catt l e, 74
Hesperorni s, 1 29
Heterozygous , 6 1
Homol dot here, 1 3 1
Homi n oi ds , 1 42
Homo erectus, 1 45, 1 46,
1 47, 1 50
sapi ens, 1 45, 1 46, 1 47
Homol ogous s t r uct u res,
39
Homozygous , 6 1
Hor ses, 5 1 , 1 00, 1 01 ,
1 3 1 , 1 34
Hu tt on, J ames , 1 5
Hu x l ey, T. H . , 2 3 , 1 52
Hydrogen, 35, 1 04, 1 05,
1 06
Hydrosphere, 1 07
Hyena, 1 33
Hyrocoi ds , 1 33
Hyrocot heri um, 5 1
l ch t hyorni s, 1 29
I c h t hyos aur , 1 26, 1 28
l cht hyostego, 95
l c h t hyosteg i ds , 95, 1 24
I cterus, 36
I g uana, 1 8
I n grom, Ver n on , 93
I n her i t once, 56
l ows of, 26, 62
mechan i s m, 27, 66
patter ns of , 60
probab i l i t i es , 63, 64
var i a bi l i t y, 72
I nsecti vores, 1 35, 1 4 1
I nsects, 1 1 8
I s l and speci es , 43
I s ol at i on, 1 39
genet i c, 76
geog raph i c , 1 9, 76
J el l yf i s h , 1 1 0, 1 1 2, 1 1 3
J upi ter , 1 05
J u ras s i c, 5 2
Kangaroo, 1 3 1
Kett l ewe l l , H . B. D . , 8 5
K u r ten, B . , 86
L abyri nt hodont , 95, 1 1 7,
1 24
L ock, Davi d, 83
L ogomor phs , 1 3 5
L amar ck, 1 2 , 1 3
L oncel et s , 1 1 4
L ead, 97
leod-. t h or i u m, 97
L emu r, 1 40, 1 41
Lepi dodendr ons , 1 20
lepos pondyl es, 1 1 7
L i fe, abu ndance of, 4, 5
adaptat i ons , 3 3
bi oc h emi c al
s i mi l or i ti es , 40
cel l st ruc t ure, 3 2
c l as s i f i cat i on of , 1 0
cont i n u i ty of, 3 1 , 44
devel opment of, 6
di vers i ty of, 5, 1 2
evol ut i on of, 1 07
g rowt h, 3 2
h i story, 1 4
i nterdependence, 3 5
metabol i s m, 3 2
nat ure of, 3 4
on l and, 1 1 8
or i g i n of, 8, 1 8, 1 06
protopl as m, 32
reproduct i on, 3 2
resem bl once, 36, 3 8
serol og i c al s i mi l ar i t i es,
41
s i mi l ar i t i es of , 36, 38
u n i ty of , 3 2
var i at i on of, 2 4 , 44,
45, 72, 73, 75
l i ght , s pectroscopi c on ol y-
s i s of, 1 05
L i ngula, 1 00
l i n noeus , 1 0, 1 1
l i nnoeon Soci ety, 2 2
l i ptopter n, 1 3 1
l i verwort, 1 20
l i zards, 1 27
lobef i n , 95, 1 1 7, 1 24
l obel i a, 88, 89
l u ngf i s h, 1 1 6, 1 1 7
lycopod, 1 2 1 , 1 22
Lye l l , Char l es , 1 5, 1 6
lyrebi rd, s uper b, 91
Mal ar i a, 92, 93
Mol t hus , Robert, 2 0, 2 1
Mammal s , 1 1 9, 1 28, 1 30,
1 3 1 ' 1 3 2, 1 33 , 1 34,
1 35, 1 36, 1 37, 1 38,
1 39, 1
4
0, 1 41 , 1 42 ,
1 43
Mammot h, wool l y, 1 08,
1 34
Man, 1 40, 1 4 1 , 1 42, 1 44,
1 45, 1 46, 1 47, 1 48,
1 49, 1 50, 1 54
Marmoset, 1 4 1
Marsh a l l , l . C. , 1 07
Mars upi al s , 1 3 1 , 1 39
Medus ion, 1 1 0
Megotheri um, 1 34
Mei os i s , 59, 73
Mel an i s m, 47, 85
Mendel , Gregor , 26, 27,
28, 29' 56, 60, 66
Mesonyx, 1 32
Mesozoi c, 1 1 6, 1 1 8, 1 22,
1 23 , 1 24, 1 25, 1 26,
1 27, 1 30, 1 32
Metabol i s m, 33
Meteori t es, 1 05
Met hane, 1 05, 1 06
Mi c hel angel o, 6
Mi grat i on, 77
Mi l l er , Stan l ey, 1 06
Mi mi cry, 90
Mi ocene, 1 33 , 1 4 1 , 1 43 ,
1 44
"Mi s s i ng l i nks , " 52, 94
Mi t os i s , 58
Mol l us ks , 5
Mon key, 1 40, 1 4 1 , 1 42
Monot remes, 53, 1 30
Morgan , T. H . , 28
Morph ol ogy, 38
Mososou rs , 1 27
Mos s , 5, 1 20
Mot h, peppered, 47, 84,
85
Mu tat i on , 27, 28, 46, 72,
74, 79, 1 03
Myol i no, 49
Mylodon, 1 34
Nat ur al s el ect i on, 20, 2 1 ,
25, 78, 79, 80, 84,
92, 94, 1 00
Neandert h al man, 1 47,
1 49
Neol i t h i c c u l tu re, 1 48,
1 50
Nept u ne, 1 05
New Gu i nea, 43
Newt, 1 24
Newton , 23
Ni trogen, 1 05
Noah ' s F l ood, 1 5
Nomenc l at ure, bi nomi al ,
1 1
Nothorctos, 1 3 2, 1 4 1
Not hosou rs , 1 26
Not oc h ord, 1 1 -
Not ou ng u l otes, 1 35
Obel i a, 1 1 1
Ol enel l us, 1 1 1
Ol i gocene, 1 41
On the Ori gi n of Species,
1 6, 22, 23, 52, 80,
1 5 1
Ophrys, 90
Oposs u m, 1 3 1
Orang u tan , 1 43
Orc h i d, s l i pper, 90
Ordovi c i an , 1 1 2, 1 1 3
Oreopi t hecus, 1 42
Or i ol es , 36
Or ni t hopods , 1 27
Ostei c htyes, 1 1 6
Osteolepis, 1 1 7
Ostrocoderm, 1 1 4
Overpopu l at i on, 24, 25
Oxyoeno, 1 32
Oxygen, 35, 1 05
Ozone, 1 07
Pochycepholo pectoralis,
1 02
Pa l eocene, 1 4 1
Pa l eol i t h i c c u l tu re, 1 48
Pa l eozoi c , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4, 1 1 6,
1 22 , 1 24
Pont odont s, 1 35
Porus, 45
Pasteur , 9
Peng u i n , 1 1 9, 1 28
Penns yl van i an , 1 22
Peri ssodactyl a, 1 35
Permi an , 53, 1 1 4, 1 25
Pet r i f i ed Forest Not i onal
Por k, 1 23
Phenocodus, 1 32
Phenotype, 61 , 65
Phol i doto, 1 35
Phos phorous , 1 05
Ph otosynt hes i s , 1 06
Phyl a, 5
Pi g, 1 34
Pi n n i peds, 1 33
Pi t hecanthropus, 1 46
Pl ocent o l s , 1 3 1 , 1 35
Pl acoder m, 1 1 5, 1 1 6
Pl ocodont , 1 26
Pl ant s, 1 06, 1 20
n u mber of speci es, 5
ol dest, 1 1 0
vasc u l ar , 1 2 1
Plasmodi um, 93
P l ato, 7
Pl atypus , 53, 1 30
Pl es i osa u rs , 1 26
P l i ocene, 1 43 , 1 44
Pl i opi thecus, 1 -2
Pneumococcus, 67
Pol ypl oi dy, 74
Porpoi se, 1 1 9
1 59
Potassi u m- argon, 97
Pr ecambr i an, 98, 1 1 0,
1 1 1 ' 1 20
Pr i mat es, 1 3 5, !0, 1 41 ,
1 42, 1 43 , 1 44, 1 45 ,
1 46, 1 47' 1 48 , 1 49
Pri nciples of Geol ogy,
1 5, 1 6
Probabi l i t i es , 63, 64
Probosci deans , 1 35, 1 37
Proconsul , 1 43
Pr osi mi an s , 1 41
Protei n s , 67, 70, 1 07
Protolepidodendron, 1 2 1
Protopl as m, 3 2
Protozoans , 5
Ps i l aphyt es, 1 20
Psi l ops i d, 1 2 1 , 1 22
Pteraspi s, 1 1 4
Pterosaur s , 1 27
Pyrotheres, 1 35
Ra bbi t , 1 35
Races , 45, 76
Radi at i on, adapt i ve, 1 28,
1 35
Radi oact i ve el ement s , 96,
97
Rad i u m, 97
Ramapi t hecus, 1 43 , 1 44
Ray, 1 1 5
Ray, J oh n , 1 0
Recent , 1 30, 1 3 1
Recombi nat i on , genet i c ,
72, 73
Red i , Francesco, 9
Reproduc t i on, sex u a l , 3 3 ,
5 9, 73, 1 07
Rept i l e, 1 1 7, 1 1 9, 1 25,
1 26
R h i n oceros , 1 3 1 , 1 34
Rhyncocepha l i ans , 1 26
RNA, 67, 70, 7 1
Roden t s, 1 3 5
R u bi d i u m- st r ont i u m, 97
R u s h , scou r i n g, 1 2 1
Sal amander , 1 24
Sat ur n, 1 05
Sau ropods , 1 27
Sca l e i n sects , 46
I o0
Scorpi on, 1 1 8
Sea l , 1 33
Sea squ i rt s, 1 1 4
Seed fer ns, 1 20, 1 23
Sel ect i on , s exua l , 91
Sex , det ermi nat i on of , 66
Shar k , 1 1 5 , 1 28
Si c k l eb i l l s , 88, 89
Si c k l e- ce l l gene, 92, 93
S i l ur i an, 1 1 2 , 1 1 4, 1 1 8,
1 1 9
Si reni ans , 1 3 5
Skat es, 1 1 5
S l ot h, 1 34, 1 35
Snai l , 1 1 2 , 1 1 9
Snakes, 1 27
Soci eti es, h u man , 1 50
Sol omon I s l ands , 43, 1 02
Sout her n- ape, 1 45
Spassky, 8 1
Spec i es, changes i n , 46
foss i l , 48
i s l and, 43
new, 1 03
n u mber of, 55, 1 03
Sper m, devel opment of, 57
Sphenops i d, 1 2 2
Spi der , 1 1 8
Spi der mon key, 1 4 1
Spi ny an teater, 5 3 , 1 30
Sponge, 1 1 2
Spont aneous generat i on, 9
Spri ggi na, 1 1 0
St arf i s h, 1 1 3
St egosaur s , 1 27
Stereospondyl a, 1 1 7
St one age, 1 48
St romato l i tes, 1 1 0
Su bs pec i es, 45
Su l f u r, 1 05
S u rvi val of t he fi ttest , 78
S u t t on, Wa l ter , 28
Tapi noceph al i ds , 1 26
Tapi r , 43, 1 34
Tars i er s , 1 40, 1 4 1
Tar s i oi ds , 1 4 1
Taxodont , 1 3 1
Taxonomy, 36
Ter t i ar y, 1 00, 1 34, 1 3 5,
1 36, 1 39, 1 4 1
Text ulari a, 48
T h al l ophytes , 1 20
Th ecodont, 1 27
Ther aps i d, 1 30
Ther i odont , 53, 1 26
Theropods , 1 27
Ti me sca l e, geol og i c,
98- 99
Ti t , g reat, 45
Ti tanot h eres, 1 3 2 , 1 36
Toad, 1 24
Too l s , 1 48
Tor toi ses , 1 8 , 1 9
Toxodon, 1 7
Tr acheoph ytes , 1 2 1
Transmutat i on of Speci es,
20
Treehopper , 90
Tr i as s i c, 53 , 1 30
Tri ceratops, 50
Tr i l obi te, 1 08, 1 09, 1 1 1 ,
1 1 2
T u b u l i dent es, 1 35
T u rt l e, 1 1 9, 1 26
Un g u l ates, 1 33 , 1 34
U n i f or mi t ar i an i s m, 1 5
Un i nt at her i u m, 1 3 2, 1 36
Ura n i u m, 97
Uran u s , 1 05
U rey, Harol d, 1 06
U rodel es , 1 1 7
Ursus arctos, 86
spe l aeus, 86
Vasc u l or pl an t s, 1 2 1
Vertebrates , 54, 1 1 9
" c l asses of, 55
ol des t , 1 1 4
Vest i g i al s t r uc t ures , 39
Wal l ace, Al f red Rus se l ,
1 5, 2 0 , 22, 43
Wa l r us , 1 33
Weasel , 1 33
Wh al e, 1 1 9, 1 33 , 1 35
Wh i s t l er , g o l den , 1 02
Wol f , 1 3 1
Woodpec ker s, 42
Wor m, 1 1 0, 1 1 2
Wr i gh t , Sewa l l , 75
Zygot es , 57, 65
B C D E