European Journal of Psychology of Education

2002. Vol. xvn. n t. 63-73

2002, I.S.P.A.
The relation between phonological memory skills
and reading ability in Greek-speaking children:
Can training of phonological memory contribute
to reading development?
Katerina Maridaki-Kassotaki
Harakopio University, Athens, Greece
This study was designed to examine whether there is a relationship
between phonological memory and reading ability in Greek-speaking
children aged between 6 and 9 years. An additional aim of the study
was to investigate whether training of phonological memory during
preschool years enhances reading achievement during early school
years. In Experiment I, the phonological memory ability of /36 first
graders, 134 second graders and /32from each of the third andfourth
grades was assessed with a nonword repetition test. A reading test was
also used to evaluate the reading skills of the above subjects. The
results revealed strong links between reading performance and
nonword repetition scores. 120 kindergarten children randomly
assigned to a control and an experimental group participated in
Experiment 2. Training that involved practice in the repetition of
nonwords was used as a means ofpromoting the phonological memory
of the children in the experimental group over the course of one year in
school. Subjects' reading ability was tested during the last month of
their first year in the primary school. The findings showed that the
performance of the trained subjects in the reading test was superior to
that of the control subjects. Such evidence underlines the importance of
teaching children ofpreschool years phonological strategies in order to
boost their reading skills during early school years.
There is by now compelling evidence showing the relationship between phonological
memory skills and children's ability to learn to read, to learn new words, and to understand
language (for reviews see Fijalkow, 1999; Garhercole & Baddeley, 1993b). The task of
repeating meaningless phonological items (nonwords or pseudowords) like "plistont" or
"fleponist" has been widely used by researchers over the past twenty years to evaluate
phonological memory skills in children having problems of language processing and in normal
I would like to express my appreciation and thanks to Georgia Katsimalis and three anonymous reviewers for their
helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper.
64
K. MARIDAKI-KASSOTAKI
children. A common finding in the studies focused on developmental language problems is
that children of low reading abilities as well as language-disordered children are impaired in
repeating nonwords (for reviews see Gathercole, Willis, Baddeley, & Emslie, 1994; see also
Gathercole, 1995; Gathercole &. Baddelely, 1990; Gathercole & Martin, 1996).
Research with normal children has established that nonword repetition is both a reliable
measure of phonological working-memory capacity and a good predictor of a number of
language skills during early school years. Many studies have, far example, indicated that
vocabulary acquisition, reading of single wards and comprehension of spoken sentences in
children aged four, five and eight years are highly related to nonword repetition performance.
In these studies, nonword repetition ability was measured by means of the Children's test of
Nonword Repetition (CNRep) which has been developed by Gathercole and colleagues to
assess the ability to retain phonological information in working memory during early
childhood (see Gathercole, 1990; Gathercole & Adams, 1993, 1994; GathercoJe & Baddeley,
1993a,b, 1996; Gathercole, Hitch, Service & Martin, 1997; Gathercole, Willis, & Baddeley,
1991; Gathercole, Willis, Emslie, & Baddeley, 1992; Gathercole et al., 1994; for reviews see
also Baddeley, Gathercole, & Papagno, 1998).
Evidence reported in the above work has also established that the CNRep test is a better
predictor of reading skills than auditory digit span which is another measure of phonological
memory performance (see Gathercole et al., 1994). The Children's test of Nonword Repetition
(CNRep) consists of four sets. of nonwords, 10 each containing two, three, four, and five
syllables. The sequence of phonemes in each nonword complies with the phonotactic rules of
English language. Similarly, the stress structure of each syllable within each nonword has
been constructed to correspond to the syllable stress structure of the syllables of English words
of corresponding length.
In the studies investigating the contribution of nonword repetition to both phonological
memory and language development, the children serving as participants were native speakers
of English. Research in the examination of the relationship between nonword repetition ability
and language skills in children who are not speakers of English is very limited. It concerns a
small number of studies with children learning English as a second language (i.e. Cheung,
1996; Gathercole & Thorn, 1998; Masoura, 1999; Service, 1992; Service & I.ohonen, 1995).
The results reported in these studies attest to a link between nonward-repetition ability and
vocabulary acquisition. A study conducted with a small number of Greek-speaking children
has also led to similar results (see Maridaki-Kassotaki, 1998).
The purpose of Experiment I presented in this study was to test whether the finding that
there is association between reading achievement and nonward repetition performance of
Greek-speaking children obtained in a small-scale study bears large-scale replication. The
phonological memory of the children participating in this study was assessed by means of the
Test of Nonword Repetition for Greek-speaking children (NRGreek). This test was an attempt
to adjust to Greek language the Children's test of Nonword Repetition (CNRep) for English-
speaking children. To anticipate the results, children's reading skills were related with their
phonological memory ability.
The practical applications of the results presented in Experiment I were considered in
Experiment 2. It was assumed that the promotion of phonological memory in preschool years
by means of appropriate techniques aiming at enhancing young children's ability to retain
phonological information in working memory should yield benefits for language development
during early school years. On the basis of the evidence reported in Experiment 1 it can be
argued that one way to boost phonological memory skills for the purpose of improving
reading ability is to provide training that involves practice in the repetition of unfamiliar
phonological forms (nonwords).
Previous research with English and Greek-speaking children has emphasized the
contribution of training programmes to children's early reading development. In this research,
training was designed to enhance phonological awareness which is one of the two types of
phonological processing ability that playa critical role in the acquisition of literacy skills; the
other type being phonological memory. Evidence reported in the above research suggests that
PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY AND READING DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD 65
training programmes aiming at the improvement of preschoolers' phonological awareness
promote their later reading achievements (see Lindamood & Lindamood, 1969; Lundberg,
Frost, & Peterson, 1988; Tafa, 1997; Porpodas & Paleothodorou, 1999).
Thus far there is no research examining how training programmes aiming at the
improvement of young children' s phonological memory abilities influence their reading
development. The present study addressed this issue in Experiment 2. The purpose of
Experiment 2 was to explore whether the promotion of phonological memory during
preschool years is an effective predictor of reading performance in early school years.
Specifically, it attempted to train kindergarten children to repeat unfamiliar phonological
items (nonwords) in order to investigate whether practice in repetition of nonwords at age five
improves reading skills one year later.
Experiment 1
Method
Subjects
A total of 534 children living in Iraklion and Rethymnon, Crete participated in the study.
There were 136 first graders (mean age 6 years 4 months), 134 second graders (mean age 7
years 6 months) and 132 from the third and fourth grades (means: 8 years 4 months, 9 years 2
months for the third and fourth grade respectively). Subjects were predominately from middle-
class homes.
Design and procedure
The Test of Nonword repetition for Greek-speaking children (NRGreek) was given to all
subjects. The Test of Early Reading Comprehension (Vamvoukas, 1994) was administered to
the first graders and the Test of Reading Ability (Tafa, 1995) was given to the children of the
rest age groups.
The Test of Nonword repetition for Greek children (NRGreek) consists of 40 nonwords,
10 each comprising two, three, four and five syllables. The nonwords were made on the basis
of the criteria Gathercole and colleagues (1994) used to construct the nonword repetition test
for the purpose of a similar study with English children. According to these criteria, the stress
and phonotactic structure of each Greek nonword was similar to the stress and phonotactic
structure of Greek words of corresponding length (see Maridaki-Kassotaki, 1996). The 40
nonwords and their phonetic transcriptions are shown in the Appendix.
The test-retest reliability of the NRGreek was examined by giving the test twice to 40
kindergarteners and 55 pupils from each of the second, third and fourth grade. The two
successive test administrations were separated by a period of three weeks. The obtained test-
retest scores were highly correlated; 0.78 for the 5-year-old children and 0.83, 0.86 and 0.89
for the second, third and fourth graders. These scores have established satisfactory levels of
reliability for the test.
The nonwords were recorded on a cassette recorder. On the recording, an articulate male
speaker of Greek read aloud each nonword. There was a three-second interval between the end
of one nonword and the beginning of the next. Each child was tested individually in a quiet
room in his/her school. S/he was asked to listen to a "funny" word on the cassette recorder
and, then, repeat the word for the experimenter. The repetition attempt of each child was
immediately scored by the experimenter as either phonologically incorrect or correct. The
children's responses were also recorded for a countercheck. The total number of nonwords
correctly repeated by each child was his/her score (maximum=40).
66 K. MARIDAKI-KASSOTAKI
The Test of Early Reading Comprehension (Vamvoukas, 1994) was used for the first
graders. It consists of 30 items, which are either written words or short sentences. Each child
is asked to read silently the items and respond to the instructions conveyed by the meaning of
each word or sentence. Specifically, s/he has to either point to a picture which corresponds to
the meaning of a written word, or make drawings and/or complete a drawing following the
written instructions of a sentence, or fill in the missing letters, syllables and words in written
words or sentences.
The Test of Reading Ability (Tafa, 1995) was used for children aged between 7 and 10
years. It consists of 42 sentences of 8 to 30 words length. In each sentence there is a missing
word. Each child is asked to fill in every sentence with one of 4 words, which are written in
parentheses at the end of the sentence. The median reliability coefficient for the test, based on
split-half reliability scores for seven-to-ten-year olds is 0.91.
Children were tested in groups of twenty each in their classrooms. Testing lasted 50
minutes for each test and started after the children had been given practice in completing the
test with a number of examples not included in it. The second, third and fourth graders were
tested at the beginning of the school year while the first graders towards the end of it. The
score for each child was the total number of hislher correct answers (maximum 30 for the Test
of Early Reading Comprehension and 42 for the Test of Reading Ability).
Results
For each subject the total number of nonwords, which s/he repeated correctly as well as
the total number of correct responses s/he generated in the reading ability test, were calculated.
The mean scores for the Test of Nonword Repetition for Greek children (NRGreek), the Test
of Early Reading Comprehension for the first graders and the Test of Reading Ability for the
second, third and fourth graders are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Mean nonword repetition and reading scores across ages (the standard deviations are given
in parentheses)
Age
Nonword repetition test
Reading test
6 years
24.91(sd=3.3)
2I.7I(sd=2.5)
7 years
3I.30(sd=2.2)
3I.6I(sd=2.l)
8 years
34.89(sd=2.4)
36.07(sd=2.5)
9 years
37.94(sd=2.l)
39.34(sd=2.l)
Table 1 shows that the scores obtained for both non word repetition and reading tests
increase with age. The comparisons of the mean scores for each test separately on one-way
analysis of variance confirmed the above observation [F(3.533)=1449,4, p<.OOOl for the
reading scores and F(3,533)=648,3 for the nonword repetition scores]. The Scheffe tests showed
that the performance on the nonword repetition test and the reading ability test of the children
aged six years was worse than that of the children in each of the rest age groups. They also
revealed that seven year olds generated lower non word and reading scores than the children
aged eight and nine years. Nine year olds performed better than eight year olds on both tests
(each p<.05).
In order to explore the relationship between nonword repetition and reading ability,
correlations for each age group between the scores on the nonword repetition test and those on
the reading ability test were performed. These correlations are shown in Table 2.
PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY AND READING DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD 67
Table 2
Pearson's r correlations of scores on the nonword repetition test with scores on the reading
test at each age group
Age
Nonword repetition test
6 years
Reading test
0.75"
7 years
Reading test
0.74
8 years
Reading test
0.86
9 years
Reading test
0.88
Note. "Correlations are significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
A consistent finding emerged from the above correlations. Nonword repetition scores
correlated significantly with reading scores at all four years tested: at age six, r=0.75, p<OOOl,
at age seven, r=0.74, p<.OOOl, at age eight, r=0.86, p<OOOl, and at age nine, r=0.88, p<OOOl.
From the above findings it appears therefore that nonword repetition ability and reading
performance are closely related during early school years.
Experiment 2
The aim of Experiment 2 was to examine whether training which involves practice in
repetition of nonwords at age five enhances reading ability one year later.
Method
Subjects
The sample comprised one hundred and twenty children selected from four public
kindergartens in Iraklion, Crete. Subjects were randomly assigned to two groups of sixty
children each. Training was given to the subjects of one group. There were no differences
between the two groups in age, mental age and family background. The mean age of the
experimental group was 57,3 months (SD=4,24) while the mean age of the control group was
56,2 months (SD=4,83). Mental age was assessed with the Good-enough test (the mean IQ for
the experimental group was 118.75 and the mean IQ for the control group was 119.10).
Parental socio-economic status encompassed both blue and white-collar families.
Design and procedure
The phonological memory skills of the children comprising the experimental group were
improved with a training program involving practice in the repetition of nonwords. Nonwords
were constructed according to the criteria used in Experiment 1 for the development of the
nonword repetition test. Training started in October, one month after the beginning of the
school year and ended in May, ten days before the end of the year. It lasted seven months as
holiday breaks were excluded. Children were trained by the experimenter and the kindergarten
teachers who received special training for this purpose. Subjects in the trained condition
repeated 30 nonwords in five practice trials lasting 15 minutes on each of four consecutive
days every week. Control subjects were engaged in drawing or modelling with plasticine
during the time subjects in the experimental group had been exposed to the training program.
68 K. MARIDAKI-KASSOTAKI
When subjects entered their first grade of the Primary school, they were randomly
allocated to five classes of 24 children each so that each class comprised 12 control and 12
experimental subjects. All subjects were taught the Greek language as first graders on the
basis of the so-called "analytiko-syntheriki" method. This method is a combination of top-
down and bottom-up approaches to reading and is used by teachers in Greek public schools for
the teaching of Greek language as provided in the Greek National Curriculum for Primary
Education. It is compulsory for all teachers to use this method and follow the instructions and
guidelines for its application which are given in a teacher's manual that is distributed by the
National Ministry of Education to them each school year. The teachers were selected on the
basis of their initial training and teaching experience. All of them were graduates of a
university level department for Primary Education in Greece. Four of them had five years'
teaching experience and one had a teaching experience of four years and three months. In a
number of meetings with the teachers, which took place before the beginning of the school
year, the experimenter discussed with them the aim of the study and asked them to follow very
strictly the instructions for the teaching of Greek language given in the teacher's manual.
Phonological memory ability was assessed with the Test of Nonword repetition for
Greek-speaking children (NRGreek) while reading ability was measured with the Test of
Early Reading Comprehension. Both tests were used in Experiment 1.
Testing was completed in two phases. During the first phase the phonological memory
skills of the children were assessed on two sessions seven months apart that is at the beginning
and end of the training. The procedure followed was similar to that employed in Experiment 1.
In the second phase, the same subjects were asked to complete the Test of Early Reading
Comprehension ten days before the end of their first year in the primary school. The procedure
was the same as in Experiment 1.
Results
Table 3 shows the mean scores for both groups on the nonword repetition test at the
beginning and end of the training aiming at the promotion of phonological memory ability of
preschool children.
Table 3
Mean scores for the trained and control subjects on the nonword repetition test at the
beginning (Time 1) and end (Time 2) of the training programme (the standard deviations are
given in parentheses)
Time 1
Time 2
Trained subjects
30,28(sd=3,9)
37,13(sd=2, 16)
Control subjects
29,1O(sd=4,1)
30,18(sd=3,69)
The mean scores were compared on a t-test. The results revealed no significant
differences between the performance of the trained and control subjects before training
[t(l18)=O,38, p<lOJ. They also showed that training increased the number of nonwords
correctly repeated, with trained subjects surpassing control subjects as shown in Table 3
[t(118)=22,1, p<OOI].
The performance of both trained and control subjects in the reading ability test is
presented in Table 4.
PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY AND READING DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD 69
Table 4
Mean reading scores for the trained and control subjects (the standard deviations are given in
parentheses)
Trained subjects
28,06(sd'=3,05)
Control subjects
24,58(sd=2,84)
The comparisons of the mean reading scores yielded that the reading ability of the trained
subjects was significantly superior to that of the control subjects [t(118)=6,55, p<OOOlj. To
further explore this result, a univariate analysis of variance was conducted on the data with the
use of the General Linear Model (GLM) of the SPSS statistical package. Success on the
reading test as measured by the number of correct answers given by the subjects to the test
questions was the dependent variable, class (five in number) was the random factor and group
(experimental vs. control) was the fixed factor.
The results revealed a significant effect of group, thus showing that the trained subjects
performed better than the control subjects (F=35,5, p<05, with 1 d/). The effect of class was
not found to be significant. This result indicates that there were no reliable differences
between classes in relation to the reading performance of the pupils. It also suggests that there
was not significant variation in the performance of the teachers.
Taken together, therefore, the above results clearly indicate that the training used to
promote five year olds' phonological memory enhanced their reading ability a year later.
General discussion
The evidence reported in this study has established that nonword repetition ability and
reading performance at ages six, seven, eight and nine years are closely related to one another.
Such evidence replicates and expands the findings obtained in a previous small-scale study.
Further it adds support for previous research showing strong association between nonword
repetition andreading ability in English-speaking children (e.g. Gathercole et al., 1994).
The present findings therefore are of principal interest as they extend the relationship
between reading ability and nonword repetition performance to a language with different
phonotactic properties than English, the Greek language. Despite the differences in the
phonological structure between English and Greek language (see Joseph & Warburton-
Philippaki, 1987), the reported data do show that the association between nonword repetition and
reading ability is as strong for Greek language as it is for English. Such evidence raises the
question of the universality of the cognitive mechanisms operating in the acquisition of reading
skills during childhood. Further research testing the generability of the results showing the
relationship between nonword repetition ability and reading skills with a number of different
languages such as French, German, Italian, etc. might provide an answer to the above question.
An important finding of the present study was the beneficial effect in early reading
development of the promotion of phonological working memory with a training programme
involving practice in repetition of unfamiliar phonological forms (nonwords) during preschool
years.
The idea of training phonological memory in young children in order to boost their
language abilities has not so far been given much attention by researchers. Thus our knowledge
of the nature of specified educational techniques for the training of phonological memory in
preschool years is very limited. Some investigators, as mentioned in Gathercole and Baddeley
(1993b, p. 235), propose a number of phonological memory techniques for children at risk in
reading problems such as practice in naming letters and objects, remembering spoken sentences,
and listening to stories and nursery rhymes. Reported evidence shows that nursery rhyme
learning in preschool years enhances language abilities in normal children during school years
(Bryant, Bradley, Maclean, & Crossland, 1989; Macl.ean, Bryant, & Bradley, 1987).
70 K. MARIDAKI-KASSOTAKI
The present pattern of findings suggests that experience with repetition of nonwords in
preschool years provides a reliable way of promoting phonological memory for the purpose of
promoting reading skills in early school years. Exposing children to a programme involving
practice in the repetition of nonwords is a straightforward and easy task. Besides it is a
pleasant and interesting experience for them. As observed in this study, most of the subjects
showed enthusiasm in participating in the training programme. They were keen on repeating
the "funny words" - this is how nonwords were called by the experimenter - , and by the end
of the training programme the majority of them was able to generate nonwords on their own.
The possibility therefore for such training programmes to be included in the educational
activities that children are involved in during preschool years for the purpose of promoting
reading ability in early school years sounds quite feasible.
The benefits of promoting phonological memory by using practice in the repetition of
nonwords for the sake of later language development are clear for normal children. There may
also be benefits for children with language problems. If, for example, experience with non-
word repetition becomes a part of the intervention programmes that are used with children
with impaired development, the remediation of the language disorders of these children might
be facilitated. This is however an issue that requires further examination.
In summary, the findings have demonstrated that there is close correspondence between
phonological memory skills anel development of language abilities in Greek-speaking children.
It is worth noting here that the correlations obtained between memory and reading skills are
high as compared to the ones found in relevant studies (see for example, Gathercole et aI.,
1994). One possible explanation for this result might be that the reading test used in the
present study, which was the only available in Greek for this purpose, involved comprehension,
whereas the English tests used in similar studies comprise single word reading and accuracy of
word recognition and as such they are more sensitive to individual differences. Further
research is, however, required for a better examination of the above issue. The present
findings have also established that the training of phonological memory with the use of
practice in nonword repetition at age five improves reading achievements one year later. On
the basis of this finding the conclusion may be reached that educational programmes
providing young children with practice in nonwords may have positive results in language
ability during early school years. An issue that needs to be explored is the contribution of such
programmes to the remediation of language problems in language-disordered children.
Appendix
Nonword stimuli in Greek and their phonetic transcriptions
Number of syllables
Two syllables Three syllables Four syllables
MNEZO ETOBAI AnONElPITO
[rnnszo] [..,>VIi] [cponertto]
NTEElA Ln'\AKlNAL KAflLTPENI
[dt8u] [splckincs] [kujistreni]
LI1AEBO KE60<l>A KATAl>Orr<OL
[splevo] [kt,Sofa) [kntcoojnos]
BIrdOL MNOdAPO IPENIZO
[vlyMs] [mnoouro] [irenizo]
TOYLMOL LKEdATIL LfOAETOPM
[t'uzmos] [skecutis] [sjolerorfa]
PErnA nAAPElEKI NOKOWAIKI
[reync] [plurtiski] [nokcsplikt]
XPInO AOKTENLI XNIAEElOKIL
(Xri p6] [loktensi] [xnile8okis]
Bi\OYME6IA E'I'ANOAOYL
[fomis] [vlumsdic] [cpsunolus]
fKPOBAON
[grovI6n] [esmcto] [ukscrvesi 1
LEMnI MYPOAI LOPTEAOME
[sebi] [00Ir61;] [sorteiome]
Five syllables
ITOXTEAOMIL
[itojtelornis]
AAr APOY
[luyoiIttaru]
ATIOTZO<l>ATI
[upodjofnti]

[murcsepcoi]
L1AEElOLOYBA
[sile86suva]
nAKIElELfANO
[pukiBtsyuno1
EfNo=:onPELTI
[eynoks6prcsti]
A'I'OTOYXNIO
[cpsorujnio]

[kctcfuscta]
ELmrKIETI
[espingeti]
PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY AND READING DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD 71
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La presente recherche a ete realisee aupres des enfants grecs, ages
de 6 a 9 ans. Elle examine s'il y a des relations entre la memoire
phonologique et la capacite de lecture. De plus, elle cherche aexaminer
si I' exercice de la memoire phonologique pendant I'age prescolaire
ameliore la performance des enfants dans le domaine de la lecture au
cours des premieres annees de scolarite. Pour repotulre aces questions
nous avons procede de la facon suivante:
Au cours de lei premiere experimentation nous avons evalue a
L'aide dun test de repetition des mots sans sens reel (nonword
repetition test) la capacite de la memoire phonologique de 534 enfants
dont 136 frequentaient la premiere classe de l'ecole prima ire, 1341a
seconde, 132 la troisieme et 132 la quatrieme. Ell parallele, nous aVOIlS
utilise un test de lecture pour evaluer leur capacite en ce domaine. Les
resultats obtenus montrent l'existence d' une liaison ires forte entre la
performance au test de lecture et les scores au test de repetitions de
mots sans sens reel. Dans le cadre de la deuxieme experimentation 120
enfants suivant l'ecole matemelle etaient classes aux hasard en deux
groupes: (a) groupe experimental (60 enfants} et (b) groupe de controle
(60 enfants). Les enfants du premier groupe ont ere soumis ades
exercices de repetition de mots sans sens reel pendant une annee
scolaire. La capacite en lecture de l'ensemble des enfants a ete evaluee
pendant le dernier mois de leur premiere annee aI' ecole primaire. Les
donnees obtenues montrent que la performance du groupe experimental
est significativement superieure par rapport acelle du groupe de
controle. Cette constatation souligne l'importance de faire apprendre
au x enfant s d'Bge prescolaire des strategies qui [avo risent le
developpement de la memoire phonologique en vue d'ameliorer leur
capacite en lecture.
Key words: Children's reading performance, Nonword repetition ability, Phonological memory,
Phonological-memory training.
PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY AND READING DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD 73
Received: January 200 I
Revision received: November 2001
Katerlna Maridaki-Kassotaki, Harokopio University, 70, El. Venizelou str., 17671, Athens, Greece,
E-mail: kmaridaki@hua.gr
Current theme of research:
Children's cognitive and linguistic development
Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:
Maridaki-Kassotaki, K. (1997). Are rating-based procedures reliable for derivation of typicality judgments from children?
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 29(3), 376-385.
Maridaki-Kassotaki, K. (1999). Children's false-belief understanding: Is it related to social background and schooling?
In V. Rigas (Ed). Education ofEthnic Minorities: Unity and Diversity (pp. 392-399). Athens: Ellinika Grammata.
Maridaki-Kassotaki, K.. & Freeman, N. (2000). Concepts of pictures on display. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 2000,
18(2), 151-158.
Maridaki-Kassotaki, K., Lewis, C; & Freeman, N. (in press). Lexical choice can lead 10 problems: What do false belief
tests tell us about Greek alternative verb forms denoting agency? Journal ofChild language.
Maridaki-Kassotaki, K., Lewis, C; Freeman, N., Kyriakidou, C; & Berridge, D. (1996). Social influences on false
belief access: Specific sibling influences or general apprenticeship? Child Development, 67,2930-2947.