A. Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction in flowering plants is common.

Many different seed plants utilize one of a number of different methods of this form of reproduction. There are several reasons why seed plants may find this form of reproduction advantageous. If the environment has been stable for many generations, variability may not be as essential to the survival of the species. Asexual reproduction which is not as complex and requires far less energy, would be preferable. When colonizing a new area, finding a mate for sexual reproduction may be difficult or impossible. If the environment is particularly harsh, the more delicate or susceptible organs or stages of sexual reproduction may not be able to survive. Many plants which inhabit such areas as deserts or arctic tundra only reproduce asexually. In this laboratory, you will examine various types of asexual reproduction, which are described in the following paragraphs. Types of Asexual Reproduction 1. Rhizomes Plants such as the grasses, cattails and sedges produce underground stems or rhizomes. As these stems grow through the soil, they will periodically produce adventitious roots and a new above ground shoot. If the rhizome subsequently dies, a new separate plant will have been formed (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Plant Reproduction by the use of Rhizomes. 2. Tubers Tubers are actually modified rhizomes. They are formed in such plants as Irish potatoes. They develop when specialized stem branches grow down into the ground and swell up with starch containing cells. Buds on the tubers will grow into new plants. Examine the potato tuber and note the buds which are commonly termed "eyes" (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Plant Reproduction by the use of Tubers. 3. Runners (Stolons)

These are horizontally growing stems that produce few, if any, leaves. At the spot where a leaf would normally develop a node, these plants will produce adventitious roots down into the soil, and new above ground shoots. Examine the strawberry plant or spider plant. Note the runner and the new shoots (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Plant Reproduction by the Use of Runners/ Stolons. 4. Plantlets A few seed plants such as the duckweed and Kalanchoe sp. produce miniature plants on the margin of their leaves. These drop off and develop into mature plants. The duckweed, which is an aquatic plant, reproduces almost entirely by this method. Observe the plantlets on demonstration (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Plant Reproduction by the Use of Plantlets. 5. Bulbs Onions, chives and lilies over-winter in the form of a bulb. Each bulb has a very short stem which is surrounded by fleshy leaves. In the spring, the shoot apex begins to grow using the nutrients stored in the leaves. Examine the onion bulb and find the fleshy, storage leaves and stem (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Plant Reproduction by the Use Bulbs. 6. Corms This structure is similar to bulbs except that there are no storage leaves. The nutrients are, instead, stored in the swollen stem. Examine the demonstration of the corm and compare it with the bulb. Gladiolus sp. and Crocus sp. produce corms (Figure 11).

Figure 11: Plant Reproduction by the Use of Corms. http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/16cm05/16labman05/lb4pg7.htm

Development of the Gametophyte Plants

In the mosses and ferns, the only means of dispersal is the release of the mature spores from the sporangia. The spores fall to the ground and must develop into independent gametophyte plants. The early part of this development is particularly susceptible to damage or desiccation in the environment. In contrast, seed plants do not produce independent gametophyte plants nor does dispersal occur at the spore stage of the life cycle. The gametophytes of seed plants are very small and are retained within the sporangia throughout their development. In fact, the female gametophyte plant (or embryo sac) is never released from the parent sporophyte. The male gametophyte plant, the pollen grain, is only released from the microsporangium during pollination. a) Development of Male Gametophyte

Within each microsporangium there are many cells called microsporocytes destined to undergo meiosis to produce 4 haploid microspores. Each microspore then divides mitotically once, producing two nuclei that become encased in a thick wall forming the pollen grain (Figure 13, 14). One of these nuclei is referred to as the generative nucleus and the other is the tube nucleus. At this stage, the pollen grains are released from the anthers and are transferred, via the wind or animals, to the stigma of a flower. This process is known as pollination. The stigma is specially designed to receive the pollen grain which then germinates. The tube nucleus produces the pollen tube that penetrates the stigma and grows through the style until it reaches the ovary. By this time, the generative nucleus has divided once to produce two sperm nuclei. This three-nucleated structure is the mature male gametophyte. Observe slide #43 which illustrates male gametophyte development.

Figure 13: Development of the Male Gametophyte (Pollen Grain).

Figure 14: The Stages of the Development of the Male Gametophyte (Pollen Grain), a Microscopic View. Make a wet mount of the pollen grains from the flowers provided on display and note the sculpted walls of the pollen grains. What