DEFINITIONS The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was first used by John McCarthy who considers it to mean "the

science and engineering of making intelligent machines" [1]. It can also refer to intelligence (trait) as exhibited by an artificial (non-natural, manufactured) entity. The terms strong and weak AI can be used to narrow the definition for classifying such systems. AI is studied in overlapping fields of computer science, psychology and engineering, dealing with intelligent behavior, learning and adaptation in machines, generally assumed to be computers.

2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on creating machines that can engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent. The ability to create intelligent machines has intrigued humans since ancient times, and today with the advent of the computer and 50 years of research into AI programming techniques, the dream of smart machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are creating systems which can mimic human thought, understand speech, beat the best human chessplayer, and countless other feats never before possible. Find out how the military is applying AI logic to its hi-tech systems, and how in the near future Artificial Intelligence may impact our lives.
CONTENTS:

History AI in Philosophy AI in business

History
The field of artificial intelligence truely dawned in the 1950's, since then there have been many achievements in the History of artificial intelligence, some of the more notable moments include;

1950: Alan Turing introduces the Turing test to test of a machine's capability to perform human-like conversation. 1951: The first working AI programs were written to run on the Ferranti Mark I machine of the University of Manchester,written by Dietrich Prinz. 1958: John McCarthy invented the Lisp programming language. 1965: Joseph Weizenbaum built ELIZA (program), an interactive program that carries on a dialogue in English language on any topic. 1972: The Prolog programming language was developed by Alain Colmerauer. 1999: Sony introduces the AIBO, and Artificially intelligent pet. During the 1990s and 2000s AI has become very influenced by probability theory and statistics. Game theory applied to AI decision making. After 2000 Many Researches going on to improve existing system.They mainly focused on Robuts Robuts are learning for existing data.

AI in Philosophy:(mind and brain portal)

The strong AI vs. weak AI debate ("can a man-made artifact be conscious?") is still a hot topic amongst AI philosophers. This involves philosophy of mind and the mind-body problem. A true consciousness cannot be achieved by formal logic systems. Epistemology, the study of knowledge, also makes contact with AI, as engineers find themselves debating similar questions to philosophers about how best to represent and use knowledge and information. (e.g. semantic networks). (semantic means : relating )

AI in business
Banks use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations, invest in stocks, and manage properties. In August 2001, robots beat humans in a simulated financial trading

A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to organize bed schedules, make a staff rotation, and to provide medical information. Many practical applications are dependent on artificial neural networks ; networks that pattern their organization in mimicry of a brain's neurons, which have been found to excel in pattern recognition. Financial institutions have long used such systems to detect charges or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for human investigation. Neural networks are also being widely deployed in homeland security, speech and text recognition, medical diagnosis (such as in Concept Processing technology in EMR software), data mining, and e-mail spam filtering. Robots have become common in many industries. They are often given jobs that are considered dangerous to humans. Robots have proven effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may lead to mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in concentration, and other jobs which humans may find degrading. General Motors uses around 16,000 robots for tasks such as painting, welding, and assembly. Japan is the leader in using robots in the world. In 1995, 700,000 robots were in use worldwide; over 500,000 of which were from Japan (Encarta, 2006).

Applications

Pattern recognition o Optical character recognition o Handwriting recognition o Speech recognition o Face recognition Computer vision, Virtual reality and Image processing Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) Game theory and Strategic planning Game artificial intelligence and Computer game bot Natural language processing, Translation and Chatterbots Non-linear control and Robotics

Other fields in which AI methods are implemented

Artificial life Automated reasoning Automation Behavior-based robotics

Biologically-inspired computing Cognitive robotics Colloquis Concept mining Cybernetics

Data mining

Developmental robotics Epigenetic robotics E-mail spam filtering Evolutionary robotics Hybrid intelligent system Intelligent agent Intelligent control Knowledge representation

Branches of AI
Search
AI programs often examine large numbers of possibilities, e.g. moves in a chess game or inferences by a theorem proving program. Discoveries are continually made about how to do this more efficiently in various domains.

Representation
Facts about the world have to be represented in some way. Usually languages of mathematical logic are used. .

Common sense knowledge and reasoning

This is the area in which AI is farthest from human-level, in spite of the fact that it has been an active research area since the 1950s.

Learning from Experience

Programs do that. The approaches to AI based on connectionism and neural nets specialize in that. There is also learning of laws expressed in logic. Programs can only learn what facts or behaviors their formalisms can represent, and unfortunately learning systems are almost all based on very limited abilities to represent information.

Planning
Planning programs start with general facts about the world (especially facts about the effects of actions), facts about the particular situation and a statement of a goal. From these, they generate a strategy for achieving the goal. In the most common cases, the strategy is just a sequence of actions.

Heuristics

A heuristic is a way of trying to discover something or an idea imbedded in a program. The term is used variously in AI. Heuristic functions are used in some approaches to search to measure how far a node in a search tree seems to be from a goal. Heuristic predicates that compare two nodes in a search tree to see if one is better than the other, i.e. constitutes an advance toward the goal, may be more useful.

Genetic programming
Genetic programming is a technique for getting programs to solve a task by mating random Lisp programs and selecting fittest in millions of generations.

Artificial Blood vs Normal Blood

// Doctors and scientists have come up with lots of gadgets that can take over for parts of the body that break or wear out. A heart, for example, is basically a pump; an artificial heart is a mechanical pump that moves blood. Similarly, total knee replacements substitute metal and plastic for bones and cartilage. Prosthetic limbs have become increasingly complex, but they're still essentially mechanical devices that can do the work of arms or legs. All of these are fairly easy to comprehend -- swapping out an organ for a manmade replacement usually makes sense. Artificial blood, on the other hand, can be mind boggling. One reason is that most people think of blood as more than just connective tissue that carries oxygen and nutrients. Instead, blood represents life. Many cultures and religions place special significance on it, and its importance has even affected the English language. You might refer to your cultural or ancestral traits as being in your blood. Your family members are your blood relatives. If you're outraged, your blood boils. If you're terrified, it runs cold. It carries oxygen from your lungs to all the cells in your body. It also picks up the carbon dioxide you don't need and returns it to your lungs so you can exhale it. Blood delivers nutrients from your digestive system and hormones from your endocrine system to the parts of your body that need them. It passes through the kidneys and liver, which remove or break down wastes and toxins. Immune cells in your blood help prevent and fight off illnesses and infections.

Blood can also form clots, preventing fatal blood loss from minor cuts and scrapes.

Photographers Bruce Wetzel/Harry Schaefer, courtesy National Cancer Institute A scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. It can seem improbable, or even impossible, that an artificial substance could replace something that does all this work and is so central to human life. To understand the process, it helps to know a little about how real blood works. Blood has two main components -- plasma and formed elements. Nearly everything that blood carries, including nutrients, hormones and waste, is dissolved in the plasma, which is mostly water. Formed elements, which are cells and parts of cells, also float in the plasma. Formed elements include white blood cells (WBCs), which are part of the immune system, and platelets, which help form clots . Red blood cells (RBCs) are responsible for one of blood's most important tasks -- carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. RBCs are numerous; they make up more than 90 percent of the formed elements in the blood. Virtually everything about them helps them carry oxygen more efficiently. An RBC is shaped like a disc that's concave on both

sides, so it has lots of surface area for oxygen absorption and release. Its membrane is very flexible and has no nucleus, so it can fit through tiny capillaries without rupturing.

Photo courtesy Garrigan.Net Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, are shaped like biconcave discs. A red blood cell's lack of nucleus also gives it more room for hemoglobin (Hb), a complex molecule that carries oxygen. It's made of a protein component called a globin and four pigments called hemes. The hemes use iron to bond to oxygen. Inside each RBC are about 280 million hemoglobin molecules. If you lose a lot of blood, you lose a lot of your oxygen delivery system. The immune cells, nutrients and proteins that blood carries are important, too, but doctors are generally most concerned with whether your cells are getting enough oxygen. In an emergency situation, doctors will often give patients volume expanders, like saline, to make up for lost blood volume. This helps restore normal blood pressure and lets the remaining red blood cells continue to carry oxygen. Sometimes, this is enough to keep the body going until it can produce new blood cells and other blood elements. If not, doctors can give patents blood transfusions to replace some of the lost blood. Blood transfusions are also fairly common during some surgical procedures. This process works pretty well, but there are several challenges that can make it difficult or impossible to get patients the blood they need:

Human blood has to be kept cool, and it has a shelf life of 42 days. This makes it impractical for emergency crews to carry it in ambulances or for medical staff to carry it onto the battlefield. Volume expanders alone may not be enough to keep a badly bleeding patient alive until he reaches the hospital. Doctors must make sure the blood is the right type -- A, B, AB or O -- before giving it to a patient. If a person receives the wrong type of blood, a deadly reaction can result. The number of people who need blood is growing faster than the number of people who donate blood. Viruses like HIV and hepatitis can contaminate the blood supply, although improved testing methods have made contamination less likely in most developed countries.

Conculsion:
This is where artificial blood comes in. Artificial blood doesn't do all the work of real blood -- sometimes, it can't even replace lost blood volume. Instead, it carries oxygen in situations where a person's red blood cells can't do it on their own. For this reason, artificial blood is often called an oxygen therapeutic. Unlike real blood, artificial blood can be sterilized to kill bacteria and viruses. Doctors can also give it to patients regardless of blood type. Many current types have a shelf life of more than a year and don't need to be refrigerated, making them ideal for use in emergency and battlefield situations. So even though it doesn't actually replace human blood, artificial blood is still pretty amazing.

Heart On the most basic level, human beings are made up of five major components: A body structure A muscle system to move the body structure A sensory system that receives information about the body and the surrounding environment A power source to activate the muscles and sensors A brain system that processes sensory information and tells the muscles what to do

Of course, we also have some intangible attributes, such as intelligence and morality, but on the sheer physical level, the list above about covers it.

A robot is made up of the very same components. A typi robot has a mo vable physical structure, a motor of some sort, a sensor system, a power supply and a computer "brain" that controls all of these elements. Essentially, robots are man-made versions of animal life -- they are machines that replicate human and animal behavior. In this article, we'll explore the basic concept of robotics and find out how robots do what they do.

Your heart is the engine inside your body that keeps everything running. Basically, the heart is a muscular pump that maintains oxygen and blood circulation through your lungs and body. In a day, your heart pumps about 2,000 gallons of blood. Like any engine, if the heart is not well taken care of it can break down and pump less efficiently, a condition called heart failure.

Photo courtesy Abiomed

The AbioCor is the first artificial heart to be used in nearly two decades.
Until recently, the only option for many severe heart failure patients has been heart transplants. However, there are only slightly more than 2,000 heart transplants performed in the United States annually, meaning that tens of thousands of people die waiting for a donor heart. On July 2, 2001, heart failure patients were given new hope as surgeons at Jewish Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky, performed the first artificial heart transplant in nearly two decades. The AbioCor Implantable Replacement Heart is the first completely self-contained artificial heart and is expected to at least double the life expectancy of heart patients. In this article, you will get an in-depth look at how this new artificial heart works, how it's implanted into a patient's chest and who might be a candidate for receiving one of these mechanical hearts. We will also compare the AbioCor heart to the artificial hearts that have failed in the past

A Hydraulic-driven Heart
The average adult human heart pumps blood at a rate of 60 to 100 beats per minute. If you've read How Your Heart Works, then you know that the heart contracts in two stages: In the first stage, the right and left atria contract at the same time, pumping blood to the right and left ventricles. In the second stage, the ventricles contract together to propel blood out of the heart. The heart muscle then relaxes before the next heartbeat. This allows blood to fill up the heart again.

Chambers of a natural heart

Patients with an implanted AbioCor heart will still have atria that beat at the same time, but the artificial heart, which replaces both ventricles, can only force blood out one ventricle at a time. So, it will alternately send blood to the lungs and then to the body, instead of both at the same time as a natural heart does. The AbioCor is able to pump more than 10 liters per minute, which is enough for everyday activities.

Source: AbioCor

Diagram of the AbioCor heart

The AbioCor, developed by Abiomed, is a very sophisticated medical device, but the core mechanism of the device is the hydraulic pump that shuttles hydraulic fluid from side to side. To understand how it works, let's look at the various components of the system:

Hydraulic pump - The basic idea with this device is similar to the hydraulic pumps used in heavy equipment. Force that is applied at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid. A gear inside the pump spins at 10,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) to create pressure. Porting valve - This valve opens and closes to let the hydraulic fluid flow from one side of the artificial heart to the other. When the fluid moves to the right, blood gets pumped to the lungs through an artificial ventricle. When the fluid moves to the left, blood gets pumped to the rest of the body. Wireless energy-transfer system - Also called the Transcutaneous Energy Transfer (TET), this system consists of two coils, one internal and one external, that transmit power via magnetic force from an external battery across the skin without piercing the surface. The internal coil receives the power and sends it to the internal battery and controller device. Internal battery - A rechargeable battery is implanted inside the patient's abdomen. This gives a patient 30 to 40 minutes to perform certain activities, such as showering, while disconnected from the main battery pack. External battery - This battery is worn on a Velcro-belt pack around the patient's waist. Each rechargeable battery offers about four to five hours of power. Controller - This small electronic device is implanted in the patient's abdominal wall. It monitors and controls the pumping speed of the heart. The AbioCor heart, which is composed of titanium and plastic, connects to four locations:

Right atrium

Left atrium Aorta Pulmonary artery

The entire system weighs about 2 pounds (0.9 kg). In the next section, you will learn how surgeons implanted the AbioCor heart during a seven-hour operation.

Mobile Robots
Robotic arms are relatively easy to build and program because they only operate within a confined area. Things get a bit trickier when you send a robot out into the world.

Photo courtesy NASA

NASA's FIDO Rover is designed for exploration on Mars.

The first obstacle is to give the robot a working locomotion system. If the robot will only need to move over smooth ground, wheels or tracks are the best option. Wheels and tracks can also work on rougher terrain if they are big enough. But robot designers often look to legs instead, because they are more adaptable. Building legged robots also helps researchers understand natural locomotion -- it's a useful exercise in biological research.

Photo courtesy Fujitsu and K&D Technology, Inc.

Fujitsu's HOAP-1 robot

Typically, hydraulic or pneumatic pistons move robot legs back and forth. The pistons attach to different leg segments just like muscles attach to different bones. It's a real trick getting all these pistons to work together properly. As a baby, your brain had to figure out exactly the right combination of muscle contractions to walk upright without falling over. Similarly, a robot designer has to figure out the right combination of piston movements involved in walking and program this information into the robot's computer. Many mobile robots have a built-in balance system (a collection of gyroscopes, for example) that tells the computer when it needs to correct its movements.

Photo courtesy NASA

NASA's Frogbot uses springs, linkages and motors to hop from place to place.
Bipedal locomotion (walking on two legs) is inherently unstable, which makes it very difficult to implement in robots. To create more stable robot walkers, designers commonly look to the animal

world, specifically insects. Six-legged insects have exceptionally good balance, and they adapt well to a wide variety of terrain. Some mobile robots are controlled by remote -- a human tells them what to do and when to do it. The remote control might communicate with the robot through an attached wire, or using radio or infrared signals. Remote robots, often called puppet robots, are useful for exploring dangerous or inaccessible environments, such as the deep sea or inside a volcano. Some robots are only partially controlled by remote. For example, the operator might direct the robot to go to a certain spot, but not steer it there -- the robot would find its own way.

What is it Good For?

Mobile robots stand in for people in a number of ways. Some explore other planets or inhospitable areas on Earth, collecting geological samples. Others seek out landmines in former battlefields. The police sometimes use mobile robots to search for a bomb, or even to apprehend a suspect.

Photo courtesy NASA JPL

Urbie can explore areas that are dangerous to humans.

Mobile robots also work in homes and businesses. Hospitals may use robots to transport medications. Some museums use robots to patrol their galleries at night, monitoring air quality and humidity levels. Several companies have developed robots that will vacuum your house while you sleep. Autonomous robots can act on their own, independent of any controller. The basic idea is to program the robot to respond a certain way to outside stimuli. The very simple bump-and-go robot is a good illustration of how this works. This sort of robot has a bumper sensor to detect obstacles. When you turn the robot on, it zips along in a straight line. When it finally hits an obstacle, the impact pushes in its bumper sensor. The robot's programming tells it to back up, turn to the right and move forward again, in response to every bump. In this way, the robot changes direction any time it encounters an obstacle.

Photo courtesy NASA

The autonomous Urbie is designed for various urban operations, including military reconnaissance and rescue operations.
Advanced robots use more elaborate versions of this same idea. Roboticists create new programs and sensor systems to make robots smarter and more perceptive. Today, robots can effectively navigate a variety of environments. Simpler mobile robots use infrared or ultrasound sensors to see obstacles. These sensors work the same way as animal echolocation: The robot sends out a sound signal or a beam of infrared light and detects the signal's reflection. The robot locates the distance to obstacles based on how long it takes the signal to bounce back. More advanced robots use stereo vision to see the world around them. Two cameras give these robots depth perception, and image-recognition software gives them the ability to locate and classify various objects. Robots might also use microphones and smell sensors to analyze the world around them.

Some autonomous robots can only work in a familiar, constrained environment. Lawn-mowing robots, for example, depend on buried border markers to define the limits of their yard. An office-cleaning robot might need a map of the building in order to maneuver from point to point. More advanced robots can analyze and adapt to unfamiliar environments, even to areas with rough terrain. These robots may associate certain terrain patterns with certain actions. A rover robot, for example, might construct a map of the land in front of it based on its visual sensors. If the map shows a very bumpy terrain pattern, the robot knows to travel another way. This sort of system is very useful for exploratory robots that operate on other planets (check out JPL Robotics to learn more). An alternative robot design takes a less structured approach -- randomness. When this type of robot gets stuck, it moves its appendages every which way until something works. Force sensors work very closely with the actuators, instead of the computer directing everything based on a program. This is something like an ant trying to get over an obstacle -- it doesn't seem to make a decision when it needs to get over an obstacle, it just keeps trying things until it gets over it. .

Urbie's view