THE APPLICATION OF THE EMEW CELL TO THE NICKEL INDUSTRY

P.A.(Tony Treasure) Managing Director Electrometals Technologies Limited

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 1.0 2.0 3.0 INTRODUCTION THE BENEFITS OF THE EMEW TECHNOLOGY EMEW NICKEL APPLICATIONS 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.0 Crude nickel sulphate Low grade Cu-Ni leach solutions High grade nickel electrolyte Copper polishing from high grade electrolyte 3 4 5 4 7 10 12 13

CONCLUSION

ABSTRACT
Electrometals Technologies Limited has now brought from concept to commercial availability a new electrowinning technology which successfully overcomes many of the process and cost limitations which plague conventional plants. Progress in its development over the years can be tracked through papers presented to ALTA conferences at regular intervals between 1996 and 2001, this period being characterised by continual improvements in engineering of the technology, growing acceptance of its unique capabilities, and (most importantly) a growing number of installed facilities in a variety of process settings including a small commercial nickel facility in the US. The EMEW cell is now patented in most countries around the world. The high performance of the technology is simply achieved through a hydraulic mechanism which presents metal ions to a cathode in a far more effective and direct manner than in a conventional unit. Although the cell has now been widely demonstrated on a variety of metals, its capabilities are exemplified by its established operating performance in a number of settings related to the nickel industry, including: Production of nickel metal from crude nickel sulphate. Sequential production of copper and nickel from low grade leach solution. Selective removal of copper from nickel electrolyte. High current density nickel electrowinning from low to moderate grade solution. Scavenging of nickel (and cobalt) from low grade waste streams.

In essence, the technology offers the following potential to the industry: 1. It is capable of operation at current density levels 4-5 times that of a conventional unit, whilst maintaining similar current efficiency and high product density. Although power cost in the electrowinning will be slightly elevated, there is a significant potential benefit with respect to capital cost essentially one quarter of the cathode area for the same production capacity The nickel concentration range over which the EMEW cell will maintain efficiency is far broader than in conventional plants. There is an obvious advantage from the point of view of process versatility and control of the tankhouse. Furthermore, electrowinning becomes possible without a nickel concentration upgrade. The EMEW cell does not overcome the fact that a higher degree of chemical control is required in nickel electrowinning, due to the position of the metal in the electrochemical series. However, it would appear that pH levels required in the tankhouse are somewhat lower than generally required (2.5-3.0 rather than 4.0) and solution heating is not strictly necessary. The EMEW cell can be used to effectively, cleanly and viably remove copper from nickel solutions prior to electrowinning. It offers a more direct and positive mechanism for achieving this step than solvent extraction, leading to process simplification and versatility. An EMEW plant is a totally enclosed system, allowing rigid control and capture of EW gases and acid mist. It is noted also that, although pH control is required in the electrowinning, no diaphragm or membrane has been used in the cell in any of the above applications. Although required parameters have yet to be defined for nickel, the EMEW cell is capable of producing metal powder rather than cathode at high current efficiency. In this it offers the possibility of a totally automated nickel electrowinning and product finishing facility.

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1.0

INTRODUCTION

The annual ALTA conferences have provided a valuable long term venue for Electrometals Technologies Limited to present its EMEW electrowinning system to the mining industry. Progress in its development over the years can be tracked through papers presented to this forum at regular intervals between 1996 and 2001. This period has been characterised by continual improvements in engineering of the technology, growing acceptance of its unique capabilities, and (most importantly) a growing number of installed facilities in a variety of process settings including a small commercial nickel facility in the US. The Company has now brought from concept to commercial availability a new electrowinning technology which successfully overcomes many of the process and cost limitations which plague conventional plants. The high performance of the technology is simply achieved through a hydraulic mechanism which presents metal ions to a cathode in a far more effective and direct manner than in a conventional unit. The very high mass transport capabilities of EMEW derive from a radical redesign of the vessel in which electrowinning is performed, and in the method of circulation of the target solution. The essential difference is that the EMEW cell is constructed from a pair of concentric tubular, rather than planar, electrodes. The ends of the assembly are fitted with plastic end caps, thus forming a closed chamber through which target solution can be pumped at high rate. The resulting high flow and efficient mixing result in forced and continual supply of metal ions to the surface of the cathode. For electrowinning to be efficient, a balance between supply and demand (frequency and distribution of metal ions in solution, against amount of current applied to a cell) is required. In conventional units this balance is generally only achievable if the concentration of target metal in solution is high, normally achieved through a solution upgrading step such as solvent extraction or ion exchange. Even using these steps the capabilities of a conventional cell remain severely restricted, in the level to which current (or demand) can be raised and efficiency maintained. In other words, a conventional cell: Generally requires upgrading of the target solution Remains limited in its production capacity in treating high grade solutions Will maintain efficiency in only a narrow window of solution conditions

The EMEW cell completely changes the supply/demand relationship in electrowinning, broadening the metal concentration range over which the process can be efficiently applied; and increasing productivity of the process at a given metal concentration. Although the cell has now been widely demonstrated on a variety of metals, the capabilities of the EMEW system are exemplified by its established operating performance in a number of settings related to the nickel industry, including: Production of nickel metal from crude nickel sulphate. Sequential production of copper and nickel from low grade leach solution. Selective removal of copper from nickel electrolyte. High current density nickel electrowinning from low to moderate grade solution. Scavenging of nickel (and cobalt) from low grade waste streams.

2.0

BENEFITS OF THE EMEW TECHNOLOGY

The EMEW technology has now been demonstrated and proven in numerous process environments, both in mining and general industry. Its growing place in hydrometallurgy should be assured by a combination of physical, process and economic factors: It is extremely simple to operate and has no moving parts. Labour in its operation is essentially limited to monitoring and periodic harvesting of the metal. The cell is modular and portable, suiting relocation between operations. Cell cost is lower than for a conventional unit - even at production levels well below that required to support the capital costs of a traditional plant. The technologys capability of viably processing low grade streams is well proven and evidenced in its emerging key role in treatment of acid mine drainages streams. The efficiencies possible at low grade translate to higher grade solutions by allowing significantly higher current density than conventional units, thereby reducing plant size. The capability to operate over an extremely wide grade range reduces the impact of one of the major headaches in hydrometallurgy - the requirement to closely control metal concentrations to achieve high efficiency and product quality in the end step. The cell has been proven to be more tolerant of contaminants in solution (for example iron and chlorides) The cell, without any major change to the hardware, is capable of extracting a variety of metals including copper, nickel, tin, cobalt, antimony, silver and gold. Due to its high efficiency, the cell can be used to selectively electrowin differing metals from the same solution. The closed nature of the cell prevents acid mist in the plant and, importantly, allows rigid and direct control of the gaseous products from electrowinning. A key characteristic of the cell is that it can be used for direct electrowinning of metals from solutions which contain contaminants or nuisance concentrations of other metals without the use of an additional upgrading step such as SX. The cell can be used to produce a metal powder rather than plate, which can be automatically harvested by periodic high flow flushing of the unit. This system has been fully engineered on a larger model of the cell for treatment of acid mine drainage solutions

As a result of these benefits, the EMEW technology has a growing range of markets in which there is no direct competition i.e. where conventional electrowinning is generally not applicable.

3.0 3.1

EMEW NICKEL APPLICATIONS Crude Nickel Sulphate

A small commercial EMEW plant has been operating in the US for approximately two years as part of an integrated facility to recover nickel metal from crude nickel sulphate, and other waste materials. Plans are now being considered for expansion of the initial 0.75 tonnes per day operation. Prior to treatment, the crude nickel sulphate is redissolved to produce a solution of the following general composition: Nickel Arsenic Copper Iron Zinc : : : : : 55.6 g/l 0.3 g/l 3.2-9.0 g/l 1.0 g/l 0.5 g/l

During the extensive piloting which led up to the establishment of the operating plant, the use of EMEW was considered and tested for both: 1. 2. Direct electrowinning of contaminant copper to less than 50 ppm, and Direct electrowinning of nickel

The only additional process step required is adjustment and control of pH (3-3.5) in the nickel electrowinning stage, achieved through addition of soda ash. Temperature in the nickel EW circuit is maintained at 50 degrees C. Although provision was made for the copper removal step in the EMEW plant supplied, it has not been implemented in the commercial facility. This function is currently performed through coarse pH adjustment carried out immediately after the leach, but it is expected that the copper EW will be reinstated on expansion of the plant. EMEW performance EMEW performance in this application was well established through the piloting conducted; and the nickel circuit has subsequently performed to expectation. The results of the pilot work provide an illustration of measured EMEW performance and product quality over a wider range of conditions than are applied in the production plant. The following table provides a typical profile for the copper electrowinning step, through tracking relevant metal values during progressive treatment of a batch of solution at 250 a/m2 Time (hrs) 0 5 13 14 Ni (ppm) 39800 39300 39300 39400 As (ppm) 215 215 218 215 Cd (ppm) 26 26 26 24 Cu (ppm) 9550 5810 226 50 Fe (ppm) 282 283 288 284 Zn (ppm) 261 254 247 247

Effective current efficiency for copper in this run was 95%, on a cumulative basis down to 0.22 g/l Cu. The results illustrate the cells capabilities, at a relatively low pH, to selectively strip copper to levels at which contamination of the subsequent nickel are well within the specs for the market to which the product is being sold. The requirement for solvent extraction (or similar) removal of the copper prior to nickel electrowinning is therefore obviated in an easily controlled physical rather than chemical step. In the case of this target solution, pH adjustment is used to drop iron, zinc and arsenic to required levels to maintain final product purity. High current density use of EMEW to strip these metals as well as copper will be assessed as part of the ongoing programme.

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The following graph demonstrates the consistency achieved in direct nickel electrowinning using EMEW over a very wide range of metal concentration. Rate of depletion in the target inventory does not change markedly over a range of nickel concentration between <10 and 80 g/l Ni. In this case, electrowinning was performed at 440 a/m2 to produce a very dense nickel cathode, at a cumulative current efficiency of 85%.

N ic k e l E W
G r a d e d u r in g r e c y c le
100

80

Nickel (g/l)

60

40

20

0 0 10 20 T h o u sa n d s 30 40

amp hours

Progressive samples of the nickel cathode were taken through treatment of this batch of solution, to determine: 1. 2. 3. Overall quality of the product Relationship between nickel quality and solution concentration Deportment of initial contaminants in solution

Assays for relevant metals are provided in the following table (all other metals assaying at less than 0.01%): Sample amp hrs from 1 2 3 4 5 0.0 0.0 9.8 21.9 0.0 (000's) to 5.0 19.7 35.0 35.0 35.0 Ni 99.10 99.50 99.80 99.97 99.70 Cathode Co 0.38 0.20 0.06 0 0.13 assays (%) Cu Fe 0.02 0.01 0 0 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.12 0.03 0.07

Zn 0.46 0.22 0.05 0 0.12

Overall product from the run is suitable for the market into which the commercial product is being sold. The most significant contaminants in the nickel were cobalt and zinc. A definite pattern is shown for both contaminants, of progressive reduction over time to a point where they are not detected in product from 75% of the run. Two possible mechanisms for reducing contaminant levels further are suggested in the results presented: 1. 2. Prolongation of the direct EW copper removal step The use of high current density in a dummy circuit to precondition the solution

It has not been found necessary to implement either of these in the current plant.

Plant operation A number of operating challenges were encountered in start up of this facility. Most were related to the leach and precipitation circuits, but others reflected either the inherent nature of nickel electrowinning, or the natural desire of the operators to maximise production from the EMEW circuit. Problems were met with maintaining cohesion of the nickel on the stainless steel cathode sleeves during early operation. This phenomenon is related to the natural propensity for nickel cathode to become stressed during electrowinning, causing the cathode to curl inwards and frequent shorts in the cells. The effect was overcome through use of small quantities (25-50 ppm) of a proprietary additive in the solution, which successfully modifies crystal structure in the nickel as it plates. The additive has now been used on a long term basis to overcome the problem. Engineering of the EMEW cell has progressed significantly since supply of this facility, late in 1998. The nickel plant was equipped with an older model of the six inch diameter plating cell, which was predominantly of plastic (ABS) construction. This design has been used successfully on other plants (ranging up to 1200 cells in size) but, due to the potential for heating of electrical contacts, is restricted to a maximum current capacity of 180 amps per cell (360 a/m2). The commercial nickel plant has operated at all times at higher current density (440-460 a/m2) than specified, which has led to heating of electrical contacts and some deterioration of solution seals. Reengineering of the plating cell has led to a much more robust design, capable of operation in excess of 600 a/m2, which are now being considered for the plant expansion. The harvesting methodology established for this operation has worked well in long term operation. It will require additional automation for larger production plants. The principal drivers behind selection of EMEW for this operation have been: o o o o o 3.2 No additional process step for stripping of contaminants Efficient nickel electrowinning at grade lower than conventional plants Significantly higher current density operation No diaphragm or membrane is required in the cells The closed nature of the unit and prevention of acid mist

Low grade Cu-Ni leach solutions

The Company has conducted extensive test work targeted at direct electrowinning of both copper and nickel from low grade leach solutions, without solvent extraction. Performance in this application will be very dependant on actual solution chemistry, but successful bench scale work has now led to piloting and larger scale demonstration at a site in Western Australia. The two target metals behave differently in electrolysis due to their wide separation on the EMF series. The advantage of this is that, given an efficient electrowinning mechanism, copper can be electrowon first to very low concentration without depleting nickel. The position of nickel on the series (below hydrogen) makes recovery of this metal more difficult - and this generally requires, amongst other controls, the maintenance of relatively static pH conditions and low iron concentration. Again, given a highly efficient electrowinning mechanism, the nickel can be recovered from a neutralised or purified solution without upgrading its concentration. The target solution in this application has the following general characteristics: Ni Cu Co Zn Fe2+ Fe3+ pH : : : : : : : 10.0 g/l 6.0 g/l 0.5 g/l 0.2 g/l 10.0 g/l 5.0 g/l 2.7

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Piloting at the site in question is currently ongoing, with work to date concentrating on copper removal from the pilot leach solutions. Pilot operating data for nickel electrowinning was not available at the time of preparation of this paper, as this work had only recently commenced. Performance data reviewed below derives from the initial laboratory work, conducted in five separate stages. A coarse pH adjustment step was performed prior to direct copper electrowinning, to remove and/or minimise ferric iron. Even with the relatively high remaining iron in solution (approximately 6 g/l), direct electrowinning of copper was achieved in all runs down to very low level, essentially on a straight line basis down to less than 100 ppm. Performance in this step is illustrated in the following graph, which plots progressive copper concentration during treatment of one batch of solution:

T1a, Cu Profile
7.0 6.0 Assay, g/L 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 Time, hr 20.0 25.0

Periodic data recorded during this test run were as follows: Time hr 0.00 1.75 4.10 17.50 19.50 21.50 24.00 2.415 1.980 1.616 0.954 0.660 0.433 0.088 pH Voltage V 2.41 2.31 2.19 2.04 2.09 2.16 Concentration, g/L Cu 6.534 5.964 5.162 1.097 0.518 0.196 0.020 Ni 9.892 9.748 9.603 9.836 10.012 9.930 10.022 Cum. Eff (%) 0.00 82.39 84.65 78.59 78.04 74.57 68.66

It should be noted that time taken in this test to deplete the copper is not an indication of the time required for treatment of the solution in an operating plant. This will be a function of the number of cells installed, the total cathode area and the current density at which the cells operate - and will be designed to fit in with the overall flow sheet design. The above trial was conducted at a relatively moderate current density (150 a/m2) and produced a good dense malleable cathode of a weight that balanced with solution assays through the run. Subsequent tests were performed at higher current density (300 a/m2), targeted at production of a 100% automatically harvestable powder rather than cathode product. These tests successfully achieved their aim and depleted copper down to solution concentrations below 9 ppm.

Subsequent pilot trials, operating under conditions defined in the early test work, have depleted copper from the leach solution to below detection limit. Both cathode and powder copper production has now been trialed in the site pilot programme. The test programme demonstrated that operating conditions for efficient electrowinning of nickel from this low grade solution require more careful control than in the copper electrowinning step. In general, the required conditions are as follows: o o o o Minimal iron in solution Maintenance of pH >2.5 Moderate to high flow rate through the cells Moderate current density (300 a/m2)

The following graph tracks nickel concentration in solution through one of the series of tests conducted:

Test 4 - Nickel depletion

8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 g/l Ni 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0 20 40 60 80 100 elapsed time

Operating under the conditions laid out above, nickel was stripped on an almost straight line basis from the original 7.3 to 7.5 g/l down to a final concentration of around 1.4 g/l. No effort was made to take the test to complete depletion of nickel. Product was in the form of a dense nickel tube, which readily detached from the stainless steel cathode. Current efficiency over the entire grade range was of the order of 60%, with recorded power consumption being equivalent to between 5.2 and 5.6 kWh per kg of nickel. The results of this test programme demonstrated (to a level that justified progressing to the current pilot programme) that it is possible to mount a relatively simple treatment circuit for selective removal of copper and nickel from low grade leach solution, based largely around the use of the EMEW technology. The following treatment steps are contemplated: Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 : : : : Removal of ferric iron from leach solution by pH adjustment Direct electrowinning of copper to below 20 ppm Oxidation and removal of remaining iron Direct electrowinning of nickel, with continual pH control

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The use of solvent extraction prior to nickel electrowinning is a possible additional option. Although adding to the complexity of the circuit, the step would minimise contamination of the final product and could obviate the requirement for Step 3. It is suggested that EMEW would still be utilised in the nickel EW, particularly given the potential for very high current density operation and automated powder production and harvesting. As previously noted, EMEW piloting for copper at the site in question has been completed, and nickel electrowinning has recently commenced. It is considered that EMEWs place for copper removal in the future production circuit has been well established. The results of the current piloting are required before a judgement can be made whether direct EMEW or SX- EMEW would be the more appropriate step for nickel metal recovery. 3.3 High Grade Nickel Electrolyte

Electrometals recently completed a detailed scoping study on the capabilities of EMEW in electrowinning of nickel from relatively high tenor solutions. The programme was conducted using laboratory scaled EMEW cells, treating solutions that were fabricated to a typical electrolyte specification supplied by a major producer. The programme was targeted principally at establishing whether the EMEW cell can maintain high current efficiency at current densities well in excess of those used in established Ni EW plants. A secondary goal was to define, if possible, the parameters required to recover the nickel as a powder rather than plate product; and thereby offer a fully automated metal harvesting system. The composition of the solution tested was as follows: Ni: Na2SO4: Boric acid: pH: Co: Fe: Mn: Cr(3): Zn: Cu: Sodium lauryl sulphate: 100g/l 80g/l 6g/l 3.0 3.5 5ppm 1ppm 5ppm 1ppm 3ppm 0.1ppm 30ppm

The test programme was structured to provide operating data (current efficiency and plate quality) over the following range of conditions: Nickel concentration Current density Flow : : : 20-100 g/l 270-1650 a/m2 Low, moderate, high

All of the tests operated on the premise that continual pH adjustment of the target solution will be required to neutralise acid generated in the electrowinning and to maintain pH at a nominal level around 3. This was performed by automatic monitoring of pH and metered addition of dilute caustic solution. Although other methods will be more appropriate in an operating plant (for example addition of nickel hydroxide) this approach was chosen for simplicity reasons. Again in this programme a proprietary additive was required to ensure that nickel plate did not become stressed and detach from the cathode prematurely. Most of the test runs were performed over a current density range between 270 and 1070 a/m2, with some higher current runs being targeted at powder rather than cathode production. The following table summarises current efficiency achieved in those test runs where a coherent nickel cathode was produced, and an efficiency determination obtained through physical weighing of product:

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Test No.

~ C.D. A/m2 267 267 533 533 533 825 1067 1067

Flow L/hr Mod Mod Mod Low High High Mod Mod

Ni initial g/L 103.20 105.40 82.32 47.13 27.01 67.42 92.30 87.74

Ni final g/L 82.20 91.36 66.16 32.00 21.13 55.89 59.45 49.37

~ C.E. % 92 94 88 89 72 83 85 79

A B C D E F G H

It is clear that the EMEW cell is capable of maintaining high efficiency up to high current density, even with a falling nickel concentration. As would be expected the data do show a drop in efficiency with rising current density, but the effect over the range tested was not severe. Cathode quality (density and surface morphology) was generally very good throughout this current range, with some nodularity becoming evident at the higher levels. Product from the test programme was categorised as follows: 1 2 3 : : : Very smooth compact plate Compact plate with some nodules Solid but poor plate, tending towards dendritic

The following table describes morphology of the product obtained in the programme, again relative to current density, flow and nickel concentration. Test No. ~ C.D. A/m2 267 267 533 533 533 825 1067 1067 1067 1649 Flow L/hr Mod Mod Mod Low High High Mod Mod Mod Low Ni initial g/L 103.20 105.40 82.32 47.13 27.01 67.42 92.30 87.74 62.86 100.96 Ni final g/L 82.20 91.36 66.16 32.00 21.13 55.89 59.45 49.37 59.69 98.60 Plate quality 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3

A B C D E F G H I J

Similar to current efficiency, a reduction in plate morphology is indicated at the higher current densities, but product remains very compact and easily harvestable up to 1000+ a/m2. There was insufficient product from the run at 1650 a/m2 to obtain a meaningful current efficiency calculation, but (although solid) plate was dendritic at this setting. Due to hardware constraints in the test circuit, test work conducted to produce powder at extremely high current density was not completed. The indications from the test work indicate that extremely high current density would be required to achieve this aim or, conversely, nickel tenor in the target solution will have to be reduced.

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There can be little doubt that both current efficiency and plate morphology can be improved through further optimisation. However, even on a conservative basis, the programme has illustrated significant potential for improvement in nickel electrowinning performance using EMEW. The following are suggested as base operating conditions for considering the technology in this application: Current density Current efficiency Nickel concentration pH in EW : : : : 700-900 a/m2 85-90% 20-100 g/l 2.5 to 3.0

There is evidence that, with further tailoring of flow and solution chemistry, a high quality plate can be generated at current densities up to 1,500 a/m2 Using the current 6 inch diameter production cell, the above parameters would give a daily yield of between 8.3 and 10.0 kg of nickel per unit per day the eight inch cell (twice the cathode area) being capable of production of between 16 and 20 kg per day. The obvious result is that a production rate of (say) 20 tonnes per day of nickel would require 1,000 eight inch cells a relatively small plant. On this basis, it is believed that significant capital savings over a conventional facility could be achieved. Some peripheral benefits in using the EMEW cell in high grade nickel electrowinning would include: 3.4 The reported tests have all been conducted at ambient temperature The closed nature of the cell obviates the acid mist problem No diaphragms or membranes are used in the EMEW cell

Copper Polishing from High Grade Electrolyte

Quite extensive testing has been carried out on behalf of two clients, both major nickel producers, targeted at stripping residual (or nuisance) copper values from nickel electrolyte immediately prior to conventional electrowinning. This work is obviously similar in nature to that of much of that reported above but, in these cases, initial copper concentration has been significantly lower with feed liquor tenors ranging from 80 to 500 ppm. In all of this test work EMEW has been successful in stripping copper to less than 10 ppm; and, under some conditions, to less than 1 ppm. Current efficiency in this application is dependant on the initial copper concentration in solution, but is naturally low. However, it has generally been found that production costs are lower than the value of the product thereby achieving, at worst, a cash neutral remedy for removal of residual copper form these electrolytes. In the concentration range in question the product form the electrowinning will be a powder rather than plate, which will suit a fully automated EMEW powder plant, and therefore require little manual intervention.

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4.0

CONCLUSION

There can be little question that EMEW has a lot to offer this industry. The extensive test work carried out has proven that the cell is capable of operating well beyond the limits of a conventional tankhouse, particularly in the following areas: 1. It is capable of operation at current density levels 4-5 times that of a conventional unit, whilst maintaining similar current efficiency and high product density. Although power cost in the electrowinning will be slightly elevated, there is a significant potential benefit with respect to capital cost essentially one quarter of the cathode area for the same production capacity The nickel concentration range over which the EMEW cell will maintain efficiency is far broader than in conventional plants. There is an obvious advantage from the point of view of process versatility and control of the tankhouse. Furthermore, electrowinning becomes possible without a nickel concentration upgrade. The EMEW cell does not overcome the fact that a higher degree of chemical control is required in nickel electrowinning, due to the position of the metal in the electrochemical series. However, it would appear that pH levels required in the tankhouse are somewhat lower than generally required (2.5-3.0 rather than 4.0) and solution heating is not strictly necessary. The EMEW cell can be used to effectively, cleanly and viably remove copper from nickel solutions prior to electrowinning. It offers a more direct and positive mechanism for achieving this step than solvent extraction, leading to process simplification and versatility. An EMEW plant is a totally enclosed system, allowing rigid control and capture of EW gases and acid mist. It is noted also that, although pH control is required in the electrowinning, no diaphragm or membrane has been used in the cell in any of the above applications. Although required parameters have yet to be defined for nickel, the EMEW cell is capable of producing metal powder rather than cathode at high current efficiency. In this it offers the possibility of a totally automated nickel electrowinning and product finishing facility.

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Some of these aspects of the technology are, of course, already being realised in a commercial plant which has been operating for close to two years. It is considered that the only impediment to serious and immediate consideration of the EMEW technology for large nickel projects under development, would be a perception that harvesting of the metal form the cells is labour intensive. Engineering of a fully automated plate harvesting system for the technology has yet to be completed, largely due to the level of resources available to Electrometals, and has not yet been necessary for the EMEW applications being currently implemented. It is hard to believe that, given the level of engineering now available to industry, this actually represents a significant hurdle