JJ

i1J J
Oy
LLAHLNLL HA!NWA1LH
Professor of Physics
San Francisco State College
Original Project Editor
MtMtM . ZlN
Illustrated by
HAYNCNO |LHLNAN
Professor of Art, University of Illinois
GOLDEN PRESS NEW YORK
Western Publishing Company, Inc.
Racine, Wisconsin
LKbWLK
This Gol den Guide singl es out the phenomena of light and
col or and describes the scientifc concepts in easil y
understood terms. Light and col or are intimately invol ved
in our lives yet a real understanding of their nature is
rare. This book presents in simpl e terms the compl ex
physical , physiol ogical , and psychol ogical aspects of
l ight and col or. To condense this subject into this smal l
book required some sacrifce, so many detai l s and qual i
fying remarks have been omitted, and much of the data
has been presented in si mplifed form.
We are grateful to the i ndi vi dual s and organi zati ons
who generousl y suppl i ed data and l oaned pi ctures for
our i l l ustrati ons and to the authors of the many excel l ent
books whi ch were drawn upon for i deas and i nformati on
( Bi bl i ography on page 1 56) . We are gratefu l al so to James
Hathway, James Skel l y, and George Fi chter for their
edi tori al assi stance and to Dr. Frederi ck L. Brown for
hi s cri ti cal revi ew.
Photo td|tr: MI. Wilson & Palomar Obseratries, Copyright by California Institute of
Technlogy an Carnegie Institute of Wasingtn, 7, 74, 75; Clarnce Rainwater, 30,
56, 79, 92, 93, 95, 97, 119, 144; Enid Kotcnig, 31, 146; Ealing Corp., 46; O. C.
Rudolph & Sons, Inc., 54; Yerkes Obseratory, 72; lnstule for Intrnational Reserch, 96;
Florida Development Comission, 99; Roge Behrens, 109; ''The Printing Industry" by
Victor Strauss, 112; American Optical Co., 116; redrawn from Scientfc Amrican, 118; from
"An Intrduction to Color" by R. N. Evans, 120; Musell Colr O., 127; Conta iner
Corp. of America, 1 29; painting by Louis M. Condax from "The Science of Color," Optical
Societ of America, 132; The United Piece Dye Works, 140; Western Eletric, 142 (bot.
left); Edward Diehl, 143; Original Dufaycolor by Blanche Glasgow, American Museum of
Potograhy, 145; Elizabeth Wilcox (Polaroid), 147, Natinal Gallery of Art, Washingto,
D.C., Chester Dale Collectin: detai l from Self Portrait, 1889, by Paul Gauquin. 149:
Perkin-Elmer Corp., 152 (tap); Optics Technology, 152 (bot.).
Gctot~, A Gctot~ Guiot, Gctot~ Ptss ondGctot~Cr1
oretrodemorkso|Western Publishing Compony |nc.
; Copyright 1VZ 1 by Western Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved, including rights of
reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo process,
or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual
reproduction or for use in any knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is
obtained from the copyright proprietor. Produced in the U.S.A. by Western Publishing Company, Inc.
Published by Golden Press, New York, N.Y. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: CV-11VC/
ISBN -Z-CA-C
L1^^
NATURE OF LIG.HT AND COLOR . . 4
Measurement, speed of light, electromag
netic waves, spectra, rod iation
LIGHT SOURCES e . . . . . . . . . 1
Sun, electric lights, glow tubes, mercury
arc, fuorescent lamps, luminescence
ILLUMINATION
Sensitivity of eyes, brightness, photo
metric units, shadows, lightness
2
Ll G HT BE H A VI 0 R . . . . . . . . . b
Transmission, reflection, refraction, dis
persion, diffraction, interference, scatter
ing, absorption, fluorescence, phospho
rescence, polarization, double refraction
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS . . . . . .
Mirrors, prisms, diffraction gratings,
lenses, aberrations, telescopes, micro
scopes, projectors, enlargers, cameras,
photometers, colorimeters
S E E I N G Ll G HT AND C 0 L R . . . 4
Eye, sight, depth perception, illusions
T HE NAT U R E 0 F L0 L 0 R . . . . .
Hue, brightness, primary colors, comple
mentary hues, additive and subtractive
colors, color matching, color blindness.
COLOR PERCEPTION
Color constancy, contrast, afterimages
COLOR SYSTEMS
Munsell, Ostwald, CIE
1
12
LIGHT AND COLOR AS TOOLS 1
Harmony and discord, symbolism, paints,
pigments, dyes, business and industrial
uses, photography, printing, television,
lasers, fiber optics
MORE INFORMATION
INDEX . . . . . . .
1b
17
4
Natural li ght di spersi on-a double rai nbw
NATURE OF LIGHT AND COLOR
We know the wor l d th rough ou r senses: si ght, hear i ng,
touch, taste, and s mel l . Each sense responds to par
ti cu l ar sti mul i , and the sensati ons we experi ence gi ve
us i nformati on about ou r surroundi ngs. Si ght i s the most
i mportant of the senses . Th rough si ght we percei ve the
shape, si ze, and col or of obj ects; al so thei r di stance,
moti ons, and rel at i onshi ps to each other. Li ght i s the
sti mul us for the sense of si ght-the raw material of vi si on.
To understand t he fasci nati ng story of l i ght, l et us
expl ore i ts natu re, i ts mani festat i on of col or, i ts behavi or
i n l enses and pri sms , and then i ts uses i n sci ence and
art. Thi s wi l l hel p i n understandi ng how the sensat i on of
seei ng afects our acti on, ou r atti t udes, ou r moods, and
ou r dai l y experi ences.
COLOR i s t he essence of l ight;
li ght the essence of li fe. The green
pi gment of plants pl ays an essen
ti al rol e i n sustai ni ng al l li fe. The
col ors of many ani mals bl end
wi t h thei r surroundi ngs, hi di ng
the ani mals from thei r enemi es.
Some, l ike thi s anol e, can even
change thei r colors as t hey move
from one bckground to another .
Man has put l i ght and col or to work i n many ways.
Physi ci ans detect di seases by changes i n t he col or of
eyebal l s, throat, or ski n. The aci di ty of a sol uti on,
the composi ti on of an al l oy, the temperature of a fur
nace, and the vel oci ty of a di stant star can be de
ter mi ned by a col or or a col or change. Decorators
choose restful col ors for bedrooms , bri ghter col ors
for work areas. I n adverti si ng, a col or enti ces the
consumer to change hi s brand of breakfast food. Li ght
and col or gi ve meani ng to everyday contacts between
man and hi s worl d i n many ways.
Li ght and col or i nvol ve physi cal , physi ol ogi cal , and
psychol ogi cal factors . Physi ci sts deal wi th t he energi es
and frequenci es of l i ght waves and the i nteracti on of
l i ght wi th matter . Physi ol ogi sts study vi sual processes
and psychol ogi sts study the efects of vi sual and col or
percepti on. These three groups of sci enti sts devel oped
di ferent vi ewpoi nts and di ferent vocabul ari es i n tal ki ng
about l i ght and col or. After tong study, a commi ttee of the
Opti cal Soci ety of Ameri ca reconci l ed the di ferences and
set up a cl earl y defned and consi stent ter mi nol ogy.
A pri sm di sperses l i ght to
form a spectrum in a l obo-
ratory spctrograph j ust os
l i ght di spersed by rai n-
drops forms a rai nbw. ,
HI LGER SPECTROGRAPH
5
SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS i n
vol ve l arge and smal l numbers,
i nterrel ated uni ts, and great
preci si on. Our everday uni ts of
measurement come from the
Engl i s h system wi th i ts i nches,
gal l ons, and pounds and are
conveni ent to use onl y be
cause they are fami l i ar. The met
ri c system is favored by sci enti sts
because. the rel ati onshi p between
uni ts of l ength, vol ume, and
wei ght i s si mpl er. The system' s
us e of deci mal s al s o makes for
faster and more accurate computa
ti ons. large numbrs can be
expressed conci sel y.
Metri c uni ts of l ength are
used i n thi s bok. The tabl e
bel ow l i sts some common uni ts,
uses, symbl s, comparati ve val
ues i n meter s and i n i nches ,
and common obj ects of each
uni t ' s approxi mate si ze.
UNITS OF LENGTH
Unit Symbol
METER
measures m
radio waves
CENTI METER
measures
em
mic rowaves
MilliMETER
measures mm
microwaves
MI CRON
measures
i nfrared
MilliMI CRON
measures
m
l ight waves
ANGSTROM
measures ul tra- A
v iol et and
l ight waves
Equivalent in
meters, inches
1 m
39. 37 i nches
. 01 m (10-
2
m)
0. 3937 i n.
. 00 1 m ( 1 o-3 m)
. 03937 i n.
. 000001 m [ 1 0 m)
.000039 i n.
. 00000000 1 m [ 1 0-" m)
. 000000039 i n.
. 000000000 1 m ( 1 0-
10
m)
. 0000000039 i n.
About the
size of
A smal l
boy
A sunfower

seed
A grai n of
sand

A smal l
bcteri um

mol ecul e
A be"'e"" _
A hydroen
atom
Numbers i n t hi s bok are often
given as powers of 1 0. For ex
ampl e, 10
3
is 1, 000 ( read 10
3
as ''1 0 to the thi rd power' ' ;
t he 3 i s cal l ed an exponent),
and 1 06 i s 1, 000 , 000. Negati ve
exponents are fracti ons or deci
mal s; 10-3 is 1 11, 000 or . 00 1.
6
The Andromeda nebul a i s so far away that l i ght from it takes about
two and a hal f mi l l ion years to reach the earth . Studi es of l ight from
such cel esti al bodi es gi ve cl ues to the structure of the universe.
THE SPE E D OF LIGHT i n free space ( a vacuum) i s
1 86, 282 mi l es* per second. Thi s seems to be the
natural speed l i mi t i n the 1i verse. There i s good reason
to bel i eve that nothi ng con ever travel foster .
The speed of l i ght i n a vacuum i s a constant, al ways
denoted by c i n equati ons, as i n Ei nst ei n ' s energy equa
ti on, E * mc2 No matter what the source of l i ght,
or how fast the source and observer ore movi ng wi th
respect to one another, the speed of l i ght i n free space
i s al ways the some. Thi s r emarkabl e fact- i s bel i eved to
be true onl y of l i ght . The s peed of a bul l et, for exampl e,
depends i n por on t he speed of the gun from whi ch i t
i s fred and on t he speed of t he observer as wel l . The
speed of sound vari es wi th the speed of the measurer
but not wi th the speed of the source. The speed of l i ght
i s i ndependent of bot h source and measur er . I t i s a
uni versal constant, one of the most i mportant constants
i n al l of sci ence. The constancy of the speed of l i ght i s
a basi c postul ate of Ei nstei n ' s theory of rel ati vi ty.
Approx imotely J X 1 01 meters per second
7
8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES carry energy i n al l di rec
ti ons through the uni verse. Al l obj ects recei ve, absorb,
and radi ate these waves, whi ch can be pi ctured as
el ectri c and magneti c fel ds vi brati ng at ri ght angl es to
each other and al so to the di recti on in whi ch the wave
i s t ravel i ng. Li ght i s one form of el ectromagneti c wave.
Al l el ectromagneti t waves travel i n space at the same
speed-the speed of l i ght.
El ectromagneti c waves show a conti nuous range of
frequenci es and wavel engths ( pp. 1 0-1 1 ). Frequency i s
the number of wave crests passi ng a poi nt i n one second.
El ectromagneti c wave frequenci es run from about one per
second to over a tri l l i on-tri l l i on ( 1 0
J
per second. For
l i ght, the frequenci es are four to ei ght hundred tri l l i on
( 4-8 X 1 0'
J
waves per second. The frequency ti mes
the wavel ength gi ves the speed of the wave. The hi gher
the frequency the shorter the wavel ength.
ELECTROMAGNETIC STRUCTURE
OF LIGHT WAVES
magneti c fel d
El ectri c and magneti c fel ds ar
always perpendi cular to eac
other and to the di recti on C
moti on.
A "SNAPSHOT" OF A GREEN LI GHT WAVE
0 5, 000 A
WAVELENGTH is the di stance
from the crest of one wave to the
crest of the next. The hei ght of
a wave crest i s i ts ampl i tude and
1 0,000 A 1 5, 000 A
i s rel ated to the energy of the
wave. The wave shown i n the
di agram i s a green l i ght wave.
Di stances are i n Angstroms ( p. 6 j.
GAMMA RAYS AND X-RAYS, wi th wavel engths l ess than
1
O
A, are penetrati ng radi ati ons that are absorbed very
l i tt l e in pas s i ng through sol i d matter . The amount of
the absorpti on depends upon the dens i ty of the mate
rial , so these rays are useful for maki ng shadowgrams
( X- ray pi ctu res ) of the den ser parts of an obj ect.
UL1KVLLL1 KYb are produced i n gr eat quanti ty by
the sun and by speci al types of l amps . Though not de
tected by the eye, they do afect photograph i c fl m.
They al so cause suntan. Ordi nary gl ass does not tran smi t
much ul travi ol et so you do not tan behi nd an ordi nary
wi ndow. The wavel engths of ul travi ol et rays 1 0 A to
3,500 A) are l onger than those of X-rays but shorter than
those of l i ght . A bi t l onger than l i ght are the waves of
i nfrared radi ati on wh i ch we sense as heat .
9
LI GHT WAVES I N THE
frequency i n
cycl es per second
!D !O ! !D`
i ndu
c
tion radio i nfrared
power .
heati ng waves rays
!
J K !D' !D !D ID !D" ID' !D
1 0
wavel ength i n
Angstrom uni ts
VISIBLE LIGHT is that porti on of the el ectromagnet i c
spectrum t hat normal l y sti mul ates t he sense of si ght .
El ectromagneti c waves exhi bi t a cont i nuous r ange of
frequenci es and wavel engths. I n the vi si bl e part of the
spectrum these frequenci es and wavel engths are what
we see as col ors. The wavel engths of l i ght range from
3, 500 A to 7,500 A. The wavel engths of i nf rared
rays ( 7,500 A - 1 0, 000, 000 A) , l onger than l i ght rays,
are not detected by the eye, and do not appreci abl y
afect ordi nary photographi c fl m. They are al so cal l ed
heat or t hermal rays and gi ve us the sensati on of
warmth.
Because al l el ectromagneti c waves are basi cal l y
al i ke, we can expect them t o behave i n a s i mi l ar man
ner . Di ferences are real l y but a mater of degree and
are due to t he di ferences i n frequency. Li ght waves are
uni que onl y in thei r vi sual efects . The concept of col or,
for i nstance, has mea ni ng onl y i n reference to l i g
h
t waves.
ELECTROMAGNETI C SPECTRUM
I
Q
\
,
LI GHT
yel low
green
I
Q
\
s
I
Q
\
s
green blue-green
THE ELECTROMAGNETI C SPEC
TRUM, shown above, cover s al l
known radi ati on of whi ch l i ght
i s a smal l but i mportant part.
WAVELENGTH
OF VI SI BLE
RAYS
I
Q
z
a
]
Q
zz
I
Q
z
,
The expnded vi s i bl e porti on of
the el ectromagneti c s pectrum i s
seen as a conti nuous gradati on
i n hue from red through vi ol et.
The wavel engths [_ j
of vi si bl e l i ght ar e
what we see as
col or s. Red has the
l ongest waves, vi ol et
the shortest.

1 1
.
`

I I
4000 A 4500 A 5000 A
5500 A
Spctrum of sunl i ght s howi ng
A SPECTROGRAPH ( p. 5) separates a beam of l i ght
i nto i ts component wavel engths and di spl ays them i n a
spectr um. The spectrum of an i ncandescent l amp is a
conti nuous band of col ors rangi ng from vi ol et through
bl u e, green , yel l ow, orange, to red. Each col or bl ends
i nto i ts nei ghbors i n an unbroken band of wavel engths .
Sol i ds , l i qu i ds , and gases at very hi gh pressure gi ve
conti nuous spectra i f they are made hot enough.
Gases at l ow pres s ure have di screte spectra consi sti ng
of col ored l i nes or bands wi th dar k spaces between. A
gas gi ves a l i ne spectrum if i ts mol ecu l e cons i sts of a
si ngl e atom, a band spectrum if i t consi sts of more than
one atom. The gas can be i denti fed by the pattern of
its spectral l i nes or bands, and i ts temperatu re can be
determi ned by thei r rel ati ve i ntensi ti es.
TYPES OF SPECTRA
Conti nuous spectrum of i ncandescent l amp
~
.

'
v

Li ne spectrum of bari um


Band spectrum of carbon arc in ai r
I
'

6000 A

"

6500 A
pri nci pl F raunhofer l i nes ( p. 2 1 ) .
7000 A
If a l i ne or nar row band of the spectrum i s i sol ated
by a s l i t or by col ored fi l ters, the l i ght that comes
through i s cal l ed monochromati c l i ght . I t cons i sts of a
si ngl e wavel ength or a very narrow range of wavel engths
and exci tes i n the observer a sensati on of col or , such
as red, green, or bl ue. Whi te l i ght, such as s unl i ght, i s
a mi xture of al l vi si bl e wavel engths . An obj ect that re
fects al l wavel engths equal l y appears whi te to our eyes .
Each l i ght source emi t s a characteri sti c spectrum
whi ch can be pl otted on a graph showi ng how the
rel at i ve energy vari es wi th the wavel ength. Thi s rel ati on
shi p i s cal l ed the spectral energy di str i but i on curve for
the l i ght source. Most sources al so gi ve of i nvi si bl e
ul t ravi ol et and i nfrared radi ati on, so the compl ete spec
tr um usual l y i ncl udes more than j ust vi si bl e l i ght .
200
1 60

5 1 20
C
U
w
.
80

O
40
0
SPECTRAL ENERGY DI STRI BUTI ON CURVES
4000 A 5000 A 6000 A
Wavel ength ( i n Angstroms )
7000 A
1 3
L R
TEMPERATURE is a measur e of the
rate of random moti ons of mol e
cul es. Absol ute zero i s the tempera
tu re at wh i ch al l such moti ons are
at a theoreti cal mi ni mum. The Kel
vi n, or absol ute, temperat ure sca l e,
wi del y used i n sci enti fc work, starts
at absol ute zero. The freezi ng poi nt
of water i s 273

K, and the boi l i ng

poi nt i s 373

K. Equi val ent tempera

tu res on the Fahren hei t ( F) and
Cel s i us ( C) temperatu re scal es are
shown at l eft.
Temperatu re and the col or of a
hot obj ect are often cl osel y rel ated.
As a pi ece of i ron i s heated i t
changes i n col or from gray to red,
to orange, to yel l ow, and fnal l y to
whi te.
TEMPERATURE SCALES
RADIATION i s bei ng cont i nual l y
exchanged beteen every obj ect
and i ts surroundi ngs. The amount
1 4
and qual i ty of t hi s radi ati on depends upon the tempera
tu re and mater i al of both the emi tter and the absorber.
When two obj ects a
_
re at about the same temperature,
l i tt l e heat i s t ransferred between them. When one obj ect
i s much hotter than the other, heat fows to the col der
one. Thi s occurs when you hol d out your hand and feel
the warmth of a hot stove. Your hand radi ates l ess
energy than i t recei ves . The rate at whi ch an obj ect
emi ts thi s radi ant energy i s proporti onal to the fourth
power of i ts Kel vi n temperatu re. Doubl i ng thi s tempera
ture i ncreases t he rate of radi ati on 1 6 t i mes.
THE BEST RADIATOR is an absol utel y bl ack body. I t
absorbs al l the radiation that fal l s on it. Every l ight
source is a radiator, but some are mor e efficient than
others . An object that is a good absor ber of radiation is
al so a good emitter.
A smal l deep hol e or cavity in a graphite bl ock serves
as a practical bl ack body. Any l ight that enters the hol e
i s refl ected many ti mes from t h e wal l s and is partl y ab
sorbed at each refl ection u- nti l no l ight r emai ns. Thus the
hol e appears perfectl y bl ack. If t he wal l of t he cavity
are heated, however, they give off radiation in al l
directions . The radiation -hat escapes from the hol e is
cal l ed bl ack-body radiation .
Th e spectral distribution of radiant energy emitted by
a heated bl ack body depends onl y on its Kel vi n t emper
ature, and not at al l on t he material of which it is made.
At l ow temperature ( bel ow B00KJ onl y infrar ed radia
tion resul ts. At about ,000K (the temperature of the
sun's surface), the peak of the spectral energy curve is
near the midpoint of the visi bl e spectrum. Both ul tra
viol et and infrared radiation al so occur .

E N E RGY DI S T R I B U T I ON
OF A BL AC K B ODY
At a given temperature, there
i s a spc ifc curve that represents
the energy di stri buti on of O
bl ack body. At hi gher tempera
tures, the peak of the curve
occurs at shorter wavel engths.

w
The standard uni t of l i ght
source i ntensi ty, the candl e,
i s 1 /60 of the i ntensi ty of
1 cm
2
of a bl ack body at
the temperature of mel ti ng
pl ati num.
1 0,000 A
1 00

50
w

0
COLOR TEMPERATURE may be ass i gned to any l i ght
source by matchi ng i t vi sual l y agai nst a bl ack-body
radi ator . The temperature at whi ch the bl ack body
matches t he col or of a l i ght source i s sai d to be the
col or temperature of the source. For i ncandescent
sources, such as an ordi nary househol d l i ght bul b, the
col or temperature i s rel ated si mpl y to the true tempera
ture and i s often approxi matel y equal to i t. An observer
sees the star Antares, wi th a col or temperature al most
5, 000

K, as re. Si ri us, at about 1 1 , 000

K, i s much
hotter and appears whi te. The col or temperature of
some l i ght sources, however , has nothi ng whatever to do
wi th t he actual temperature. A ' ' dayl i ght' ' fuorescent
tube, for exampl e, may have a rated col or temperature
of 6, 500

K and yet be so cool that i t i s not uncom
fortabl e to touch.
COLOR
Z
COLOR-TEMPERATURE CLASSI FI CATI ON OF STARS
Bl ue
whi te
8
White
A
Yel l ow
white
F
Yel low
G

1 " "

THRE E STANDARDIZE D LIGHT SOURCES, known as

A, B, and C, ar e used t o match col ors . Sou rce A ap
prox i mates ordi nary i ncandescent l amp l i ght, source B
noon sun l i ght, and source C average dayl i ght . The stan
dard i ncandescent l amp operates at a col or tempera
ture of 2, 854

K. The other two standard sources are

deri ved from thi s same l amp by the use of careful l y
speci fied fl ters . Each sour ce may be consi dered whi te i n
parti cul ar i nstances. Whi te l i ght i s known t o be a mi x
tu re of al l col ors ( p. 1 3 ) . These sources of whi t e l i ght
difer because they are made up of di ferent amounts
of the var i ous col ors .
THE RELTI VE ENERGI ES of the
three i nternati onal l y accepted
l ight sources are pl otted for the
vi si bl e regi on of the spectrum.
The curve for the standard i n
candescent l amp, because of i ts
tungsten fl ament, i s the same as
that for a bl ack boy at 2,854K.
Wavel ength
5000 A 6000 A 7000 A
200
150
50
0
1 7
oi l l amp
ca. 600 A. D.
EFFI CI ENCY OF SOME
parafn
candle
1853
EFFI CI ENCY 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%
1 8
LIGHT SOURCES
Li ght sources turn other ki nds of energy i nto vi si bl e
radi ati on. The sun uses nucl ear energy. Torches, candl es,
gas l amps, and other fames use chemi cal energy. Most
of our modern l i ght sources use el ectri cal energy. I n
t he process of maki ng l i ght, most sources waste much
energy i n t he form of heat. Fl ames are very i nefci ent,
but for many centuri es they were the onl y control l ed
sources of l i ght . The i nventi on of the Wel sbach mant l e,
i n 1 866, i ncreased greatl y the l i ght output of t he com
mon gas l amp. The mant l e, a smal l whi te wi ckl i ke cover
pl aced over the gas fame, is made of thor i um oxi de to
whi ch a l i ttl e ceri um has been added. When heated, i t
emi ts vi si bl e l i ght but not i nfrared radi ati on. Unabl e t o
l ose energy by i nfrared emi ssi on a s do most hot ob
j ects, i ts temperature ri ses to a l most the temperature
of t he fame, and t he mantl e gi ves of a bri l l i ant whi te
l i ght . If a bl ack body ( the most efci ent radi ator) were
pl aced i n t he same fame, i t woul d l ose so much energy
by i nfrared emi ss i on that i t woul d remai n rel ati vel y cool ,
gi vi ng of much l ess l i ght than the Wel s bach mantl e.
Carbon a rc l amps ( hi gh current el ect ri cal di scharges
between carbon el ectrodes) came i nt o use for publ i c
street l i ght i ng about 1 879. Carbon arcs today are used
i n powerful sea rchl i ghts and commerci al movi e proj ector s .
I n 1 879, Thomas Edi son i nvented t he i ncandescent
fl ament l amp whi ch, i n much i mproved for m, i s sti l l our
HI STORI C LI GHT SOURCES
open
0. 2% 1 . 0-2 . 0%
i ncandescent
fl ament l amp
1 879
2 . 0-5. 0%
Copr- Hewi tt
mercury arc 1 90 1
1 . 5-4. 0%
most common source for home l i ght i ng. The gl ow tube
frst appeared i n 1 850 as a l aboratory devi ce for the
study of el ectri c di scharges, but i t has since become
more fami l i ar i n the commerci al "neon " si gn. The
Cooper- Hewi tt ercury arc of 1 90 1 , another tube usi ng
el ectri c di scharges, was one of the ancestors of modern
fuorescent l amps.
Li ght from an i ncandescent l amp i s mor e concentrated
t han that from a fuorescent l amp and seems bri ghter,
but i t i s onl y about one-thi rd as efci ent . A carbon arc
i s l ess efci ent and l ess conveni ent than ei ther, but
provi des a hotter poi nt source and i s far br i ghter.
lght from a Wel sbach mantl e
appears more l ike doy||gHt tboo
el ectri i ll umination. But electr ic
lights are ceapr, l ast loger,
and are easier to use.
20
photosphere
SUN
THE SUN, our maj or l i ght source, gets i ts energy from
nucl ear processes i n i ts hot i nteri or, whi ch i s est i mated
to have a temperature of about 1 3 mi l l i on degrees K.
The sun i s a bal l of gl owi ng gases t hat di fer from
those found on ea rth because of t he su n ' s extremel y
hi gh pressures and temperatures . The atoms of the sun ' s
gases are hi ghl y i oni zed; that i s, many of the el ect rons
whi ch normal l y sur round t he nucl ei of the atoms have
been stri pped away, l eavi ng the atoms. el ect ri cal l y
charged. These i oni zed gases at hi gh pressure emi t a
cont i nuous spectrum i nstead of a l i ne spedrum. The
wavel ength at whi ch we recei ve the most energy from
t he sun ( the peak of i ts energy di str i buti on curve)-
'
i s
about 5, 400 A. Thi s l i es i n t he green part of t he sp
e
c
trum, cl ose t o t he wavel ength at whi ch the human eye
has i ts greatest sensi ti vi ty.
SCATTERI NG OF SUNLI GHT by
the atmosphere i s much greater
for short ( bl ue) waves than for
l ong ( r ed) ones. When the sun
i s overhead, the atmospher i c path
i s rel ati vel y short, and the sun
appears bri ght yel l ow, whi l e
the scattered l i ght i s bl ue ( p. 50).
At sunset, the s unl i ght l oses more
bl ue rays by scatteri ng in i ts
l onger path through the atmo
s' phere, and the sun appears red.
The refecti on of thi s red l i ght
from cl ouds makes the sky pi nk.
The photosphere, the outer surface of t he sun ' s cen
tral core, i s the sun ' s maj or source of l i ght . Temperature
of the photosphere ( mea sure by an opti cal techni que
cal l ed radi ati on pyrometry} averages about 5, 750

K.
Surroundi ng t he photosphere i s the chromosphere,
composed of cool er gases that absorb some of the
photosphere ' s radi ati on. Thi s causes dark l i nes, cal l ed
Fraunhofer l i nes ( pp. 1 2-1 3 } , i n the conti nuous spec
tr um of the sun . From measurements of these l i nes,
gases of the chromosphere can be i denti fed.
2 1
22
INCANDESCENT LAMPS, the most fami l i ar man- made
light sources, cons i st of a coi l ed fl ament of tungsten
wi re seal ed i n a gl ass bul b fil l ed wi th a mi xture of
argon and ni trogen gases. Passi ng an el ectr i c current
through the fl ament heats i t to a temperature of
about 2, 900 K. The i nert gases surroundi 1g the fl a
ment prevent i t from bur ni ng up and prol ong i ts l i fe by
retardi ng i ts evaporati on .
The energy di st ri but i on of the l i ght from an i ncan
descent l amp depends on the fi l ament temperature, so
t he l i ght tends to be redder than s unl i ght ( 5, 750 K) .
I n fact, most of the radi ati on from a t ungsten l amp l i es
i n the i nfrared part of the spectrum. Over 9 5 per
cent of the energy i s radi ated as heat and l ess than 5
per cent as l i ght . I n spi te of thi s wasted heat energy,
the moder n l i ght bul b i s nearl y 1 0 t i mes as efci ent
as the frst commerci a l carbon fl ament l amps . The earl y
cl ear- gl as s bul bs have been repl aced wi th bul bs of
frosted or transl ucent gl ass, often ti nted. These newer
bu l bs provi de pl easanter i l l u mi nati on by di fu s i ng the
l i ght and softeni ng shadows.
Spectral energy di stri buti on of radiati on from tungsten l amp at 3,000
Kel vin. Note how l i ttl e energy is i n the vi sual range.

C
U
t
.

O
O
120
80
40
0
Wavelength 10,000 A
20,000 A 30,000 A
Over two and a hal f bi l l i on i n
candescent l amps are consumed
i n the Un ited States every year .
Most of these are of the si mpl e
fl ament l amp type and range
i n s i ze from a ti ny surgical
l amp 1 / 3 i n . l ong to a mammoth
l amp
base
demonstrati on bul b 20 i n . ( 5 1
em) by 42 i n . ( 1 07 em) . Al though
some 20, 000 l amp types are
actual l y produced, mos t l arge
fl ament l amps are l i ke the one
shown bel ow.
fl ament
24
'
' .'

| .


' l
' ' `

||
t
l
high voltage
t ransformer
A neon sign and electrical connections
GLOW TUBES have many uses i n sci enti fc l aboratori es
but are best known as commerci al neon si gns. These
thi n tubes have metal el ectrodes seal ed i nto each end.
The ai r i s pumped out of the tube whi ch i s then fl l ed
wi th neon or another gas at l ow pressur e.
When a hi gh vol tage ( 1 ,000-1 5,000 vol ts) i s appl i ed
to the el ectrodes, stray el ectrons i n the tube are ac
cel erate to hi gh speeds. These col l i de wi th the gas
atoms, knocki ng out other el ectrons, whi ch i n turn
stri ke more atoms. Thi s cascadi ng of el ectrons ( shown
at ri ght) becomes the el ectr i c current that Aows through
the tllbe. The fast-movi ng el ectrons transfer energy
when they col l i de wi t h neutral gas atoms. The col l i si on
may i oni ze the atom by knocki ng out one of i ts el ec
trons ( 1 ) , or exci te the atom by movi ng an el ectron to
a posi ti on of hi gher energy i n the atom ( 2 ) . Energy i s
emi tted as a l i ght photon when the atom retur ns to i ts
normal state ( 3 ) . When a free el ectron i s captured by an
i oni zed atom ( 4) i t gi ves up i t s energy as a photon. Pho
tons are uni ts of l i ght energy that act l i ke parti cl es. The
||
Characteri sti c l i ne spectrum of neon gas
energy of each photon depends on i ts frequency. The
frequency of the emi tted photon i s proporti onal to the en
ergy l ost by the el ectron i n fal l i ng to a l ower energy
state or the energy gi ven up by the el ectron captured
by the i oni zed atom.
.
Each ki nd of atom when exci ted gi ves of l i ght at
frequenci es determi ned by i ts structure. Some gases
emi t l i ght onl y at a few wavel engths . The spectrum of
sodi um, for exampl e, shows two bri ght yel l ow l i nes
very cl ose together, and a sodi um vapor l amp gi ves out
a yel l ow l i ght s i nce the bri ghtest l i nes i n the spect rum
deter mi ne the col or of the l i ght from the gl ow tube.
Sodi um vapor l amps are used i n street l i ghti ng. Neon
tubes gl ow an orange-red. Tubes fl l ed wi th krypton gi ve
a pal e bl ue l i ght . Other gases or mi xtures of gases
are often used, someti mes i n ti nted or fuorescent gl ass
t ubes whi ch modi fy the col or of the l i ght .
CASCADE REACTI ON
26
nitmen-||ed
m|e
Thi s high-pressure l amp contai ns an arc tube wi thi n a ni trogen- fl led oul b.
THE MERCURY ARC i s very much l i ke a gl ow t ube, but
uses hi gher current so that th e el ectrode operates at a
red heat . If the pres sure of the mercury vapor i n the
tu be i s hi gh (from 1 / 1 00 atmosphere to several h undred
atmospheres ) , the arc wi l l give of an i ntense bl ui sh
wh i te l i ght as wel l as some ul t ravi ol et . If th e pressu re
i s l ow (from about 1 / 1 00,000 to 1 / 1 ,000 of atmo
spheri c pressur e) , most of the radi at i on wi l l be i n the
ul travi ol et . Sun l amps are us ual l y l ow-pressure mercury
arcs encl osed i n bu l bs of fused quartz. Hi gh-pressure
l amps are frequentl y used for street l i ght i ng or for mak
i ng bl uepri nts .
FLUORESCENT LAMPS us e a l ow-pressure mercury arc
wi thi n a gl ass t ube coated on t he i nsi de wi th a phos
phor such as cal ci um tungstate. Phosphors have the
abi l i ty to absorb ul travi ol et rays and to re-radi ate the
energy as l i ght. The spectrum emi tted by a fuorescent
tube depends l argel y on the mi xture of fuorescent chemi
cal s used i n the phosphor coati ng. A careful sel ecti on of
phosphors wi l l produce radi ati on wi th broad bands i n
the vi si bl e regi on of the spectrum, and very l i tt l e i n the
ul t ravi ol et or i nfrared . Proper phosphors can approxi mate
the col or of sunl i ght wi t hout hi gh temperatures .
A FLUORESCENT TUBE
(cross section) glows when ultra
violet rays excite the electrons
of the phosphor coating. As these
excited electrons drop back to
lower energy levels, light is
emitted. The color of the light
depends on the structure of the
phosphor.
ultraviolet light
visible light
THE SPECTRUM of a fluorescent
lamp, combining light from phos
phor and mercury, approximates
that of sun liht.
RAPI D-START fluorescent cir
cuits are more efcient. A bal
last in the circuit eliminates
flicker.
fuorescent coting

SPECTRAL ENERGY
CURVE
100
80
Compare the spectral energy 5
curve of a 40-watt "daylight
"

60
fluorescent l amp with those of g 4
0
the average daylight curve ''
and of a tungsten l amp curve 20
( 22) .
0
Wavelength 4000A
6000A
27
28
LUMINESCENCE, or the emi ssi on of l i ght, may be due to
causes other than heat ( thermol umi nescence) .
CHEMI LUMI NESCENCE i s the
emi ssi on of l i ght duri ng a chemi
cal reacti on. When a formal de
hyde sol uti on i s mi xed i nto an
al kal i ne al cohol sol uti on, chemi
cal energy i s changed i nto l i ght,
causi ng the mi xture to glow.
BI OLUMI NESCENCE i s the pro
ducti on of l i ght by chemi l umi nes
cence i n l i vi ng organi sms, as i n
certai n fungi , bacteri a, comb j el l y
fsh ( left) , frefi es, and fshes. The
Rai l road Wor m, a beet l e l arva,
is bi ol umi nescent in two col ors.
FLUORESCENCE i s the produc
ti on of l i ght when a s ubstance i s
exposed to ul travi ol et or other
radi ati on ( i ncl udi ng beams of
el ectrons or ot her parti cles ) . Most
cases of fuorescence are real ly
exampl es of phosphorescence.
PHOSPHORESCENCE i s del ayed
fuorescence. The l i ght emi ssi on
cont i nues for a ti me after t he
exci t i ng radi ati on stops. T el e
vi si on tubes have a phosphores
cent coati ng and thus produce
pi ctures wi thout apparent fi cker.
ELECTROLUMI NESCENCE ofers
a new source of di fuse i l l umi na
ti on for l i ghti ng. Al ternati ng cur
rent appl i ed to thi n conducti ng
panel s exci tes l umi nescent mate
ri al sandwi ched between them,
produci ng a soft, easi l y regul ated
gl ow.
1LLMA1%#11LW
I l l umi nati on i s often used as a general term that refers
to the quanti ty and qual i ty of l i ght. The i l l umi nati on of a
scene may be bri ght or di m, harsh or soft, and perhaps
even col d or warm. These terms refer l oosel y to the
amount, contrast, and hue ( col or } of the l i ght. I n a nar
rower sense, i l l umi nance i s the amount of l i ght recei ved
on a speci fed surface area.
The range of sensi ti vi ty of your eyes to l i ght i s so
great that you are abl e to see cl ear l y under wi del y
di ferent condi ti ons of i l l umi nati on. The rati o of the
i l l umi nance at noonday to that on a moonl ess ni ght
may be as great as ten mi l l i on to one. On a cl ear day
there may be 20 ti mes as much i l l umi nati on on the sunny
si de of a bui l di ng as on the shaded si de. Modern i ndoor
l i ghti ng for houses cal l s for i l l umi nati on that i s about one
ffth that found on the shaded s i de of a bui l di ng on a
cl ear day. Thi s i s 20 ti mes more i l l umi nati on than was
once cons i dered adequate for homes . I mproved i l l umi na
ti on greatl y i ncreases the ease wi th whi ch readi ng or
fne work can be done.
The human eye cannot di sti ngui sh the component wave
l engths of a l i ght beam, nor can i t detect smal l changes
i n s pectral di stri buti on. Nei ther i s the eye equal l y sensi
ti ve to al l wavel engths . Meas urements made wi t h many
peopl e have produced a standard l umi nosi ty curve ( p. 30}
that represents t he rel ati ve sensi ti vi ty of the average
eye to di ferent wavel engths of l i ght .
Radi ant energy, i ncl udi ng l i ght, i s a physi cal quanti ty
that can be measured di rectl y by several types of radi a
t i on detectors, such as thermopi l es, bol ometers, and
wave meters. Vi si bl e l i ght can be measured by a pho
tometer or a l i ght meter .
29
30

0. 8

'G
O
w
O
.E
0. 6
`
<
b

O
.

0
0. 4
'

5
_

0. 2
O
H
0
4000 A 5000 A
LUMI NOSI TY i s the abi l i ty of l ight
to exci te the sensati on of bright
ness ( p. 32) . The standard l umi -
Outdor fi l m, outdoor l ight
Outdor fi l m, i ndoor light
I ndoor fl m, ou tdoor l ight
Wavel ength
6000 A
7000 A
nos i ty curve peaks at 5, 550 A,
i ndi cati ng that our eyes are most
sensi ti ve to yel l ow-green l ight .
VARI ATI ONS I N
ARTI FI CI AL LI GHT i ndoor s i s very
diferent from outdoor l ight, yet
you rarel y noti ce that your green
sweater i s of a somewhat difer
ent col or as you come i ndoors .
Just a s your eyes adapt to changes
i n light i ntensi ty, so they adapt
to changes i n l ight qual i ty. Col or
photog raphs show the di ference
because, unl i ke your eyes , the fi l m
cannot adapt i ts sensi ti vi ty to
the cha nged i l l umi nati on . Fi l m
des i gned for i ndor use wi th i n
candescent l amps produces a very
bl ui sh or col d pi cture if used
outdoor s. Fi l m desi gned for out
door use resu l ts i n a very orange
or warm pi cture when used wi th
arti fi ci al l ight i ndoor s.
I ndoor fl m, i ndoor l ight
Dawn
I LLUMI NATI ON
DAYLI GHT changes col or con
stantl y from s unri se t o s unset. A
col or photograph taken i n earl y
morni ng or i n l ate afternoon wi l l
have much warmer col or s than
one taken when the sun i s over
head . Col or fi l m properl y records
the diferences in the color of
dayl ight, but human vi si on si m
pl y compens ates for t he difer
ences . You not i ce onl y extreme
changes i n the col or of dayl ight,
as at sunri se or s unset.
Midafternoon
Mi dmorni ng
g Late afternoon
BRIGHTNESS i s a purel y psychol ogi cal concept. I t i s
a sensati on of the observer and cannot be measured
by i nstruments . The abi l i ty of the eye to j udge absol ute
val ues of bri ghtness i s very poor due to i ts great powers
of adaptati on. The eye i s a very sensi ti ve detector of
bri ghtness di ferences, however, provi ded the two fel ds
of vi ew are presented si mul taneousl y. The measurement
of l i ght by vi sual compari son i s the bas i s of the sci ence
of photometry.
Li ght-source i ntensi ty depends on the total amount
of l i ght emi tted and on the s mal l ness of the coni cal
sol i d angl e i n whi ch i t i s emi tted. Stated s i mpl y, i t i s
the amount of l i ght emi tted i n a gi ven di recti on .
Bri ghtness is associ ated wi th the amount of the l i ght
sti mul us. I t i s the vi sual sensati on correspondi ng to the
percepti on of l umi nance. Lumi nance, the i ntens i ty of
l i ght-sou rce per uni t area, i s a psychophysical property
and can be measured. Lumi nance and l i ght- source i n
tens ity, often confused, are best descri bed by exampl es.
THE TWO LUMI NOUS SPHERES
of diferent si ze ( below l eft) have
identi cal l i ght bul bs. They are
di fuse emi tters and so wi l l ap
pear as l umi nous di scs from any
vi ewpoi nt. Both emit the same
total amount of l i ght, and both
have the same i ntensi ty. But the
smal l er one wi l l appear bri ghter
to the obserer and wi l l have
the higher l umi nance.
I n order for the t wo spheres t o
have the same l umi nance t he
l arger sphere woul d requi re a
l arger ( more i ntense) l i ght source
( bel ow ri ght ) . It woul d then emi t
the same amount of l i ght per
uni t area of surface as does t he
smal l er sphere. The two spheres
woul d then appear equal l y bri ght,
but the l arger one woul d have the
greater i ntensi ty.
THE RELATI ONSHI P OF I N
TENSI TY to coni cal angl e i s
shown by compari ng a spot l ight
and a foodl ight wi th i denti cal
l i ght bul bs i n reflectors of the same
di ameter but di ssi mi l ar shape
( above) . The spotl ight beam i s
concentrated i nto a smal l cone
wi th rays al most poral l el . The
foodl ight, whi ch emi ts the same
amount of l ight, s preads i t i nto
a large cone. The spotl ight pro
vi des a much greater i l l umi nance
but over a much smal l er area
than the fl oodl ight .
I f we l ook di rectl y i nto the
bea m of the l ight source, the
spotl ight appears to O muc h
brighter than the fodl ig ht . I n
that di recti on onl y, the i ntensi ty
and the l umi nance of the spot
l ight are greater than those of the
floodl ight . I f we l ook at the l ight
source from other di rec tions out
side the beam, the i ntensi ty and
l umi nance of the spot l ight are
much l ess, because so much l iht
i s concentrated i nto te beam
that there i s l ittl e l eft to go i n
these other di rections .
PHOTOMETRIC UNITS are used i n the quanti tati ve mea
surement of i l l umi nati on. A few of the more i mportant
ones are gi ven bel ow for reference.
LUMI NOUS FLUX i s the quan
tity of l ight. I t i s measured i n
l umens. I ntensi ty i s l umi nous
fux per uni t sol i d angl e. I t
i s measured i n candl es . ( 1
candl e 1 l umen per uni t
sol id angl e. ) I l l umi nance i s
i ncident fl ux per unit area.
It i s measured in l ux. 1 l ux
1 l umen per meter2 . ) lumi
nance i s i ntensity per uni t
area. I t i s measured i n can
dl es per meter2
pi nt l ight .
I ' d I un1t 5

I ong O
ource
9 1 m

f
o
area 1 m2
I
34
poi nt
l ight
Light that i l l umi nates a
one-square-meter sur
face at one meter wi l l
cover four square me
ters at two meters and
spreads over ni ne
square meters at three
meters .
A POI NT LIGHT SOURCE radi ates i ts energy uni forml y
so that l i ght rays spread out from i t i n al l di recti ons.
I l l umi nati on at a poi nt on a surface vari es wi th the i n
tensi ty and shape of the l i ght source and the di stance
of the su rface from i t . The amou nt of l i ght fal l i ng on a
uni t area ( the i l l umi nance) decreases wi th the square of
the di stance ( the i nverse square l aw) .
SHADOWS ar e formed when l i ght cannot pass through
an opaque body i n i ts path. I l l umi nati on of the area
behi nd the body i s cut of. A smal l ( pi npoi nt ) or di s
tant sour ce of l i ght casts a sharp shadow. A near, l arge,
or di fuse l i ght source produces a fuzzy shadow wi th a
central dark area that recei ves no l i ght ( umbr a) and
a l i ght outer area ( penumbra) whi ch recei ves some l i ght
from part of t he source.

*
poi nt
source
hand
'J

difuse
source

LIGHTNESS i s a term used by an observer to di sti n

gui sh between l i ghtness and darkness of col ored ob
j ects, as between l i ght bl ue and dark bl ue pai nt . I t
shoul d not be confused wi th bri ghtness ( p. 32 ) . The
observer's percepti on of l i ghtness i s al so a recogni ti on
of a di ference i n whi teness or grayness between obj ects .
I t i s a comparati ve term referri ng to the amount of
di fusel y refected l i ght comi ng t o the observer's eye
from a surface. The surface wi l l appear whi te i f i t i s
a good non-sel ecti ve di fuse refector and i s wel l i l l umi nated
by whi te l i ght . I f i t i s a poor refector or i f i t recei ves
l i ttl e or no i l l umi nati on, the surface wi l l appear gray,
grayer, or even bl ack. Bl ack, then, i s the percepti on of
an area from whi ch the l i ght i s i nsufci ent for detai l ed
vi si on. Whi te i s the percepti on of a wel l - i l l umi nated
surface whose refectance i s hi gh and non- sel ecti ve.
Gray i s the percepti on of a surface between these
extremes .
THE PERCEPTI ON OF GRAYNESS
i s i nfuenced by, among other
thi ngs, t he i l l umi nati on of the
surroundi ng area. The gray areas
at the bottom of the pge are i den
tical , but t he one surrounded by
bl ack appears to be mch l i ghter
than the one surrounded by whi te.
Because of the amount of l i ght
refected, the three areas be
l ow are seen as bl ack, gray,
and whi te.
D
36
e-
e

l R

+
These are the ways i n
whi ch a l i ght beam may
behave. Not shown i s
pol ari zati on of l i ght.
#

W
GLSS
LIGHT BEHAVIOR
li ght behavi or i ncl udes transmi ssi on, absorpti on, refec
ti on, refracti on, scatteri ng, di fracti on, i nterference and
pol ari zati on, al l of whi ch are di scussed i n thi s secti on.
Transmi ssi on, absorpti on and refecti on account for al l
t he l i ght energy when l i ght stri kes an obj ect. I n the
course of transmi ss i on, l i ght may be scattered, refracted
or pol ari zed. I t can al so be pol ari zed by refecti on. The
l i ght that i s not transmi tted or refected i s absorbed and
i ts energy contri butes to the heat energy of the mol e
cul es of the absorbi ng materi al . The modi fcati on of
l i ght through these processes i s responsi bl e for al l that
we see.
When a beam of l i ght stri kes a
thi ck sheet of gl ass, part of
the l i ght may be r efected, part
absorbed and scattered, and
the remai nder transmi tted.
GALI LE attempted to measure
the s peed of l ight but fai led. Man
at B was to show h i s l i ght when
he saw l ight from A. Man at A
was to record el apsed ti me from
fash of A' s l ight to recei pt of B ' s
l i ght . Thi s si mpl e ti me and di s
tance method fai led becau se the
round tri p travel ti me of onl y
. 0000 1 1 ( 1 1 X 1 0-
6
) sec. for a
1 - mi le seprati on was l ess than
h uman reacti on ti me ( 0. 4 sec . ) .
LIGHT TRAVELS s o fast that for many years sci enti sts
thought that i ts speed was i nfni te. The frst observati ons
and measurements whi ch gave a fni te val ue to the s peed
of l i ght were made by the Dani sh astronomer Ol af Roemer
i n 1 675. Roemer was measur i ng the peri od of revol uti on
of one of Jupi ter's satel l i tes by ti mi ng i ts successi ve
ecl i pses behi nd the pl anet. He found that the measure
ments made whi l e the earth was recedi ng from Jupi ter
gave l onger peri ods than those made whi l e the earth
was approach i ng Jupi ter . Roemer concl uded that the
di ference was due to the fact that i n the recedi ng posi
ti on the l i ght from each successi ve ecl i pse had to t ravel
a greater di stance to reach the earth and t herefore took
a l onger ti me ( di agram, p. 3 8) . He cal cul ated that l i ght
took about 22 mi nutes to tr avel a di stance equal to the
di ameter of the earth's orbi t about the s un. Roemer's
method was correct but hi s accuracy was poor . We now
know that the t i me requi red i s nearl y 1 6. 67 mi n utes,
or about 1 , 000 seconds. Si nce the di ameter of the
earth's orbi t i s about 1 86, 000,000 mi l es, the s peed of
l i ght i s cal cul ated to be about 1 86, 000 mi l es per second.
37
38
ROEMER' S METHOD
Ea
rth

V
\
|
l
I
r
satel l ite
Ecl i pse of Jupi ter ' s satel l ite was abut
1 6 mi nutes l ate due to the added
di stance ( di ameter of earth ' s orbi t) .
MODERN MEASUREMENTS of the speed of l i ght are
made i n the l aboratory. Usi ng many di ferent tech ni ques
and much el aborate apparatus/ sci enti sts have measured
the speed of l i ght i n free space agai n and agai n, al ways
stri vi ng for more accuracy. The val ue now accepted i s
299, 793 ki l ometers, or 1 86, 282 mi l es, per second. The
error | 5 bel i eved to be l ess than one thousandth of
one per cent. The preci se measurement of the speed
of l i ght, a fundamental constant, i s one of the great
techni cal achi evements of our t i me.
l ight
octagonal
MI CHElSON' S
METHOD
Mi cel son, i n 1 878, refected l i ght
from a rapi dl y rotati ng mi rror to
a fxed di stant mi rror. By the
ti me the refected l ight returned,
the rotati ng mi rror had moved
enou gh so l i ght was refec ted at
a diferent angl e, enabl i ng i ts
speed to be cal cul ated.
RE FLECTION i s of two ki nds -di fuse and regul ar . Di fuse
refecti on i s the ki nd by whi ch we ordi nari l y see obj ects .
It gi ves us i nformati on about thei r shape, si ze, col or and
texture. Regul ar refecti on i s mi rrorl i ke. We don't see
the surface of the mi rror; i nstead, we see obj ects that
are refected i n i t. When l i ght stri kes a mi rror at an
angl e, i t i s refected at the same angl e. I n di fuse refec
ti on, l i ght l eaves at many di ferent angl es. The degree of
surface roughness determi nes the proporti on of di fuse
and regul ar refecti on t hat occurs. Refecti on from a
smooth, pol i shed surface l i ke a mi rror i s mostl y regul ar,
whi l e di fuse refecti on takes pl ace at surfaces that are
rough compared wi th the wavel ength of l i ght. Si nce the
wavel ength of l i ght i s very smal l ( about 5, 000 A) , most
refecti on i s di fuse.
VI EWED MI CROSCOPI CALLY, al l
refecti on i s regul ar . The appear
ance of difuse refection is due
to the many di ferent angl es that
l i ght rays encounter when they
stri ke a rough surface. The re
fecti on of each si ngl e ray i s
regul ar-that i s, i t i s refected at
the same angl e at whi ch i t
REULAR
REFLECTI ON
stri kes the surface. A fai rl y smooth
surface, such as that of a gl ossy
vi nyl rai ncoat, shows bth difuse
and regul ar refecti on, the rel ati ve
proporti ons dependi ng on the angl e
of the i nci dent l i ght. But a rough
surface, such as that of a tweed
coat, shows onl y di fuse refec
ti on . I t has no "shi ny" surface.
DI FFUSE
REFLECTI ON
smoth surace rough surface
39
REFLECTI ON VARI ES wi th the type of mater i al . Pol i shed
metal refects most of the l i ght that fal l s on i t, absor bs
onl y a l i ttl e, and transmi ts practi cal l y none. Paper i s
made up of partl y transparent fber s. Li ght str i ki ng paper
may penetrate several fbers, bei ng parfl y refected at
each surface. The l i ght that fnal l y reaches your eyes
and l ets you know you are l ooki ng at paper has been
refected and transmi tted many ti mes. Al l the rest of the
l i ght has been absorbed and added to the heat energy
of the mol ecul es of the paper .
Most materi al s are qui te sel ecti ve i n the way they
absorb and refect the di ferent wavel engths of l i ght.
A purpl e dye wi l l transmi t bl ue and red l i ght but wi l l
absorb green l i ght. Gol d and copper metal s refect red
and yel l ow wavel engths more strongl y than bl ue. Si l ver
refects al l col ors and therefore appears al most whi te.
Metal l i c refecti on i s an exampl e of pure surface col or.
Nearl y al l "obj ect col ors " are due to sel ecti ve refecti on
and absorpti on of l i ght. Obj ect col ors are an attri bute
of the obj ect, though the col or seen at any ti me depends
al so on the col or of the i l l umi nati on . Total absorpti on
of l i ght makes an obj ect l ook bl ack.
. -cJ--i e,:
-r-cie-
reveal s the
col or and texture of woven cloth .
What we normal l y consider as
refecti on i nvol ves sel ecti ve ab
sorpti on, sel ecti ve refecti on and
refracti on of l i ght that prti al l y
__ penetrates the surface.
=e--- ei- e'
o-q' -ei
-c J--c-

* o-q' - ei
-r-ci e-
_m
l

Z
~
g `

&
`

l
. E

ReheOing seioc-
LAWS OF REFLECTI ON
1 . Angl e of refecti on equal s angl e of i nci dence.
Z. I nci dent and refected rays l i e i n t he same pl ane.
4. I nci dent and refected rays are on opposi te s i des of
t he normal -a l i ne perpendi cul ar to the refecti ng
surface and passi ng through the poi nt of i nci dence.
A PLANE MI RROR re
verses a scene from
l eft to right. Obj ects
held i n the l eft hand
of a subj ect appear to
be in the right hand
of the i mage. Al l ob
jects seen i n the mi r
ror appear to b as for
behi nd the surface
they actual ly
front of it.
42
o

wo-ee -qi-
ss o
:--J
*
i-e--c, A =o-- --qi-
-ioci-- -J-s
eiq'o::
:--J -o
*
wo-- --qi- - o
:--J -q o:: wo-- --qi- -q' o::
REFRACTI ON i s the bendi ng of a l i ght ray when i t
crosses the boundary between two di ferent materi al s ,
as from ai r i nto water . Thi s change i n di recti on i s due
t o a change i n speed. Li ght travel s fastest i n empty
space and s l ows down upon enter i ng matter . Its s peed
i n ai r i s al most the same as i ts speed i n s pace, but i t
travel s onl y as fast i n water and onl y

/ as fast i n
gl ass. The refracti ve i ndex of a substance i s the rati o
of the speed of l i ght i n space ( or i n ai r ) to i ts speed i n
the substance. Thi s rati o i s al ways greater than one.
When a beam of l i ght enters a pane of gl ass perpen
di cul ar to the surface ( above) , i t s l ows down, and i ts
wavel ength i n the gl ass becomes shorter i n the same
proporti on. The frequency remai ns the same. Comi ng
out of the gl ass, the l i ght speeds up agai n, the wave
l ength returni ng to i ts former s i ze.
When a l i ght ray stri kes the gl ass at some other
angl e, i t changes di recti on as wel l as speed. I nsi de
t he gl ass, the r ay bends toward the perpendi cul ar or
normal . I f the to si des of t he gl ass are paral l el , the
l i ght wi l l return to i ts ori gi nal di recti on when i t l eaves
the gl ass, even though i t has been di spl aced i n i ts
passage. I f the two s i des of the gl ass are not par al l el ,
as i n t he case of a pr i sm or a l ens, t he r ay emerges
i n a new di recti on.
:eioc-: oo' ' -' :eiec-: -ei o' ' -'
LWS OF REFRACTI ON
. I ncident and refracted rays l i e i n the same pl ane.
Z. When a ray of l i ght passes at an angl e i nto a denser
medi um, i t i s bent toward the normal , hence the an
gle of refracti on ( r) i s s mal l er than the angl e of i n
ci dence ( i ) , as bel ow.
4. The i ndex of refracti on of any medi um i s the rati o
between the speed of l i ght i n a vacuum ( or i n ai r )
and i ts speed i n the medi um.
THE I NDEX OF REFRACTI ON , -,
Jeie -e:i-eoee-iei ee-J -q
ei o ' q-i o, o: i ce::e: i-e
~a-do,ieo -iei-eeJ e.
|e eo' e, - o-, ei i -e J o
WATER GLSS
qo: ee ' e=, i-e oi e e-i=ee-
i-e ' -e o-J i-e ' -e ,, , , :
eeo ie i-- eioci -e -J- , -,
i J : i-- :o- ' --qi- - eei-
o o-J i-e eJ a.
DI AMOND

- 1. 33 - 1. 5 - 2 . 4 43
AI R
FROM A PI NT SOURCE ( 0)
under water, the refracted rays
i n ai r make l arger and l arger
angl es wi th the normal , as the
angl es of i nci dence bcome l arger.
At the same ti me, the amount of
l i ght refected back i nto the water
i ncreases. Fi nal l y, for the ray 08,
when the angl e of refracti on be-
l i ght passi ng
i nto ai r
comes 90, al l t he l i ght i s refected.
The angl e of i nci dence OBA,
cal l ed the cri ti cal angl e, for pure
water is 4 9 ; for a ray stri ki ng
a gla ss-ai r s urface, i t i s about
40 . Because of t hi s, a 45-90-45
pr i s m refects 1 00% of t he l i ght
enteri ng it and can therefore be
used as a perfect mi rror ( p. 60) .
INTERNAL REFLECTION occurs whenever a l i ght ray
str i kes the surface of a medi um whose refracti ve i ndex
i s l ess than that of the medi um i n whi ch the l i ght i s
travel i ng. The amount of l i ght that i s refl ected depends
on the angl e at whi ch i t hi ts the s urface. li ght from
a poi nt source ( above) hi ts the surface at many angl es .
DISPERSION is the separati on of l i ght i nto i ts com
ponent wavel engths . One method of di spersi ng a l i ght
beam i s to pass i t through a gl ass pr i sm-a thi ck pi ece
of gl ass wi th fat non-paral l el si des ( bel ow) . The re
fracti ve i ndex of al l mater i al s ( p. 43 ) depends s l i ghtl y
on the wavel ength of the l i ght. For gl ass and other
transparent materi al s the refracti ve i ndex i s l arger for
the short ( bl ue) wavel engths than for the l onger ( red)
ones. Thus, when a beam of whi te l i ght is passed through
a pri sm, the bl ue rays wi l l be bent more than the red
rays -that i s, the l i ght s preads out to form a spectrum.
The col ors i n the spectrum appear i n the order of i n
creasi ng wavel ength: vi ol et, bl ue, green, yel l ow, orange,
and red. Si r I saac Newton frst expl ai ned the s pectrum.
He showed that, contrary to popul ar bel i ef, the pr i sm
di d not create t he beauti ful col or s, but onl y made vi si
bl e t he components of whi te l i ght.
Sci enti sts make use of di spersi on i n the anal ysi s of
l i ght emi tted or absorbed by vari ous materi al s both on
t he earth and on other bodi es i n space ( p. 63) .
WH I TE LI GHT bel owj enteri ng
through a narrow s l it at the l eft
stri kes the pri s m at an acute angl e.
The l onger-wa'el ength red rays
are bnt l ess than the shorter
wavel ength bl ue, s o a prti al sepa
rati on occurs i n t he gl ass. The
beam then stri kes the second sur
face of the pr i sm, agai n at an acute
angl e, and the rays are once agai n
refracted. They l eave the pri sm
as di vergent rays of di ferent
wavel engths. A white screen i s
pl aced some di stance from the
pri sm and the di ferent col ors
appear on i t. The spectrum con
si sts of many i mages of the sl i t,
each of di ferent col or.
46
DI FFRACTI ON i s the bendi ng of waves around an ob
stacl e. I t i s easy to see thi s efect for water waves.
They bend around t he corner of a sea wal l , or spread
as they move out of a channel . Di fracti on of l i ght
waves, however, i s harder to observe. I n fact, di frac
ti on of l i ght waves i s so s l i ght that i t escaped noti ce
for a l ong ti me. The amount of bendi ng i s proporti onal
to the s i ze of l i ght waves-about one ffty-thousandth
of an i nch ( 5, 000 A) -so the bendi ng i s al ways very
smal l i ndeed.
When l i ght from a di stant s treet l amp i s vi ewed
through a wi ndow screen it forms a cros s . The four
si des of each ti ny screen hol e act as t he si des of a s l i t
and bend l i ght i n fou r di recti ons, produci ng a cross made
of four prongs of l i ght. Another way to see the di frac
ti on of l i ght waves i s to l ook at a di stant l i ght bul b
th rough a very narrow verti cal sl i t . Li ght from t he bul b
A PATTER N OF WAVES wi l l move
outward, for mi ng concentri c ci r
cl es, i f smal l pebbl es are dropped
regularl y from a fxed pi nt i nto
a qui et pond. I f a bard i s pl aced
i n the poth of these waves, they
wi l l be seen to bnd arou nd the
edges of the bard, causi ng an
i nte resti ng pattern where the
waves from the two edges of the
bard meet and cross each other.
When an obstructi on wi th a ver
tical sl i t is pl aced i n the pond
in the path of the wave s, the
waves s pread out i n ci rc les
beyond the s l i t.
bends at both edges of the sl i t and appears to spread
out si deways, formi ng an el ongated di fracti on pattern
i n a di recti on perpendi cul ar to the s l i t .
li ght can be i magi ned as waves whose fronts spread
out i n expandi ng concentri c spheres around a source.
Each poi nt on a wave front can be thought of as the
source of a new di sturbance. Each poi nt can act as a
new l i ght source wi th a new seri es of concentri c wave
fronts expandi ng outward from i t. Poi nts are i nfni tel y
numerous on the surface of a wave front as i t crosses
an openi ng.
As new wave fronts fan out from each poi nt of a
smal l openi ng, such as a pi nhol e or a narrow s l i t, they
rei nforce each other when they are i n phase ( p. 48 ) and
cancel each other when they are compl etel y out of phase.
Thus l i ghter and darker areas form the banded di frac
ti on patterns .
DI FFRACTI ON PATTENS are
formed when l i ght from a poi nt
source passes through pi nhol es
and s l i ts. A pi nhol e gi ves a ci rcu
l ar pattern and a sl it gives an
el ongated pattern. A sharp i mage
i s not formed by l i ght pssi ng
through because of di fract i on.
As the pi nhol e or s l i t gets smal l er,
the difracti on pattern gets l arger
but di mmer. I n the difracti on
patterns shown below the al ter
nate l ight and dark s paces are
due to i nterference (p. 48) be
tween waves arri vi ng from dif
ferent parts of the pi nhol e or sl i t.
CONSTRUCTIVE I NTERFERENCE
1. --e:-
=e--:
2 . i n- phase
=e--:
cee --e
DESTRUCTIVE I NTERFERENCE
1 . _-phoe .
2 . out- of-phase
waves
combi ned
INTERFERE NCE i s an efect that occurs when two waves
of equal frequency are superi mposed. Thi s often hap
pens when l i ght rays from a si ngl e source travel by
di ferent paths to the same poi nt. I f, at the poi nt of
meeti ng, the two waves are i n phase ( vi brati ng i n uni
son, and t he crest of one coi nci di ng wi t h the crest of
t he other) , they wi l l combi ne t o form a new wave of
the same frequency. The ampl i tude of the new wave i s
t he sum of t he ampl i tudes of t he or i gi nal waves. The
process of formi ng thi s new wave i s cal l ed construc
ti ve i nterference.
I f the two waves meet out of phase ( crest of one co
i nci di ng wi th a trough of the other ) , the resul t i s a
wave whose ampl i tude i s the di ference of the ori gi nal
ampl i tudes. Thi s process i s cal l ed destructi ve i nter
ference. I f the or i gi nal waves have equal ampl i tudes,
I NTERFERENCE OCCURS when
l i ght waves from a pi nt sourc e
( a si ngl e s l i t ) travel by two di f
ferent pths ( through the doubl e
s nq' -
s l it
sl i t ) . Thei r i nterference is shown
by a pattern of al ternate l i ght
and dark bands when a screen i s
pl aced across t hei r path.
screen
i n -e:-
' .q-i
source
48
i n phase
--
they may compl etel y destroy each other, l eavi ng no
wave at al l . Constructi ve i nterference resul ts i n a bri ght
spot; destructi ve i nterference produces a dark spot.
Parti al constructi ve or destructi ve i nterference re
sul ts whenever the waves have an i ntermedi ate phase
rel ati onshi p. I nterference of waves does not create or
destroy l i ght energy, but merel y redi stri butes i t.
Two waves i nterfere onl y i f thei r phase rel ati onshi p
does not change. They are t hen sai d t o be coherent.
Li ght waves from two di ferent sources do not i nter
fere because radi ati ons from di ferent atoms are con
stantl y changi ng thei r phase rel ati ons hi ps . They are
non- coherent ( see l asers, p. 1 52. )
I RIDESCE NT COLORS, whi ch change thei r appearance
wi th the angl e of vi ewi ng and the di recti on of the
i l l umi nati on, are due to i nterference. The del i cate hues
of soap bubbl es and oi l fl ms, the pal e ti nts of mother
of-pear l , and the bri l l i ant col ors of a peacock' s tai l are
al l i ri descent col ors .
A SOAP BUBBLE appears i ri des
cent under whi te l i ght when the
thi ckness of the bubbl e i s of the
order of a wavel ength of l ight. Thi s
occurs because l i ght waves re
flected from front and back sur
faces of the fl m travel diferent
di stances. A di ference i n phase
resul ts that may cause destructi ve
i nterference for some particul ar
wavel ength, and the hue or col or
associ ated wi th that wavel ength
wi l l be absent from the refected
l i ght. I f the mi ssi ng hue i s red,
refected l i ght appears bl ue-green,
the compl ement of red. I f fl m
thi ckness or di recti on of i l l umi na
ti on changes, i nterference occurs
at di ferent wavel engths and the
refected l i ght changes col or.
red refections
cancel if fl m
thi ckness i s
one-hal f
wavel ength
of red
50
wh|te soure
hen be of light
pcsset ||k, Ihe b|ue
Ompl wf tt
ed 0f8 stt
=0
SCATTERING i s the random defl ecti on of l i ght rays by
fne parti cl es. When sunl i ght enters through a crack,
scatteri ng by dust parti cl es i n the ai r makes the shaft
of l i ght vi si bl e. Haze i s a resul t of l i ght scatteri ng by
fog and smoke parti cl es.
Refecti on, di fracti on, and i nterference al l pl ay a
part i n the compl ex phenomenon of scatter i ng. I f the
scatteri ng parti cl es are of uni form si ze and much smal l er
than the wavel ength of l i ght, sel ecti ve scatter i ng may
occur and the materi al wi l l appear col ored, as shown
above. Shorter wavel engths wi l l be scattered much more
strongl y than l onger ones . I n general , scattered l i ght
wi l l appear bl ui sh, whi l e the remai ni ng di rectl y trans
mi tted l i ght wi l l l ack the scattered bl ue rays and thus
appear orange or red. Many natural bl ue ti nts are due
to sel ecti ve scatteri ng rather than to bl ue pi gments . The
bl ue of ski es and oceans i s due to thi s ki nd of scatter
i ng. Bl ue eyes are the resul t of l i ght scatteri ng i n the
i r i s when a dark pi gment i s l acki ng.
Scatteri ng by l arger parti cl es i s nonsel ecti ve and
produces whi te. The whi teness of a bi rd' s feather, of
snow, and of cl ouds-al l are due to scatteri ng by parti
cl es whi ch, though smal l , are l arge compared to the
wavel ength of l i ght.
C
. V
T

m
U
<

o
ABSORPTI ON AND TRANSMI SSI ON BY OPTI CAL MATERI ALS
ul ta- vis- i nfared
viol et i bl e
quartz
l
rok salt
l l
l
to 4, A

S i nce crown glass and fi nt gl ass

absorb ul travi ol et l ight, a quartz
bul b i s used for the l i ght source
of a sun l amp.
ABSORPTION of l i ght as i t passes through matter re
sul ts i n a decrease i n i ntensi ty. Absorpti on, l i ke scatter
i ng ( p. 50) , may be general or sel ecti ve. Sel ecti ve ab
sorpti on gi ves the worl d most of the col ors we see. Gl ass
fl ters whi ch absorb part of t he vi si bl e spectr um are used
i n research and photography. An absorpti on curve for a
fl ter ( bel ow) shows the amount of l i ght absorbed at a
parti cul ar wavel ength . A uni t thi ckness of the absorbi ng
medi um wi l l al ways absorb the same fracti on of l i ght
from a beam. I f t he fr st mi l l i meter thi ckness of a fl ter
absorbs /

the l i ght, the second mi l l i meter absorbs '/

the remai ni ng l i ght, or '/ of the total . The thi rd mi l l i meter
absorbs '/ of the /+ , so onl y 7s of the l i ght is trans
mi tted trough three mi l l i meters of fl ter . See al so p. 1 1 1 .
ABSORPI ON CURVE OF A GREEN PLASTI C FI LTER
A
C
Z
.
w
w
4

w
C
4
0

P
Z

0
o

52
wi l l emi te
under whi te l i ght
FLUORESCENT MI NERALS seen
under whi te l i ght ( l eft) emit
col ored l i ght ( ri ght) when exposed
to i nvi si bl e ul travi ol et rays. The
col or of the fuorescence depends
on the nature of the mi neral .
FLUORESCE NCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE are caused
by l i ght stri ki ng atoms . I n the col l i si on, energy i s trans
ferred from the l i ght to the el ectrons of the atoms . Thi s
energy may be re-radi ated as l i ght or di ssi pated as
heat. I f the emi tted l i ght i s of t he same frequency as
the i nci dent l i ght, the efect i s a ki nd of scatter i ng. I n
many cases, however, the emi tted l i ght i s of a di ferent
( us ual l y l ower ) frequency than the i nci dent l i ght, and i s
characteri sti c of the atom that emi tted i t. The i mmedi ate
re-radi ati on of absorbed l i ght energy as l i ght of a di fer
ent col or i s cal l ed f uorescence.
Some materi al s conti nue to emi t l i ght for a ti me after
the i nci dent radi ati on has been cut of. Thi s i s phos
phorescence, usual l y a property of crystal s or of l arge
organi c mol ecul es. Phosphorescence often depends on the
presence of mi nute quanti ti es of i mpuri ti es or i mper
fecti ons i n the crystal that provi de ' ' traps ' ' for exci ted
el ectrons. These el ectrons have recei ved extra energy
from i nci dent radi ati on. The el ectrons remai n i n the
' ' traps ' ' unt i l shaken l oose by the heat vi brati ons of
the atoms i n the crystal . Phosphorescent l i ght i s emi tted
as the el ectrons return to thei r normal posi ti ons. Sol i d
substances that produce l i ght i n thi s way are cal l ed
phosphors .
THI N PLATES OF TOURMALI NE
transmi t l i ght wi th vi brati ons
restri cted to a s i ngl e pl ane ( po
l ari zed l i ght) . When one plate i s
turned so i ts axi s i s at ri ght
angl es to the other, no l i ght
passes through. Good natural
crystal s of tourmal i ne are rare.
Better pol ari zi ng materi al s made
syntheti cal l y are now avai l abl e.
POLARIZED LIGHT waves are restri cted i n thei r di r ecti on
of vi brati on. Normal l i ght waves vi brate i n an i nfni te
number of di recti ons perpendi cul ar to thei r di recti on of
travel ( p. 8 ) . For exampl e, i n the head-on vi ew of un
pol ar i zed l i ght ( bel ow ri ght ) the l i nes a, b, c, d, and an
i nfni te number of others are perpendi cul ar to the ray.
At a part i cul ar i nstant any one of them mi ght represent
the di recti on of the vi brati ons . Thus, from moment to
moment, the di r ecti on of the l i ght vi brati ons changes i n
a random fashi on . When components of vi brati on i n
one di rect i on onl y are present, t he l i ght i s pl ane pol ari zed.
CONCEPTUAL ERRORS may be
i ntroduced when i l l ustrati ng pol ar
i zed l i ght. Of the vari ous possi -
bi l i ti es, the symbol s used below
gi ve the best anal oy to the
events happeni ng wi th pl ari zation.
Head-o_n
a
b unpol ari zed
d
c
pari al ly pol od,ed
+
* w

pol ari zed hori zontal l y

l
i
l

polari zed verti cal ly

53
7
"
counterc lockwi se
rotation
of plane of
vi brati on

cl okwi s e
THE PLANE OF VIBRATION of a pol ar i zed l i ght wave i s
usual l y unafected i n passi ng th rough a transparent mate
ri al -i t remai ns pol ar i zed i n the same pl ane. Some op
ti cal l y acti ve materi al s, however, rotate the pl ane of
vi brati on i n ei ther a c l ockwi se or counter cl ockwi se di rec
ti on. Quartz crystal s oc cur i n both cl oc kwi se and counter
cl ockwi se vari eti es . Sugar sol uti ons are al so opti cal l y
acti ve. A chemi st can determi ne the concentrati on of
sugar in a sol uti on by measur i ng the rotati on of the
pl ane of vi brati on when pl ane-pol ar i zed l i ght i s passed
through the sol uti on . A dextrose sugar s ol uti on causes a
cl ockwi se rotati on; l evul ose sugar, a counter cl ockwi se
one. A devi ce for measur i ng the angl e of rotati on of
the pl ane of vi brati on i s cal l ed a pol ari scope . A sac
chari meter i s a pol ari scope used i n sugar anal yses .
a verti cal l y pol ari zed ray

mq be rotated cl ockwi se
or countercl ockwi se
( si de vi ew)
rotation

cal ci te
( end vi ew)
DOUBLY REFRACTING CRYSTALS, such as cal ci te and
quartz, break up l i ght rays i nto two parts, cal l ed ordi nary
and extraordi nary rays, whi ch are pol ar i zed at ri ght
angl es to each other . Such a crystal has a di ferent
refracti ve i ndex for each of the two rays, and they are
bent at di ferent angl es when they enter the crystal .
Thi s doubl e refracti on wi l l form two i mages when a
cal ci te crystal i s pl aced over a dot on a pi ece of paper.
The dot appears as two dots a smal l di stance apart.
Rotati ng the crystal causes one of the dots to rotate
about the other . The dot that remai ns stati onary i s the
i mage formed by the ordi nary ray. Thi s al ways l i es i n the
pl ane of i nci dence ( pl ane i ncl udi ng the nor mal and the
i nci dent ray) . The movi ng dot i s the i mage formed by
the extraordi nary ray.
A NI COL PRI SM i s made by ac
curatel y cutti ng a cal ci te crystal
and cementi ng the parts back
together wi th Canada bal sam.
Because of the di ference i n the
refracti ve i ndi ces, the ordi nary
ray is refected out the si de of
cal ci te
the pri sm by the Canada bal sam
l ayer, whi l e the extraordi nary ray
passes di rectl y through. Ni col
pri sms were used to produce
pol ari zed l i ght rays over a hun- _
dred years before the di scovery
of Pol aroi d. They are st i l l among
the most efci ent pol ari zi ng _
devi ces.
'

55
Wi thout Pol aroi d fl ter Wi th Pol aroi d fl ter
POLAROID, i nvented by Edwi n Land i n 1 932, acts upon
l i ght i n the same way as tourmal i ne ( p. 53) , transmi t
ti ng onl y those components of l i ght that are vi brati ng
i n one di recti on. The other components of the wave are
absorbed. Pol aroi d i s conveni ent to use. Pol aroi d sun
gl asses, for exampl e, transmi t onl y verti cal vi brati ons,
and thus el i mi nate the gl are of l i ght pol ar i zed by re
fecti on from hori zontal surfaces . Photographers often
use Pol aroi d fl ters ( above) to reduce unwanted refec
ti ons, and al so to darken the sky i n col or photographs
by removi ng some of the scattered l i ght, whi ch i s partl y
pol ari zed.
STRESSES i n structural parts may
b studi ed i n pl astic or gl as s
model s by pl aci ng them between
sheets of Pol aroid and potograph
i ng them under s tress . The resul t
in g strai ns make the pl asti c or
gl ass doubl y refracti ng ( p. 55) ,
but to a di ferent degree for
di ferent wavelengt hs of l i ght.
When such materi al i s vi ewed be
tween Pol aroi d sheets, beauti ful
col ors appar, i ndi cati ng the degree
of stress .
THREE POLARIZATION PROCESSES are l argel y responsi
bl e for the pol ar i zed l i ght that we see. Natural l y pol ari zed
l i ght is often onl y partl y pol ar i zed and efects are not
readi l y noti ced.
ABSORPTI ON of l ight passi ng
through a natural crystal of tou rma
l i ne can produce pl ari zation.
The c rystal resol ves al l t he vi
brati on s of the unpol ari zed l ight
i nto two components and absorbs
on e of them. I n one form of
Pol aroi d ( p. 56) , l ong, thin mo
lecul ar chai ns contai ni ng iodi ne
absorb some l ight vibrtions and
transmi t oth ers .
REFLECTI ON of l i ght at an angl e
from a non-metal l i c surface, such
as gl ass or water, makes i t parl y
pol ari zed. When the refected
ray and refracted ray are at ri ght
angles, the refected ray i s com
pl etel y pl ari zed. I n thi s case,
the i nci dent angle i s cal l ed
Brewster' s angl e. Regul arly re
fected l i ght ( glare) from roads,
baches and water i s parl y
pl ari zed.
SCATTERI NG partl y plari zes l i ght
from the sky. Li ght rays from the
sun exci te transverse electri c
GLASS
vi bati ons i n ai r mol ecul es, whi ch

then scatter pol ari zed l i ght i n

M
drecti ons perpendicul ar to vi bra-
6
tions. Look at t he sky 90 degrees
away from the sun through a
pi ece of Pol aroi d. Note change
i n bri ghtness as the Pol aroi d i s
rotated.
l

TOURMALI NE

.
l

|
|
|
57
OPTI CAL INSTRUMENTS
An opti cal i nstrument uses mi rrors, l enses, pri sms or
grati ngs, si ngl y or i n combi nati on, to refect, refract
or otherwi se modi fy l i ght rays . Opti cal i nstruments,
especi al l y mi croscopes and tel escopes, have probabl y
broadened man ' s i ntel l ectual hori zons mor e than any
other devi ces he has made.
Perhaps the best way to understand the operati on of
opt i cal i nstruments i s by geometri cal opti cs-a method
that deal s wi th l i ght as rays i nstead of waves or par
ti cl es. These rays fol l ow the l aws of refecti on ( p. 4 1 )
and refracti on ( p. 43) as wel l as the l aws of geo
,
etry.
I MAGES formed by mi rrors and
l enses may be ei ther real or
vi rtual and of a predi ctabl e si ze
and l oati on . A real i mage, as
formed by a camera or proj ector,
i s an actual conveni ng of l i ght
rays and can be caught on a
screen; vi rtual i mages cannot.
The rays from obj ect poi nts do
not pass through correspondi ng
poi nts of a vi rtual i mage. I mages
seen i n bi nocul ars are vi rtual .
MIRRORS are the ol dest and most wi del y used opti cal
i nstruments . The pl ane mi rror i s the si mpl est i mage
formi ng devi ce. Pl ane mi rrors are found i n every home.
Spheri cal or parabol i c mi r rors are often used i n opti cal
i nstruments i nstead of l enses.
obj ect

, Pl ane Mi rror
Z
A PLANE OR FLAT MI RROR
produces a vi rtual i mage si nce the
l i ght rays do not come di rectl y
from the i mage. Rays from an
obj ect are redi rected by the mi r
ror so that they appear to come
from an i mage l ocated as far be
hi nd the mi rror as the obj ect i s
i n front of the mi rror. Obj ect
and i mage are the same si ze, but
the i mage i s reversed from l eft to
ri ght.
vi rtual i m age
58
curvature
CONCAVE SPHERI CAL MI RRORS
have an axi s of symmetry through
thei r center, cal l ed the opti c
axi s. A poi nt on thi s axi s equi
di stant from every poi nt on the
! . I f a smal l obj ect is placed at
the center of curvature, the mi r
ror forms a real i mage whi ch co
i nci des wi th the obj ect but i s
upsi de down.
2. As the obj ect i s moved cl oser
to the mi r ror, the i mage moves
rapi dl y away, getti ng l arger the
farther i t goes.
3. When the obj ect reaches a
poi nt ha l fway between the mi rror
and the center of curvature, the
refected rays from each poi nt
became paral lel and do not form
an i mage at al l . The obj ect i s
then at the foca l poi nt of t he
mi rror .
4. I f the obj ect i s moved cl oser
to the mi rror t han the focal
poi nt, the refected rays diverge
as though they came from a vi rtual
i mage l ocated behi nd the mi rror.
Thi s vi rtual i mage i s upri ght and
l arger than the obj ect.
Concave
mi rror ' s surface i s the center
of curvat ure. An obj ect beyond
the center of curvature forms a
real i mage between the focal
poi nt and center of curvature.
( 2 )
^

virtual i mage

OPTICAL PRISMS are transparent sol i ds of gl as s or other
materi al whose opposi te faces are pl ane but not neces
sari l y paral l el . They are used to bend l i ght rays by re
fracti on or i nternal refl ecti on. The amount of bendi ng
depends on the refracti ve i ndex of the pri s m, the angl e
between i ts faces, and the angl e of i nci dence of the
l i ght. Si nce the refracti ve i ndex depends al so on the
wavel ength ( p. 45} , pri sms are often used to di s perse a
l i ght beam i nto i ts spectrum.
4 -V -4 PRI SMS
P
l
A 4-V-4b DEGREE PRI SM
wi l l refect l ight rays by total
i nternal refecti on . When the
l i ght rays enter perpendi cul ar to
one of the short faces of the
pri sm, they are refected total l y
from the l ong face and depart at
ri ght angl es to the other short
face ( 1 ) . These pri sms are more
efci ent than s i l vered mi rrors .
Two such pri sms may be used i n
peri s copes t o di rect t he l i ght
down the tube and i nto the eye
piece ( 2 ) . The 45-90-45 degree
pri sm may al so be turned so that
the l i ght rays enter and l eave
perpendi cul ar to the l ong face ( 3 ) .
Bi nocul ars ( p. 7 6) use such
pri sms i n thi s way.
l

#
7

/
60
peri scope
A DOVE PRI SM is a modi fcati on
of the 45-90-45 pri sm. The 90
degree corner has been removed.
The pri sm i nterchanges the pos i ti on
of two paral l el rays, as shown . I f
the pri sm i s rotated around the
di recti on of the l i ght, the two rays
wi l l rotate about one another at
twi ce the angul ar s peed of the
pri s m rotati on . Dove pri sms used
in opti cal i nstruments to i nvert
an i mage are cal l ed erecti ng
pri sms.
A TRI PLE MI RROR -o: i-- :-o-
ei o ce-- :,-ico' ' , :' c-e
ie o q' o:: cee-. . q-i --i-
-q ie=oe i-- ce-- ie-,
e -ci e- : -r-ci-e eoc- oo'
' -' ie i-- e -ci e- ie =- c-
i coe. t ' - e: o- e:-J
- e c,c' e o-J ei-e erecie:,
'oc-J o'e-q eoJ:, i-e, er-ci
i-- -eoJ' q-i: ei co:, =o- -q
eie :i: ei ce--: o-J ei -e
c- o-q-: - J- -qce-J ie-:.
A 0~0~0 DEGREE PRI SM
: e:-e e:i i-e--i' , ie e :
-: -q ' q-i -ie i: cee---i
=o--' --qi-:. A --= e e---e=-
io-:o--i oi- o' : eii-- cei
-ie i- ::-o :e i:ei co' e
-i-: co- e- :iee -e =i- o :-c
ie-i- , e-' e=, , o- -:ie--i
J-: q--e ie -o:e- o-q' -: ei
-ioci e- ei ' q-i o,:. | - i--
: ' -:i o-e e:i io ' o i,-
ei :-cie-i-, ' .q-i ie o-
' gi .:
-haciaJ
eoc ie=oe
:eec-
eei: e- :eec- --i-: o -oe=,
od e:ioe' -:' i -oce' ' oieie~.
| i i--- ::-: i-eeq- o ' --:
i-oi --e-: i-- o,: ei ' q-i
oo' ' -' . -- o,: ei ' q-i o-
e -ci-e e-ie o : i-oi -
ioci: o-e e :-:-: i-- - o
:-cie i-oi co- e- - -=-e
i-eeq- o i-' -:ce-. t-- :-c
ieqo- , . 5) : : ' o - :iec
iee eei:ee eJie-eieqo-
i-e :-cio.
SPECTROMETER
1JeJ- z-JJ- i :ieJ-
oq-
ist eJ- z-J eJ- 1J eJ-
A difracti on grati ng produces several orders of the s pectrum. The
central i mage i s whi te; higher order spectra overl ap.
DIFFRACTION GRATI NGS may be used i nstead of
pri sms to di sperse l i ght. Grati ngs were frst used by
Joseph Fraunhofer i n 1 8 1 9 to observe the spectrum of
the sun. I n 1 8 82 Henry A. Rowl and perfected a method of
produci ng grati ngs of excepti onal l y hi gh qual i ty. The
moder n versi on consi sts of fne paral l el l i nes ( up to
30, 000 to the i nc h) rul ed i n an al umi num coati ng on
a pl ane or concave gl ass surface. Li ght waves di fracted
from these l i nes i nterfere so that al l wavel engths but
one are cancel ed i n any parti cul ar di recti on. Di ferent
wavel engths l eave the grati ng at di ferent angl es and
form a spectrum. Grati ngs can be used i n the ul travi ol et
and i nfrared as Wel l as i n the vi si bl e regi on of the spec
tr um; speci al grati ngs are used wi th X-rays .
Di spersi on by a pri sm is greater for short wavel engths
than for l onger ones . The di spersi on of a grati ng, how
ever, i s a l most i ndependent of the wavel ength. Grati ngs
produce a normal spectrum i n whi ch equal di stances cor
respond to equal wavel ength i nterval s and may be su
peri or to O pr i sm i n di spersi on and resol ut i on .
Grati ngs produce more than one spectrum at the same
ti me. These occur as a seri es of ever-wi der spectra on
ei ther si de of a br i ght central i mage. The fr st spec
trum on each si de i s known as a frst-order spectrum
and i s due to i nterference by a seri es of waves whi ch
are out of phase by one wavel ength. The second ( second
order) spectrum on each si de i s twi ce as l ong ( has twi ce
the di spersi on) as the frst. Each i s formed by a seri es
of waves out of phase by two wavel engths . The thi rd
order spectrum overl aps the second order spectrum and
has three ti mes the di spersi on of the frst. Hi gher orders
al so over l ap thei r nei ghbors and are l onger but di mmer.
Di fracti on grati ngs, l i ke pr i sms ( p. 60) , are used i n
spectroscopes for di spersi on of a beam of l i ght . The
l argest i nstruments are of the grati ng type. A spectro
graph records the spectrum photographi cal l y or el ectron
i cal l y. A monochromator, al so ei ther pri sm or grati ng,
uses a sl i t to i sol ate a narrow porti on of the s pectrum
for sci enti fc study. These i nstruments are used to study
the many properti es of l i ght sources, from candl es to
di stant star s, to l earn the ki nds of atoms and mol ecul es
of whi ch they are made, pl us such other features as
temperatures, vel oci t i es, and energy states. Most of what
sci enti sts know about the structure of atoms was l earned
wi th spectrographs. The same i s true about our knowl edge
of di stant stars, nebu l ae and gal ax i es -thei r tempera
tures , vel oci ti es and chemi cal structu res .
A PASCHEN SPCTROGRAPH
uses a concave di fracti on grati ng
i n a si mpl e manner. The grati ng,
the photographic pl ate, and the
entrance s l it are al l arranged
around a c i rcul ar track. Li ght
PASCHEN
MOUNTI NG
ce-cev-
qei -q
passes t hrough the s l i t, stri kes
the grati ng, and forms spectra
of vari ous orders al l in focus
on the ci rcl e. The photographi c
plate . : placed e- t he track
record desi red wavel engths .
1ded-
:-cie
z-d ed-
:-cie
i :ied-
:-cie
central i mage
63
A LENS forms an i mage by refracti ng the l i ght rays
from an obj ect. Curved gl ass l enses were frst used as
si mpl e mag_ni fers i n the 1 3th century, but i t was not
ti l l nearl y i600 that the mi croscope was devi sed, fol
l owed by
t
h
e tel escope a decade or so l ater. Mi rrors,
whi ch form
' '
an i mage by refecti ng l i ght rays, had al
ready been known for several centuri es and were easi er
to understand. A l ens, however , has an advantage over a
mi rror in that it permi ts the observer to be on the op
posi te si de from the i ncomi ng l i ght .
SI MPLE POSI TI VE LENSES ( al so
known as convergi ng l enses) are
si ngle pi ees of gl ass that are
thi cker at thei r centers than at
thei r edges. Each surface is a sec
ti on of a sphere, and a l i ne
through the two centers of cura
ture ( AB) i s the opti c axi s . li ght
passi ng through a l ens i s bent
toward the thi cker pr of the
gl ass. li ght rays pral l el to the
opti c axi s are bnt by the l ens
so as to converge at the focal
poi nt ( F ) of the l ens. Si mi l arl y,
l ight comi ng from the oppsite
di recti on converges at a second
focal pi nt an equal di stance
on the oppsite si de of the l ens .
The di stance from the center of
t he l ens ( C) t o the focal pi nt
( F ) i s the focal l ength of the l ens.

foal

l ength
64 psi ti ve lens
Al l pos i ti ve l enses are thi cker
at thei r centers than at thei r
edges. They range from very
thi n l enses wi th surfaces of l i ttl e
curature to thi ck l enses that are
nearl y spheri cal in shape. Most
l enses i n general use are "t hi n"
l enses. Best known and wi del y
used as a si mpl e magni fer i s
the doubl e convex l ens whose
surfaces usual l y, but not al ways,
have the same curvature. The
pl ano-convex l ens has one si de
fat, the other convex. The posi
ti ve meni scus l ens has one con
vex surface and one concave
surface. The convex s urface has
a smal l er radi us of curvature
than the concave surface. As a
resul t, the l ens i s always thi cker
at i ts center than at i ts edge.
doubl e
convex
pl ano- posi t ive
convex meni scus
--Pti c
axi s
foal pi nt
eye
l
l
l
l
poi nt
virtual i mage
,foal l engt_-foal lengthq
When an obj ect is pl aced between
a posi ti ve l ens and ei ther focal
poi nt, an upri ght, enl arged i mage
wi l l appear on the same si de of
_ i mage di stance
rea l
focal
,,
I f an obj ect is pl aced beyond
the focal poi nt, i ts i mage wi l l
be real , i nverted, and l ocated
on the opposi te si de of the l ens.
When the obj ect i s more than
MAGNI FI CATI ON i s the rati o of
l ength of i mage to l ength of ob
ject. I t equal s the di stance of
the image di vi ded by the di stance
of the obj ect from the l ens. Hence,
an i mage wi l l be l arger than the
obj ect only i f i t i s farther from
the lens . The shorter the focal
eye
real
i mage

on

retina
l
l
8
magn i fer
the l ens but farther away than the
obj ect. Thi s vi rtual i mage ( p. 58)
can be seen onl y by l ooki ng at
the obj ect through the l ens.
obj ect di stance
focal
twi ce the focal l engt h from the
l ens the i mage wi l l be smal l er
than the obj ect . Wi th the obj ect
closer than twi ce the focal
l ength, the i mage i s l arger.
l ength of a l ens, or the greater
it s convex curvature, the greater
its magni fyi ng power . Thi s power,
expressed i n diopters, i s the
focal l ength of a l ens i n meters
di vi ded i nto 1 . A l ens wi th a
focal l ength of 25 em. ( 14m. ) has a
magni fyi ng power of 4 di opters .
. i mage di stance
magn i ficati on
object di stance
vi rtual i mage

f
obj ect i mage
negati ve lens
eye
The equiconcave ( or doubl e-concave) lens is used as a di mi ni shi ng
gl as s to see how i l l ustrations wi l l reduce i n pri nti ng.
SI MPLE NEGATI VE LENSES ( al so
cal l ed di vergi ng l enses) are
thi cker at the edges than at the
center. A negati ve l ens al one can
not form a real i mage as a posi
t i ve l ens does. light passi ng
through a negati ve l ens paral l el
t o t he opt i c axi s i s bent away
from the axi s . . The focal poi nt
of the negati ve l ens i s l ocated
by extendi ng these di vergi ng
rays backward unti l they cross
the axi s. The i mage formed by a
di vergi ng l ens i s al ways vi rtual ,
upri ght, and smal l er and cl oser to
the l ens than the obj ect.
Negati ve l en ses are used to re
duce i mages ( bel ow) , to correct
nearsi ghtedness ( p. 69) and to con
struct compound lnses ( p.
)
i,.
Three types of negati ve l enses
negati ve
meni scus
AN ABERRATION i s a fai l ure of a l ens or mi rror to form
a perfect i mage. Two of the si x most i mportant types of
aberrati on are spheri cal and chromati c. Spheri cal aber
rati on i s caused when paral l el l i ght rays pas s i ng through
a l ens at di ferent di stances from the opti c axi s ar e not
al l focused at the same poi nt. A di aphragm that de
creases the aperture of the l ens wi l l el i mi nate the outer
rays and reduce spheri cal aberrati on . Chromati c aberra
ti on i s caused by the fact that a l ens bends each col or,
or wavel ength, to a di ferent degree.
Spheri cal
Aber rati on
SPHERI CAL ABER RATI ON de
pend s on curvat ure of the l ens .
light rays passi ng th rough the
outer part of the l ens bend too
sharpl y to pass th rough the focal
poi nt and form a fuzzy i mage.
- l ens
di apragm
Spheri cal
Aberrati on
Corrected
I f the spheri cal aberrati on i s
to be kept to a mi ni mum, the radi i
of curvature of the l ens surfaces
shoul d be l arge compared to the
di ameter of the l ens . A dia phragm
l i mi ts the l ens aperture.
a screen here
shows the l east bl urred i mage
=- i-
l ight
CHROMATI C ABERRATI ON re
sul ts from unwanted di spersi on
of l ig ht ( p. 45) in a lens, so
that diferent col ors are focused
at s l ightl y diferent di stances .
I t produces a bl urri ng of the
i mage in opti cal i nstruments .
f
f
Chromati c a ber rati on can be
corrected by combi ni ng two or
more s i mpl e l enses made of dif
ferent k i nds of gl a ss, so that
thei r di s persi ons cancel each
other . Such l enses are sai d to
be achromati c.
al l ce' e: ce-
ie a common iece:
68
PKMb bb
t,-q' o::-: ie ce-ci m:. qiee-
--:: -o-- :i.-- ' --:-:.
l ens
obje
c
t oi
normal near pint
EYE GLASSES aid a process cal l ed accommodati on . The
muscl es attached to the l ens of the eye change the
shape of the l ens so that the i mages of obj ects at di fer
ent di stances are brought to a focus on the reti na. The
range of thi s accommodati on, i n normal eyesi ght, i s
from a " near poi nt" at whi ch the eye can see an ob
j ect i n most detai l ( about 1 0 i nches ) to a far poi nt on
the hor i zon.
For some peopl e, t he near poi nt i s much farther away
than 1 0 i nches. They see di stant obj ects cl earl y but
are unabl e to focus on obj ects at readi ng di stance. Such
persons are farsi ghted ( above) . The defect i n thei r
v. :eo occeeeoie- e-c' --:=.i- oq-.
MbPKM1b bb
Eyegl asses to corect nearsi ghted
ness have negati ve l enses .
di stant
obed
l ens
eyes may be corrected by weari ng spectacl es wi th posi
ti ve ( convergi ng) l enses. An obj ect now hel d at the normal
near poi nt i s seen or read di sti nctl y. Wi th age, t he l ens
of t he eye l oses some fexi bi l i ty and t he muscl es at
tached to i t l ose some tone. Thi s l oss of accommoda
ti on vari es among peopl e. I t can be corrected by gl asses,
usual l y ground so the upper part of the l ens gi ves a
correcti on for di stant vi si on. The l ower segment of these
bi focal gl asses i s a s l i ghtl y thi cker, posi ti ve l ens for
cl ose work or readi ng.
A nearsi ghted person can see obj ects cl earl y at cl ose
range, but cannot focus on those at a di stance. Thi s
di fcul ty i s remedi ed by gl asses wi th negati ve ( di vergi ng)
l enses. Wi th t hem, di stant obj ects are seen as though
they were wi thi n hi s range of accommodati on .
CONY ACT LENSES are a form
of eyegl asses that ft di rectl y
over the cornea of the eye, foat
i ng on the l ayer of tears that
covers i ts surface. Such smal l
l enses correct severe refracti ve
eye condi ti ons and have speci al
advantages for athl etes, actors,
and others .
contact l ens

_
9
3

7
5
6
Asti gmati sm test chart . Rotate
page at arm' s l ength. Al l l i nes
shoul d appear equal l y i ntense.
0
For some persons wi th severe
asti gmati sm, the test chart mi ght
l ook l i ke thi s.
ASTIGMATISM of the eye i s due to a faul t i n the curva
ture of the cornea or l ens ( page 85) . If ei ther curved
surface i s not symmetr i cal , rays i n di ferent pl anes wi l l
not be focused at te same di stance behi nd the l ens .
Thus part of t he i mage wi l l be out of focus . Thi s defect
can usual l y be corrected by wear i ng spectacl es wi th
cyl i ndri cal l enses ( bel ow) i nstead of spheri cal ones. For
l arge correcti ons or i rregul ar corneas, contact l enses
may be prescri bed. Al most two out of three persons
have at l east a mi l d form of asti gmati s m.
focus i n one pl ane
70

"~=
ASTI GMATI C GLASSES have cy
l i ndri cal l enses, whi ch are curved
about a transverse axi s rather
t han around a poi nt, as i n si mpl e
pos i ti ve l enses. Cyl i ndri cal l enses
can ai d i n correcti ng asti gma
ti sm, i n whi ch the l ens of the eye
does not have sufci ent curva
ture around i ts verti cal axi s.
COMPOUND LENSES are used i n preci si on opti cal i nstru
ments such as mi croscopes, tel escopes, and expensi ve
cameras. They cons i st of two or more si mpl e l enses
( el ements ) combi ned i n such a way that the aberrati ons
are mi ni mi zed. The el ements are somet i mes cemented to
gether and someti mes caref ul l y spaced apart i n the
same mount. Desi rabl e characteri st i cs of an opti cal
i mage are bri ghtness, hi gh resol uti on of fne detai l ,
edge sharpness of the i mage, fatness of fel d, and
good contrast beteen l i ght and dark porti ons. Al l of
these cannot be achi eved at the same ti me, and even
the best l ens is a compromi se, achi evi ng one good
qual i ty part l y at the expense of another . Computers
are now used i n l ens desi gn to hel p choose the proper
curvatures , mater i al s , and spaci ngs of the el ements
for best cor recti on of the aberrati ons .
Some i mage-formi ng i nstruments us e both mi rrors and
l enses . Such sys tems, contai ni ng both refracti ng and
refecti ng el ements, are cal l ed catadi optr i c.
MAGNI FYI NG EYEPI ECE i s used
i n si mpl e vi ewi ng and measuri ng
i nstruments. One form i s the
pocket doubl et magni fer. Careful
l ens gri ndi ng and spaci ng reduces
aberrati ons.
TELEPHOTO LENS for a camera
is a compound l ens whi ch gi ves
the efect of a l ong focal l ength
system wi th a rel ati vel y short
l ensto- fl m di stance.
MI CROSCOPE OBJECTI VE LENS
has a short focal l ength and rel a
ti vel y l arge aperture. I ts hi gh
magni fcati on emphasi zes aberra-
eyepi ece
ti ons , so that a hi gh order of
correcti on is requi red.
to
eye
pi ece
Z
Ray Di agram of an Opera Glas s
THE TELESCOPE was invented by a Dutch opti ci an, Hans
Li ppershey, i n 1 608 , some 300 years after t he i nventi on
of spectacl es . Gal i l eo recei ved news of t hi s i nventi on
i n 1 609, and wi thout seei ng the ori gi nal , he constructed
a tel escope consi sti ng of one posi ti ve and one negati ve
l ens mounted i n a di scarded organ pi pe . The same opti
cal arrangement i s used more efci entl y i n opera gl asses,
whi ch are usual l y bi nocul ar. The posi ti ve l ens i s cal l ed
the obj ecti ve, and the negat ive l ens i s the ocul ar, or
eyepi ece. The fel d of vi ew aforded by opera gl asses
i s rather smal l at l arge magni fcati ons, so opera gl asses
are usual l y of l ow power -3 to 5 magni fcati ons . Si nce
the eyepi ece i s a negati ve l ens, the i mage seen by the
vi ewer i s upr i ght.
The spygl ass, or terrestri al tel escope, provi des an up
ri ght i mage because a t hi rd l ens l i es between the ob
j ecti ve and ocul ar ( bel ow) . Th i s makes the i nstr ument
qui te l ong; so, for conveni ence, i t i s usual l y made
col l apsi bl e.
Ray diagram shows how i nverted i mage i s erected i n a si mple spygl ass .
--ci -q
' --:-:
-,- -c-
, ece' oj
IN THE REFRACTI NG TELE
SCOPE the obj ecti ve forms a
real , i nverted i mage of a di s
tant obj ect at the pri me focus .
The eyepi ece then forms a magni -
fed vi rtual i mage. Magni fcati on
depends on the abi l i ty of the
obj ecti ve to furni sh enough l i ght
and a good i mage for hi gh mag
ni fcati on by the eyepi ece.
REFRACTING TELESCOPES use pos i ti ve l enses for both
obj ecti ve and eyepi ece. The real i nverted i mage pro
duced by the obj ect i ve i s vi ewed, enl arged, through
the eyepi ece. Refracti ng tel escopes are l i mi ted to a
maxi mum aperture of about one meter because of the
di fcul ty of produci ng very l arge pi eces of fawl ess
opti cal -qual i ty gl ass , and then gr i ndi ng coaxi al curva
tures on both s i des of the l ens . Al so, as l enses are
made l arger, the amount of
l i ght absorbed by the gl ass
i ncreases, and the wei ght
of the l ens causes i t to
sag, i ntroduci ng opti cal er
rors . Thi s tpe of tel e
scope i s used to study
cel esti al bodi es.
The refracti ng tel escope at Yerkes
Obseratory i n Wi sconsi n has an
obj ecti ve l ens 40 i nches i n di
ameter, the largest us ed success
ful ly by astronomers . The tel e
scop has a theoreti cal magni fy
i ng power of 4, 000 di ameters .
The Hal e tel escope on Pal omar
Mountai n i n Southern Cal i forni a
has the l argest mi rror of any op
ti cal tel escope. The disk of pyrex
gl ass has a di ameter of 200 i n.
and i s 27 i n. thi ck. I t wei ghs 1 5
tons . The concave surface i s
coated wi th al umi num oxi de.
Vi ew here i s of the "cage " i n
whi ch the astronomer makes hi s
observations.
REFLECTING TELESCOPES use curved mi r rors i nstead of an
obj ecti ve l ens. Al l tel escopes over 40 i nches i n di ameter
are of the refecti ng type. Si nce onl y the sur face of a
l arge mi rror needs to be opti cal l y perfect, i t can be
braced from the back to prevent di storti on. A wafe
pattern mol ded i nto the back reduces the wei ght and
mai ntai ns r i gi di ty. The front surface of the mi r ror i s
careful l y ground and pol i shed to a parabol oi d. I t i s
then coated wi th a very thi n al umi num fl m, whi ch oxi
di zes i nto a hi ghl y refecti ng and durabl e sur face.
A 200- i nch refector col l ects four ti mes as much l i ght
as a 1 00-i nch i nstrument. I t sees twi ce as far i nto space,
and thus surveys a uni verse ei ght ti mes as l arge as that
seen by the smal l er tel escope.
I n t he refecti ng tel escope, l i ght
from astronomi cal obj ects i s
refected from a curved mi rror
to a pri me focus where an i n
verted real i mage i s formed. I n
the Newtoni an for, shown be
l ow, a fl at mi rror is pl aced i n the
beam to refect the pr i me focus
towa rd on eyepi ece at t he si de of
t he i nstrument.
Roy Diagram of a Refecti ng Tel escope
4
pol ished frst surface mi rror
anal refecti ng mir ror
pri me focus
l ight from stars
spheri cal mirror
curature radi us of curvature
Li ght rays stri ki ng a spheri cal
mi rror paral l el to the opti c axi s
are not al l refected through t he
focal poi nt ( F ) . But i n a parabo-
parabol oi dal mi rror
l oi dal mi rror, the changi ng cur
vature reflects al l rays through
the focal poi nt, and a cl ear,
sharp i mage resul t s.
SPHERICAL ABERRATION OF CONCAVE MIRRORS i s
s i mi l ar to that of spheri cal l enses ( p. 67) . Paral l el l i ght
rays that str i ke the mi rror at di ferent di stances from the
center are not refected through the focal poi nt. Si nce
they do not meet at a si ngl e poi nt, the resul t i ng i mage
i s fuzzy. The defect becomes more seri ous as the di
ameter of t he mi rror I s made l arger i n proporti on t o the
radi us of curvature.
To avoi d spheri cal aber
rati on, mi rrors are made
wi th concave parabol oi dal
surfaces . These are used i n
tel escopes and searchl i ght s.
SCHMI DT CAMERA i s a form of
tel escope used to take pi ctures
of l arge areas of the sky. I ts
fel d of vi ew i s wi der than other
refectors because of a "correct
i ng" l ens i nsi de. Si nce the fel d
of focus i s curved, thi s i nstrument
cannot be used for "eye" ob
servi ng. Shown i s the 72- i nch
Schmidt Camera at Mount Pal omar.

BINOCULARS are used, l i ke a smal l tel escope, to vi ew

di stant obj ects . They empl oy an opti cal system of l enses
and pri sms to produce an enl arged erect i mage. The
ocul ar and the obj ecti ve l enses provi de the magni fca
ti on and i l l umi nati on. Between them i s a pai r of 45-90-45
degree pr i sms ( p. 60) so arranged that the l i ght passi ng
through the bi nocul ars i s i nternal l y refected four ti mes,
maki ng the i mage erect .
THREE FACTORS are i nvol ved i n
t he useful ness of bi nocul ars -mag
ni fcation, fel d of view, and l i ght
gatheri ng power . Magni fcati on
must be sui ted to the purpse.
Any movement by ei ther the ob
server or the observed is magni fed
at high power . For hand-hel d uses,
bi nocul ars wi th magni fcati ons of
6x to 8x are best. Hi gher mag
ni fcati ons requi re a tri pod or
other support. Fi el d of vi ew i s
l argel y determi ned by the ocul ar
l enses. The di ameter of the ob
jective l ens determi nes the l i ght-
BI NOCULARS
gatheri ng power-the l arger the
better i f bi nocul ars are used at
ni ght or i n shady woods . Bi nocu
l ars have central or i ndi vi dual
focus ( central preferred) . They
range i n magnifcat ion from
about 2 to 20. Each bi nocular
has an identi fcati on mark such
as 8 X 30 or 7 X 50. The
frst numbr i s the magnifcation,
t he second t he obj ecti ve diameter
i n mi l l i meters . An 8 X 30 glass
has s l i ghtl y greater magnifi cati on
but di sti nctl y l ess l i ght-gatheri ng
power than a 7 X 50.
MICROSCOPES, PROJECTORS AND ENLARGERS are
si mi l ar i n pr i nci pl e, but they di fer i n purpose and de
si gn. I n each, a posi ti ve l ens for ms a real i mage of a
bri ghtl y i l l umi nated obj ect. Wi th proj ectors, the i mage i s
caught on a screen; wi th mi croscopes, i t i s vi ewed
through an eyepi ece; and wi th photographi c enl argers,
the i mage i s proj ected on l i ght sensi ti ve paper, where i t
i s recorded i n semi - permanent form.
MI CROSCOPES need i ntense i l
l umi nati on of t he obj ect because
the i mage i s much l arger than the
obj ect and the same amount of
l i ght must be spread over a l arge
arec. The i l l umi nati on i s provi ded
ei ther by a tungsten l amp bul b or
by an arc l amp, i ts l i ght concen
trated on the obj ect by a l ens or
by a concave mi rror used as a
condenser. The mi croscope' s ob
j ecti ve l ens has a short focal
l ength ( from 1 em to l ess than
1 mm) and produces a sharp i mage
of a very smal l feld.
I MAGE SHARPNESS depends on
resol vi ng power rather than on
magn i fyi ng power, and i s l i mi ted
by di fract i on efect s that bl ur
t he i mage. Two poi nts separated
by a di stance l ess than one hal f
the wavel ength of l i ght cannot
b resol ved optical ly and wi l l
appear as one poi nt i nstead of
two. Wi th the usual i l l umi na
tion, t hi s separati on i s approxi
matel y 1 / 1 00, 000 of an i nch .
THE ELECTRON MI CROSCOPE, by
usi ng a beam of el ectrons wi th
an efecti ve wavel ength much
shorter than that of l ight, obtai ns
over 1 00 t i mes t he resol vi ng
pwer of opti cal mi croscops.
THE MAGNI FI CATI ON achi eved
with an opti cal mi croscope is ap
proxi matel y equal to the power
of the obj ecti ve mul t i pl ied by the
pwer of the ocul ar or eyepiece,
produci ng an overal l magnifi ca
ti on of up to about 1 , 500 di
ameters .
-. ieo' . oq-
PROJECTORS use hi gh-i ntensi ty
tungsten or arc l amps for i l l umi
nati on . Two condensi ng l enses con
centrate the l i ght rays through
the obj ect ( usual l y a fl m s l i de) .
The convergi ng r ays pass on
through t he proj ecti on l enses, and
the enl arged i mage i s t hrown on
a screen. Thi s i s an i nverted
i mage, so s l i des are i nserted
upsi de down i n a proj ector. Wi th
any gi ven combi nati on of l enses,
the farther the i mage i s proj ected
the l arger i t wi l l be, and greater
l amp i ntensi ty wi l l be requi red.
Wi th some proj ectors ( bel ow) , an
opaque obj ect can be refected on
the screen .
OPAQUE PROJECTOR
PHOTOGRAPHI C ENLARGERS
are preci si on proj ectors wi th ad
j ustments for focusi ng the i mage
and control l i ng i mage si ze and
bri ghtness. Good enl argers pro
vide uni form i l l umi nati on, a good
l ens system, and a
'
ri gi d mount.
I n operati on, l i ght from a l amp
i concentrated by a parabol oi dal
reflector, passes through a di f
fusi ng gl ass ( or a condensi ng
l ens) , conti nues through the
negative and then through the
proj ecti on l ens, whi ch forms an
enl arged i mage of the negati ve on
the easel . I mage sharpness i s
adj usted by movi ng the proj ec
ti on l ens rel ati ve to the negati ve.
ENLARGER
Path of l i ght in a pi nhol e camera
A pi nhol e camera photograph
CAMERA comes from the Lati n phrase cOmetO ObscutO,
or dark chamber, for al l pi cture-taki ng i nstruments have
a dark chamber to protect the sensi ti ve fl m from l i ght .
The si mpl est camer a i s a l i ght-proof box wi t h a pi nhol e
i n one end and a pi ece of fl m on the opposi te i nsi de
wal l . Li ght reaches t he fl m onl y when the pi nhol e i s
uncovered, usual l y for a few seconds.
Use of a l ens i nstead of a pi nhol e al l ows muc h more
l i ght to pass through, and the same pi cture can be
taken in much shorter ti me. If the area of the l ens i s
1 , 000 ti mes as l arge as t he pi nhol e, the pi cture whi ch
requi red ten seconds can be made i n 1 / 1 00 second, an
average speed i n many modern cameras .
I n addi ti on to a l ens and fl m, a camera u sual l y has
a shutter, an adj ustabl e di aphragm, and some type of
focusi ng adj ustment. The shutter prevents l i ght from str i k
i ng te fl m except when a pi cture i s bei ng made. A
mechani sm opens the shutter and cl oses it automati cal l y
after a l ength of t i me. Camera shutters may have
speeds from 1 0 seconds to 1 / 1 , 000 of a second. Some
cameras take pi ctures at a mi l l i onth of a second, en
abl i ng man to see the unseeabl e. The di aphragm can be
adj usted to admi t varyi ng amounts of l i ght each ti me
the shutter i s open . The focusi ng mechani sm moves the
l ens back and forth to achi eve a cl ear i mage.
79
THE SHUTTER of a camera
al l ows l i ght from the subj ect
to enter the camera and stri ke
the fl m for a ti me. Shftters
are l ocated ei ther at the l ens
or at the fl m. Lens shutters
are usual l y pl aced between or j ust
behi nd the el ements of the l ens
and usual l y have a set of l eaves
that snap open for the desi red ti me
and then snap shut. Focal pl ane
shutters are next to the fl m and
resembl e a wi ndow bl i nd wi th
slots cut i n i t . A modern ver sion
has two curtai ns. As one moves
and uncovers the fl m, the second
fol l ows so cl osel y that the open
i ng btween them i s a mere
sl ot. Exposure ti me i s vari ed by
adj usti ng the wi dth of the sl ot.

THE f-NUMBER of a l ens refers

to the rati o of i ts di ameter J) to
its focal l ength (f). For exampl e,
f / refers to an aperture whose
di ameter i s '/s of the focal
l ength. A camera' s l owest f
number corresponds to i ts wi de
open di aphragm and i s cal l ed the
speed of the l ens . Us i ng a l ower
f-number shortens the requi red
exposure ti me, but reduces the
depth of fel d ( p. i ). The di a
phragm i s set to the hi ghest f
number that can be used wi th a
gi ven shutter speed in order to get
maxi mum depth of fel d. Many
moern cameras have a bui l t-i n
photoel ectri c cel l that sel ects auto
mati cal l y the l ens openi ng for the
shutter speed used.
o m

FOCUS i s achi eved when l i ght from an obj ect pas ses
through a camera l ens and for ms a c l ear, acc urate i mage
on the fl m or vi ewer . l i ght rays from an obj ect poi nt
di verge s l i ghtl y as they enter a camera . Wi th a wi de
open l ens , the rays pass th rough al l parts of the l ens
and converge to the i mage poi nt { bel ow) . To focus the
camera, the di stance from the l ens to the fl m is adj usted
so that the poi nt of convergence wi l l l i e at the fl m sur
face-not before or behi nd i t . I t i s i mpossi bl e to focus
al l poi nts of a three-di mens i onal scene on the fl m at
the same ti me, but a sati sfactory sharpness can usual l y
be ac hi eved over a consi derabl e depth of the scene.
Adj ustment i s most cri ti cal when foc usi ng on a nearby
obj ect wi th a wi de-open l ens . It is l east cr i ti cal for a
di stant obj ect wi th the smal l est l ens openi ng. The ac
curacy of the focusi ng may be j udged by observi ng
the sharpness of the i mage on a trans l ucent gl ass surface
i n refex- type cameras or by super i mposi ng two i mages
i n a rangefnder i n some other cameras .
DEPTH OF FI ELD i s the depth of
a scene t hat i s i n focus on t he
camera' s fl m. A l arge l ens aper
ture al l ows onl y a l i mi ted depth
to be i n focus. The rest of the
scene i s fuzzy. Wi th a smal l er
openi ng, the cone of l i ght rays
from l ens to fl m converges and
di verges l ess. Both near and di s
tant obj ects are i n btter focus.

obj ect poi nts

~.
8 1
stanr l i gt sampl e l ight
source
f
source
` WM
82
.pmt""
J ( white mat surfce
W
on bth si des)

f
$
t f
#
M
observer
In thi s si mpl e photometer, i denti cal whi te surfaces are i l l umi nated by
the two di ferent l i ght sources bei ng compared.
PHOTOMETE RS are i nstruments for compari ng the i n
tensi ti es of two l i ght sources whi ch have approxi matel y
the same hue. The two sources are arranged so that
they i l l umi nate adj acent parts of the same vi sual fel d,
usual l y a screen. One of the l i ght sources i s then moved
cl oser or farther away unti l the two parts of the screen
match i n bri ghtnes s . The average observer can make
such a match wi th an error of l ess than two per cent. One
l i ght sour ce i s usual l y a standard l amp of known i ntensi ty,
so t he i ntensi ty of t he other source i s measured i n
terms of t he standard one. Another type of photometer
compares t he shadows cast by two adj acent l i ght sources
and gi ves si mi l ar i nformati on. Li ght-bul b manufacturers
use photometers to test thei r product. Astronomers use
them to measure the l i ght i ntensi ty of stars .
sample
source
7

.
.

. U
standard sources
(
c
ontrol lble intensi ti es)
- Both si des of the di vi ded screen are vi ewed si mul taneousl y i n thi s
col ori meter to determi ne the sampl e' s col or characteri sti cs .
COLORI METE RS are i nstruments desi gned t o measure
col or characteri sti cs other than i ntensi ty. I n one type, one
part of a di vi ded fel d i s i l l umi nated by l i ght from the
source bei ng studi ed; the other part by a mi xture of l i ght
from three standard sources, each of a di ferent hue
( p. 1 0 1 | . By adj usti ng the amounts of l i ght from the
standard sources, the operator can match the two parts
of the fel d so that they l ook exactl y al i ke. Someti mes
one of the standard sources must be used on the same
part of the fel d wi th the test source, achi evi ng the match
wi th the other two standard sources. No more than three
standard sources are ever requi red.
Si mpl e col or matchi ng wi th i ndi cator chemi cal s i s a
part of chemi cal anal ysi s. Thi s type of col ori meter i s
mor e properl y cal l ed a col or comparator.
83
84
SEEING LIGH T #W COLOR
The eye i s often compared to a camera. It has a l ens
that produces an i nverted i mage on the reti na, whose
surface i s sensi t i ve to l i ght j ust as fl m i s . I n front, the
eye has an i r i s that changes the si ze of the pupi l , per
formi ng the same functi on as the di aphragm of a cam
era. The pupi l i s si mpl y the hol e i n the i r i s through
whi ch l i ght enters the eye. As i ts si ze changes, the
pupi l admi ts more or l ess l i ght as needed, dependi ng
on the amount of i l l umi nati on present. Th i s adaptati on
by the i ri s to the l evel of i l l umi nati on i s cont i nued by
the reti na ( p. 86} .
A ray of l i ght enter i ng the eye passes through the
transparent cornea, the aqueous humor, the l ens, and
the vi treous humor . Al l hel p focus the l i ght before i t
str i kes the rods and cones, wh i ch are photoreceptors
l ocated on the ret i na . Here i s where the actual process
of seei ng begi ns. The greatest bendi ng of l i ght rays oc
curs at the frst surface of the cornea.
A group of l i gaments and muscl es automati cal l y c.on
trol the shape of the l ens to bri ng obj ects at di ferent
di stances i nto focus on the r.ti na. Thi s process i s cal l ed
accommodati on ( p. 68} . As one gets ol der, the l ens
gradual l y l oses i ts fexi bi l i ty, and the abi l i ty to accom
modate decreases .
AS OBJECT COMES CLOSER, SHAPE OF
LENS CHANGES FROM THI S e e

Tf
vitreous humor
THE LENS i s supported by a sus
pensory l i gament that hol ds i t
i n tensi on wi thi n the enci rcl i ng
ci l i ary muscl es. When rel axed, the
ci l i ary muscl e hol ds the l i gament
taut, and the l ens i s flattened
for vi ewi ng di stant obj ects. When
focusi ng on nearby obj ects the
muscl e contracts, l ooseni ng the
. . . TO THI S
rays from
near obj ect
suspensory l i gament to let the
l ens assume i ts natural bul gi ng
shape. Thus the l ens i s thi n for
vi ewi ng di stant obj ects ( p. 84,
bottom) and becomes thi cker to
focus on near ones ( bel ow) . It i s
i mpossi bl e t o have near and di s
tan t obj ects i n sharp focus at
the same ti me.

ci l i ary mus cl es
85
86
THE RETINA i s the eye' s sensi ti ve i nner surface. I t i s a
compl ex system of nerve endi ngs formed of two ki nds
of l i ght-sensi ti ve cel l s : rods and cones, named for the
shapes of thei r ti ps . The rods are most numerous and
predomi nate near the edges of the reti na. Cones are
i nterspersed wi th the rods, but near the center of the
reti na i s an area consi sti ng al most enti rel y of cones.
Thi s i s the yel l ow spot ( macul a l utea) wi th a smal l
depressi on ( fovea central i s ) i n i ts mi ddl e. Di sti nct vi si on
occurs onl y for the part of the i mage that fal l s on the
fovea, and s i nce thi s covers an angl e onl y s l i ghtl y l arger
than one degree, an obj ect may be "seen " i n detai l
onl y by scanni ng i t . At t he fovea, each cone i s connected
to i ts own opti c nerve fber. El sewhere i n the reti na,
whi ch contai ns some 1 1 5 mi l l i on rods and 7 mi l l i on cones,
. about 80 receptors are connected to a si ngl e nerve fber.
El ectr i cal i mpu l ses from the rod and cone cel l s travel
al ong the opti c nerve to the opti c l obe of the brai n, where
the mental pi cture of the scene i s regi stered.
COLOR VI SI ON ( cone cel l s ) does
not operate at very l ow l evel s
of i l l umi nati on . By moonl i ght,
hues van i sh, and onl y shades of
gray remai n. Unl i ke the cones,
the rods can adapt to very di m
l i ght by i n creasi ng thei r sen
si ti vi ty. They thus provi de a
coarse but useful vi s i on even
by starl i gh t. Under such condi
tions you may detect an obj ect
ou t of the corner of your eye
( rod vi si on ) that cannot be seen
when you l ok di rectl y at i t.
The rds sense onl y bri ghtness.
Cones sense both brightness and
hue. Rod vi si on i s much more
sensi ti ve to fi cker and moti on
than i s cone vi si on.
THE VI SUAL I MPULSE i s pro
duced by the changi ng of vi sual
purpl e ( rhodops i n) t o reti nene.
Rhodops i n undergoes chemical
changes under t he i nfuence of
l i ght photons that resul t in bl each
i ng of the rhodopsi n to pal e
yel l ow reti nene. The strength of
the bri ghtness sensati on depends
on the rate of bleachi ng.
Si nce sensi ti vi ty of the rods
depends on the amount of vi sual
purpl e present, i ts regenerati on
must be fast and sufci ent. Thi s
regenerati on occurs most rapi dl y
i n the dark and i s rel ated to the
amount of vi tami n A present.
Lack of vi tami n A retards regenera
ti on, causi ng ni ght bl i ndness.
LIGHT ENTERING THE EYE reaches the photochemi cal
ends of the rods and cones onl y after passi ng through
the network of nerve cel l s and gangl i a that l i es above
them. These tip ends of the rods and cones are embedded
i n a l ayer of epi thel i um contai ni ng pi gment granul es that
opti cal l y i sol ate the rods and cones . The gangl i a above
these l ayers sort vi sual i mpul ses, and the nerve fbers
transmi t them to the brai n .
STRUCTURE OF RETI NA,
head- o view ( ri ght) and
secti onal view ( bel ow) , cen
tered on the fovea.
l ight
l
pi gment l ayer

88
THE OPTIC NERVE i s the most i mportant nerve of the
eye because i t carri es vi sual si gnal s to the brai n. Vari ous
motor nerves operate muscl es control l i ng the movement
of the eyebal l and upper eyel i d and the thi ckness of the
l ens. The opti c nerve i s a ti ck bundl e of nerve fbers
connected to the rear of the reti na at a spot sl i ghtl y
of-center toward the nose. No rods or cones cover thi s
spot so i t i s i nsensi ti ve to l i ght. To detect thi s bl i nd
spot cl ose the l eft eye and stare at the bl ack dot at
the l ower l eft corner of thi s page, hol di ng the page
about 1 8 i nches from the nose. Move the page around
ti l l the dot i n the l ower ri ght-hand corner ( p. 89) becomes
i nvi si bl e. The l eft-hand dot wi l l di sappear i f you l ook
wi th the l eft eye onl y at the ri ght-hand dot. No bl i nd
spot i s apparent wi th both eyes open, because the fel ds
of vi si on overl ap.
The opti c nerve from each eye l eads to the vi sual area
of the brai n at the extreme back of the head. I nj ury
to thi s area can cause bl i ndness . I n front of thi s regi on,
i n areas that are poorl y defned, compl ex vi sual asso
ci ati on takes pl ace.
The opti c nerve fbers from the ri ght eye appear to
l ead to the l eft si de of the brai n; those from the l eft
eye seem to go to the ri ght si de of the brai n. Where they
cross is the opti c chi asma. Actual l y there is not a com
pl ete crossi ng that afects al l the nerve fbers but an
i ntermi xi ng. Nerves from the ri ght hal f of the reti na of
both eyes go to the ri ght hal f of the brai n and record
the l eft hal f of the fel d of vi si on .
VI SUAL FI ELDS An obj ect
i n the ri ght hal f of the
vi sual fel d regi sters on
the l ef half of each reti na
and i n the l ef s i de of the
brai n. I n the diagram,
col ored oval s represent
overl appi ng vi sual felds .
The round, darker cen
tral area i s the vi sual feld
of the fovea of the reti na.
Areas seen by a si ngl e
eye ( monocul ar felds ) are
shown in l i ghter col ors.
THE OPTI C CHI ASMA,
where nerve fbers from
the i nner si des of the
reti na cross over to the
opposi te hemi sphere of
the brai n, i s j ust behi nd
t he eyes. Nerve fbers
from the outer si des of
the reti na al so pass t hrough
the opti c chi asma, but
rmai n on outer opti c
pathways.
THE VI SUAL CENTERS of
the brai n are at the rear of
the ri ght and l ef lobs. I n
formi ng a mental picture,
an obj ect on an i ndi vi dual ' s
ri ght sti mulates cel l s i n
t he l eft l ob.
-i. -o
based on Ci ba Collection of Medical
Illustrations by F. Neter, M. D. CIBA
e-ci.e-
e- '-ii
' ee-
e -ci. e-
e- .q-i
' ee-

8 9
90
THE HUMAN EYE i s the most versati l e of al l radi ati on
detector s. Wi thi n the reti na of the eye a chemi cal re
sponse to radi ati on i s transl ated i nto el ectri cal pul ses .
These very weak el ectri cal mes sages travel al mos t i n
stantaneous l y to the brai n al ong the opti c nerve fbers .
The sensati on of si ght occurs i n the brai n . Because of
psychol ogi cal factors, the qual i ty of vi sual sensati ons
cannot be transl ated i nto physi cal data and there i s no
way to compare the vi sual sensati ons of di ferent peopl e
wi th accuracy. What you see i s for the most part sub
j ecti ve-whol l y wi thi n the mi nd, and therefore usual l y
not mesurabl e.
Wi thi n your brai n, other bodi l y sensati ons-taste,
touch, smel l , and sound-are automati cal l y correl ated
wi th the vi sual one. The brai n compares the resul t wi th
remembered sensati ons from past exper i ence, modi fes
them accordi ng to your atti tude and i ntent, and then
produces i n your consci ous mi nd i nfor mati on about what
you see. Thi s i nformati on consti tutes your percepti on
or awareness of obj ects . Your percepti on may be correct
or i ncorrect, dependi ng i n part upon atti tudes and ex
peri ence. An i l l usi on i s a faul ty percepti on caused by
some unusual presentati on of the scene or by some
prej udi ce or emoti on of the observer. He may or may
not be aware that the scene i s not what i t appears to be.
The si ght of an obj ect gi ves i nformati on about i ts
si ze, shape, col or, texture, l ocati on, and moti on . Just
how these features can be determi ned fr om the l i ght
emi tted or refected from an obj ect and i ts surroundi ngs
i s a maj or probl em i n psychol ogy. The physi cal processes
of seei ng are fai r l y wel l understood, and cur rent research
i s provi di ng answers to the physi ol ogy of vi si on. Much
remai ns t o be l earned about t he psychol ogi cal aspects
of an i ndi vi dual ' s percepti on.
l ef
DISTANCE, DEPTH AND MOTION are afected by
several ki nds of cues whi ch are noted automati cal l y and
often unconsci ousl y. You use such cues as convergence,
superposi ti on, el evati on, bri ghtness, di sti nctness, and
known si ze to pl ace obj ects mental l y near or far i n a
scene. These same cues l end a part i al feel i ng of real i ty
to ordi nary two-di mensi onal pi ctures and are efecti ve
even when one eye i s cl osed.
CONVERGENCE of l ines i s fre
quentl y a useful cue in the j udgi ng
of di stances. Di stant obj ects form
smal l er i mages on the reti na of
the eye than do nearby obj ects.
The probl em i s to determi ne
whether a parti cu lar obj ect i s
smal l and cl os e by, or l arge and far
away. I n a pi cture, the convergence
of l i nes may i ndi cate recess ion from
a vi ewer. Paral l el l i nes of a hi gh
way seem to meet at the hori zon.
Every arti st knows he must draw
them thi s way to make them l ook
real . The art of maki ng a three
di mensi onal scene appear real on
a two-di mensi onal surface 1s
cal l ed perspecti ve.
Li nes often converge i n two di
recti ons i n perspecti ve drawi ngs.
|
SUPERPOSI TI ON, known ol so as
overl ay, i s a powerful depth
cue. When one obj ect overl aps
another and parti al l y obscures
i t, then the frst obj ect appears
to be nearer. I n the i l l ustrati on
above, the j ack seems c loser
ELEVATI ON i s another depth cue.
I n a pi cture of a l andscape, the
hori zon i s al ways higher than the
foreground. Obj ects that are
hi gher or farther from the bottom
of the pi cture al ways appear to
b a greater di stance away. I n
t o t he camera. The actual ar
rangement i s shown at the ri ght.
Si mpl y changi ng the angl e of
vi ew di scl oses the true posi ti on,
wi th the cl i pped queen actual l y
cl oser to the camera than the
j ack.
the pi ctures bl ow, el evati on
makes the tree at the ri gh t seem
farther away and l arger than the
tree to the l eft. The bui l di ng ap
pears l arger i n the pi cture to the
l eft, but both trees and bui li ngs
ar e t he same si ze.
BRI GHTNESS DI FFERENCES may
gi ve a fal se depth cue. Thi s
can be demonstrated easi l y, as
i n the i l l ustrati on here. When
other di stance cues are careful l y
conceal ed, t he apparent rel ati ve
di stance of two pl ayi ng cards
depends on thei r i l l umi nati on.
The card that is gi ven more i l
l umi nati on and seems bri ghter
than the other appears to be the
nearer. Both cards, however, are
actual l y the same di stance from
the vi ewer.
DI STI NCTNESS-or sharp edges
and cl ear detai l s-al so i mpl i es
cl oseness. Haze and fog enhance
the appearance of depth. They
make di stant obj ects l ess di sti nct
than those nearby, and some
not-so-di stant obj ects become
bl urred. Thi s tends to compress
the scal e of di stances. Someti mes
i n a fog nearby obj ects appear
unnatural l y l arge ( ri ght) because
the vi ewer unconsci ousl y compares
them to what he bel i eves are
more di stant obj ect s.
Di sti nctness i s afected al so by
a factor i nherent in the l ens of
the eye and al so in the l enses of
cameras. When the l ens i s fo
cused on a parti cul ar obj ect,
anythi ng nearer or farther away
wi l l be sl i ghtl y out of focus .
Thi s efect i s mi ni mi zed i n a
photograph taken wi th a very
smal l l ens openi ng ( p. 8 1 ) o Ob
j ects of equal di sti nctness are
then j udged to be equal l y di stant,
i f other cues are absent. The
l oss of perspecti ve i n such cases
i s shown here i n the photograph
maki ng i t appear that the pol e
i s growi ng out of the gi rl ' s head.
KNOWN ( OR I MAGI NED) SI ZE
of obj ects i s probabl y the most
i mportant cue to di stance. When
a card i s pl aced i n a spotl i ght
i n a darkened room, a vi ewer es
ti mates i ts di stance based on hi s
pri or knowl edge of the card' s
si ze. I f a l arger card i s then
substi tuted, he changes hi s esti
mate i n di rect proporti on to the
change i n the card' s si ze. Photo
graphs that exaggerate the si ze
of fsh empl oy the associ ati on of
depth percepti on wi th si ze de
termi nati on . I n the above i l l us
trati on, t he si ze of t he hand and
of the man are cues to the si ze
of the fsh. Fi rst cover the hand
and then the man. The fsh wi l l
fi rst appear l arger, t hen smal l er.
MOTI ON PARALLAX accounts
for the apparent moti on of ob
j ects seen from a movi ng car. I f
you stare at one obj et some di s
tance from the si de of the road,
the trees beyond i t seem to be
movi ng forward i n the same di
recti on as the car, but tel e
phone pol es near the road move
back the other way. The whol e
scene appears to rotate about
the obj ect on whi ch you fx your
gaze. Thi s i s shown bel ow. The
person i s movi ng from A to B. The
post appears to move backward,
the tree forward. The same ef
fect is obtai ned by turni ng your
head. I t i s an i mportant factor
U the vi sual percepti on of
di stance.
BINOCULAR CUES to depth percepti on requi re the
cooperati on of both eyes. Al l the cues menti oned so
far are monocul ar cues -that i s, they can be seen wi th
ei ther eye al one.
BI NOCULAR VI SI ON produces a
ki nd of stati onary paral l ax-a
very s l i ght di ference i n t he
appearance and apparent l ocati on
of obj ects because your eyes vi ew
obj ects from s l i ghtl y di ferent
posi ti ons . For obj ects nearer
than about 1 00 feet, the i mages
formed i n the l eft and ri ght eyes
are, i n fact, s l i ghtl y di ferent
vi ews. The mi nd i nterprets thi s
di ference i n terms of depth, en
hanci ng your percepti on of a real ,
three-di mensi onal scene i nstead
of a fat, two-di mensi onal pi c
ture. Bi nocul ar paral l ax i s the
maj or factor i n the space per
cepti on of nearby obj ects. Thi s
efect i s total l y l acki ng i n ordi
nary pi ctures, but occurs i n the
i mages that you see i n mi rrors .
For very cl ose obj ects the mus
cul ar efort of convergi ng your
eyes on the poi nt of focus gi ves
you another i ndi cati on of the
di stances of obj ects.
A stereo camera i l l ustrates bi n
ocul ar vi si on. I t has two l enses
separated by the same di stance
as between the eyes, about 2 '/
i nches. The two pi ctures obtai ned
wi th a stereo camera are sl i ghtl y
di ferent and correspond to the
vi ews seen by the ri ght and l eft
eyes. I f the pi ctures are arranged
so that the l eft eye sees onl y the
pi cture taken by the l eft l ens and
the ri ght eye onl y the pi cture
taken by the ri ght l ens, the ap
pearance of d
e
pth i s produced.
To get a stereo vi ew of the pi c
tures shown bel ow, hol d a pi ece
of paper or cardbard btween
your eyes so that you vi ew the
l ef and ri ght pi ctures wi th the
correspondi ng eye.
These two pi ctu res were made wi th a stereo camera.
95
ILLUSIONS occur when our percepti on i s di storted by
an unusual or decepti ve presentati on of an obj ect or by
some prej udi ce or emoti on about i t. Our fai th i n the
usual accuracy of our vi sual percepti ons i s strong enough
to support the adage: " Seei ng i s bel i evi ng. " But we are
often fool ed by our eyes . What we see i s strongl y
i nfuenced by what we thi nk we see or by what we want
t o see.

The two l i nes are of equal

l ength but pl aci ng the ci r
cl es farther out makes the
upper l i ne appear l onger.
G
An el l i pti cal frame may
appear ci rcul ar because
shadi ng and perspec
ti ve l ead you to expect
i t to be ci rcul ar.
C
In di storted Ames ' room ( bel ow)
the l eft cotner of the room i s
much farther away than the ri ght.
Both men are about the same
hei ght. A foor pl an reveal s 1 n
part how i l l usi on was created.
ie-i
for ' o-
ei
Ames ' rom
Concentri c ci rcl es appear to make
a spi ral ( ri ght) . Even when the
observer i s i nformed that thi s i s
an i l l usion, he i s unabl e to see
i t otheri se. A
d
raftsman ' s com
pass can be used to prove that
al l arcs have a common center.
The two hori zontal l i nes ( bel ow)
are paral l el , but the arrangement
of the other l i nes makes the hori
zontal l i nes seem to pul l apart
at the center.
I ndentati ons appear as depressi ons
( l eft bel ow) and as rai sed sur
faces ( ri ght bel ow) because the
observer i nterprets the l i ght as
comi ng from above. The photos
are i denti cal ; one i s i nverted.
97
98
Rai ndrops change sunl i ght i nto a
pri mary rai nbow by refracti on and
by a si ngl e refecti on of the rays
wi thi n each drop. Thi s acti on
makes vi si bl e the col ors al ready
present i n the l i ght.
I nsi de the water dropl ets of a
secondary bow, the l i ght rays are
refected twi ce, reversi ng the
order of the spectrum. A vi ewer
sees each col or at a di ferent
angl e rel ati ve to the sun.
THE NAT U RE OF COLOR
I n 1 630 the French phi l osopher Descartes attri buted the
col or of an obj ect to a change i n the l i ght when i t i s
refected from the obj ect. Unti l that ti me i t had been
thought that l i ght had no col or; that col or bel onged to
obj ects and that l i ght merel y made i t vi s i bl e. The mod
ern concept of col or fol l ows Descartes ' poi nt of vi ew.
Col or, l i ke l i ght, i s a psychophysi cal concept, dependi ng
upon both radi ant energy ( the physi cal sti mul us } and
vi sual sensati ons ( the psychol ogi cal response} . Col or and
l i ght are cl osel y rel ated terms. By defni ti on, col or i n
cl udes al l aspects of l i ght except vari ati ons i n t i me and
space. For exampl e, the di stri buti on of sunl i ght and
shadows on a l awn i s not concerned wi th the col or of
t he l i ght . Nor does the fi cker i ng of a candl e fame
change the col or of t he l i ght .
COLOR i s one aspect of your vi sual experi ence when you
l ook at an obj ect. The col or you see depends on the i n
tensi ty and wavel engths of the l i ght that i l l umi nates
the obj ect, on the wavel engths of l i ght r efected or
trans mi tted by the obj ect, on the col or of the sur r oundi ng
obj ect s, and on absorpti on or refecti on by substances i n
t he l i ght path.
I n a space capsul e, the sky appears bl ack. From the
ground, i t l ooks bl ue because of scatteri ng by atmospheri c
parti cl es. A cl oud may be whi te where the sunl i ght i l
l umi nates i t from above or gray where s unl i ght does not
stri ke di rectl y, or i t may possess any of the hues of a
tropi cal sunset. The cl oud does not change col or, but our
percepti on of i ts col or changes.
THE COLOR OF WATER var i es.
An observer fyi ng over the F lori
da Keys might wel l see the ad
j acent ocean areas as green,
bl ue-green, and bl ue. A photo
graph, such as the one shown
at ri ght, can capture thi s same
efect. Shall ow, cl ear water wi th
a sandy bottom wi l l produce a
l i ght green because of the com
bi nati on of the yel l ow reflected
from the bottom and the reflec
ti on of the bl ue sky. As the water
gets deeper, i t becomes bl ue
green because there i s more scat
tered bl ue l i ght from the sky
and l ess yel l ow refected from
the bottom. When the water i s
very deep wi th no refecti on from
the bottom, the water i s a deep
bl ue, parti cul arl y noti ceabl e i n
the Gul f Stream. At no ti me i s
the col or a property of the water.
I t i s due to many causes and
i s best descri bed as a charac
teri sti c of the l i ght recei ved by
your eye.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS of col or sensati on
are hue, saturati on and bri ghtness. None of these i s
di rectl y meas urabl e. Si nce measurabl e phys i cal as pects
do not accuratel y speci fy col or, the answers must be
fo_und i n a combi nati on of the to-the psychophysi cal
vari abl es : domi nant wavel ength, pur i ty, and l umi nance.
The eye cannot di sti ngui sh the component wavel engths
i n a col or sampl e. Two l i ghts of di ferent col ors when
mi xed produce a thi rd col or, and no human eye can
detect i ts composi te nature. Sci enti sts worki ng wi th col or
try to predi ct the resul ts of such col or mi xtures . They
ai m to descri be and measure col ors as accuratel y as
possi bl e. Thi s can be done for the physi cal part of col or.
The energy di stri buti on of the l i ght can be pl otted as
shown bel ow. But the col or sensati on of the observer
hi s response to the l i ght enteri ng hi s eyes-cannot be
shown i n the same way.
ENERGY oi -o ee: =o-- --qi-:
::-e=-e-i--i=eqo-:e-' e=.
A --i co' :e' d ' -- e- -oc-
--:--i: i-- :o- q--- ce' e
, - -cio-q' -, , =-c- :i -i-d = i-
=-i- ' q-i. | - i-- ' -ii qo-, i--
=-i- : i-oi ei do,' q-i, o ' q-i
sie- ei o-, =o--' --qi-:. | -
i-- q-i qo-, i- w- i- : o
cee -oi e-eie-ec-eoi c,-
' e= o-d e-ec-eoi c e' e-. t--
eo - -i--i: i- : sie- o:
=- i-. | i i-- -i--: i -: ei i--
do,' q-i o-d i-- ,-' 'e= o-d e' e-
' q-i o- od e:i-d wi- i-- q---
ei i-- :e' d ' -- ieq -- i-- :o-
i -i, i-- -,- :--: i-- :o- i -i
ei q--- - eei- co:-:, ----
i-eeq- i-- :-cio' cee:ie-:
o- ei- J ---i.
t--q,
t--q,

4 A A
0
Z

0 A / A 4 A
l
l
l
|
l
l
l
l
l
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we--' --qi-
A 0 A A
wov-' --qi-
HUE SATURATI ON
e a eqa-ie
The three types of col or sensati ons
BRI GHTNESS
w. ia
qe,
HUE is the col or sensati on by whi ch you di sti ngui sh the
di ferent parts of the spectr um-red, bl ue, green, yel l ow,
etc . The psychophysi cal vari abl e rel ated to hue i s the
domi nant wavel ength of the l i ght for each col or. Most
l i ght sampl es can be col or-matched by addi ng the proper
spectral l y pure ( monochromati c) l i ght to whi te l i ght . For
these l i ght sampl es there i s onl y one spectral l y pure l i ght
t hat wi l l gi ve a perfect match. The wavel ength of that
l i ght i s cal l ed the domi nant wavel ength of the sampl e
and i s a measurabl e quanti ty.
Twenty hues of t he some l i ghtness and
saturati on are shown here. Under i deal con
di ti ons the human eye con di sti ngui sh wave
l ength diferences as smal l as 20 Angstroms.
Thus a careful observer mi ght di vi de the
vi si bl e spectrum i nto more than a hundred
di ferent hues.
I n addi ti on t o the spectral hues, a seri es
of purpl es ( magentas ) , whi ch ore non- s pectral
hues, can be obtai ned by addi ng together
di ferent amounts of l i ght from the red and
bl ue ends of the spectrum.
1 02
Saturati on of red from low at the l eft to hi gh at the ri ght.
SATURATION refers to the degree of hue i n a col or. I t
i s the col or sensati on by whi ch you di st i ngui sh a hue as
bei ng pal e or ri ch, weak or strong. Pi nk, for exampl e,
usual l y denotes a r ed of l ow saturati on, whi l e scarl et
i s a hi ghl y saturated red.
PURI TY i s the psychophysi cal
qual i ty most cl osel y rel ated to
saturati on . . The puri ty of a col or
sampl e i s the rati o of the amount
of monochromati c l i ght to the
amount of whi te l i ght i n a mi x
ture requi red to match the sampl e.
Monochromati c l i ght has 1 00 per
cent puri ty; whi te l i ght has zero.
Col ors of the same pur i ty do
not al l have the same saturati on .
The two are cl osel y rel ated but
not i denti cal . Pure yel l ow, for ex
ampl e, i s much l ess saturated
HI GH PURI TY
l l \

4000 A 6000 A
Wavel ength
than pure vi ol et. lumi nance
(p. 3 2 j al so afects saturation.
Bl ues, reds, and purples appear
more saturated at low l umi nance.
Yel l ows and cyans ( bl ue-greens)
need higher l umi nance t o achi eve
the same degree of saturati on.
After a certain poi nt an i nc rease i n
l umi nance decreases saturation .
The two reds bel ow are of the
same domi nant wavel ength but of
di ferent puri ty and wi l l appear
to be of the same hue but of
di ferent saturati on .
LOW PURI TY
1 fm
?

4000 A 6000 A
Wavel ength
SCALES of saturati on and hue are
combi ned here i n a si ngl e di agram.
The col or bl ocks i n t he ci rcul ar
scal e show how one hue bl ends
i nto another. Each hue has the
same l i ghtness (p. 35) and satura-
ti on . Color bl ocks in the spokes
show gradati ons i n saturati on
from zero at the center to a
maxi mum at the outer bl ock. Other
spokes coul d be added, one spoke
for each hue i n the ci rcul ar scal e.
BRIGHTNESS [ p. 3 2 } i s the pri mary vi sual sensati on by
whi ch you detect the presence of l i ght. I t i s associ ated
wi th the quanti ty of the l i ght and the i ntensi ty of the
vi sual sensati on. Lumi nance, easi l y measured, i s the
psychophysi cal var i abl e usual l y associ ated wi th bri ghtness.
Al though hue, saturati on, and bri ghtness may be sepa
ratel y i denti fed as col or sensati on var i abl es, they are
not i ndependent of one another. When one var i abl e i s
changed the other two are often afected. Decreas i ng the
bri ghtness, for exampl e, can cause a change i n the satu
rati on or even i n the hue of the col or.
1 03
-J
e' e-
q---
s\c0CtCG st s v ts
-J
e' e-
t st s v ts
PRI MARY COLORS are si mpl y hues you start wi th to mi x
other s. Desi gnati ng certai n hues as pri mari es i s an
arbi trary conventi on that depends on who makes the
sel ecti on and whether l i ghts or obj ect col ors are used.
Bl ue, green, and red are usual l y used as the physi ci st ' s
pri mari es i n l i ght experi ments . However, any three wi del y
separated monochromati c col ors can serve. The psycho
l ogi cal pri mari es are bl ue, green, red, and yel l ow, for
each seems to i nvoke a si ngul ar response whi ch does
not i nvol ve any of the other col ors. Al l other col ors may
be descri bed i n terms of these. The same col or term used
by di ferent groups of peopl e may, however, refer to
markedl y di ssi mi l ar col ors.
Red, yel l ow, and bl ue are the arti st ' s pri mari es. By
mi xi ng appropri ate amounts of these pi gments, al most
any other hue can be produced. The arti st _ i s deal i ng
wi th obj ect col ors; the physi ci st i s worki ng wi t h col ored
l i ghts; the psychol ogi st i s i nterested in both.
o i --
-e
0\s c st s v ts
seeioci --
U

C
0

COMPLEME NTARY HUE S are any two hues whi ch pro

duce whi te when mi xed together i n some proporti on.
( "Whi te" here refers to any hue l ess, or achromati c, l i ght.
At l ow l umi nance i t woul d be cal l ed gray. ) Every hue
has a compl ementary hue. The two hues of a compl e
mentary pai r are wi del y separated i n the spectr um. The
compl ement of red i s bl ue-green; the compl ement of yel
l ow i s bl ue. Compl ementari es of t he gr eens ar e pur pl es,
hues not found i n the spectrum.
Mi xi ng of compl ementary l i ghts does not produce i nter
medi ate hues. Wi th proper adj ustment of the i ntensi ti es
of two compl ementary l i ghts, whi te l i ght i s obtai ned.
Thus whi te l i ght can be produced by many combi nati ons
of compl ementary l i ghts .
The curve shows compl ementary
wavel engths for the standard ob
server . Perpendi cul ars extended
to the two scal es from any poi nt
on the curve wi l l reveal the
wavel engths of two compl ementary
hues. Compl ementari es to green
cannot be obtai ned from the graph.
Wavel ength
5500 A 6000 A 6500 A 7000 A
4000 A M
perpendi cl ars
4250 A
4500 A
4750 A
5000 A
1 05
COLOR MI XTURES may be achi eved by ei ther addi ti ve
or subtracti ve methods. The bl endi ng of col ored l i ghts
from more than one source i s addi ti ve, whi l e the pas
sage of l i ght through successi ve col ored absorbers ( fl ters)
i s subtracti ve. Pi gment mi xi ng i s mai nl y subtracti ve even
though pai nts are added to one another . I t i s subtracti ve
because pi gments absorb ( subtract} some wavel engths of
the l i ght stri ki ng them and refect the remai ni ng wave
l engths whi ch you see. Addi ti ve mi xtures of red, green,
and bl ue l i ghts of proper rel ati ve l umi nance produce
whi te where al l overl ap, and cyan, magenta, and yel l ow
where they overl ap i n pai rs ( bel ow) .
ADDITIVE COLOR MI XI NG i s eas i l y accompl i shed by
proj ecti ng pure ( monochromati c) l i ghts from two or more
proj ectors onto a whi te screen. Each proj ector i s equi pped
wi th a set of fl ters whi ch permi t i t to produce l i ght of
any desi red wavel ength . When a beam of red l i ght i s
proj ected so that i t overl aps a beam of yel l ow l i ght
( 1 , above) , the resul t i s orange. I f t he rel ati ve i ntensi ti es
of the two proj ectors are adj usted, i t i s possi bl e to
change gradual l y the hue of the mi xture from orange
toward ei ther red or yel l ow. I f the red l i ght i s kept
constant and the yel l ow l i ght made more green, the hue
of t he mi xture becomes yel l ower ( 2 ) , and the saturati on
becomes l ess and l ess. Fi nal l y, a wavel ength i n the bl ue
green wi l l be reached at whi ch the mi xture wi l l l ose al l
hue, becomi ng achromati c, or whi te ( 3) . Thus red and the
bl ue-green are compl ementary hues. I f the var i abl e l i ght
i s changed from bl ue-green to vi ol et and the red sti l l
kept constant, a non-spectral purpl e ( 4) res ul ts .
1 07
yel low
STATI ONARY WHEELS
SPI NNI NG WHEELS
1 08
OTHER ADDITIVE METHODS of mi xi ng col or s, i n addi
ti on t o usi ng two or more col ored beams from separate
proj ectors ( p. 1 07) , i ncl ude the pl aci ng of fl ters i n rapi d
successi on i n front of a s i ngl e proj ector . Th i s makes use
of t he persi stence of vi si on-the retenti on of an i mage
for a fracti on of a second after the sti mul us has ceased.
I mages presented i n rapi d successi on fuse i nto one another
to form a composi te i mage. A si mpl e devi ce usi ng thi s
efect i s the col or wheel . By adj usti ng the si ze of the
col ored sectors and spi nni ng the wheel rapi dl y, di ferent
hues may be produced ( above) i ncl udi ng neutral gray
( bel ow) . The hues ar e rather unsaturated and t he l umi nance
normal l y i s not sufci ent t o make t he gray seem ' ' whi te. ' '
STATI ONARY WHEEL
SPI NNI NG WHEEL
I n the fal l when the l eaves have
changed col or, di stant vi ews of
the l andscape provi de excel l ent
exampl es of natural addi ti ve mi x-
i ng. The col ors of i ndi vi dual l eaves
fuse to gi ve a si ngl e color to a
tree, and farher away al l t he trees
bl end i nto a si ngl e hue.
MOSAIC FUSI ON i s the term used to descri be the way
your eye mi xes the col ors of i ndi vi dual l eaves i n an
autumn l andscape, t he dots of a col or tel evi si on screen,
or the i ndi vi dual col ors of sand grai ns on a di stant
beach. When there are three or four poi nt sources of
col ored l i ght wi del y separated, they are focused sepa
ratel y on the reti na, and the eye sees them as di sti nct
col ors . Thi s separate focusi ng i s cal l ed resol vi ng.
I f t he poi nt sources are moved cl oser together, eventu
al l y they wi l l al l be focused wi thi n the same group of
rods and cones on the reti na. They cannot be resol ved
any l onger, but are seen as a si ngl e area even though
they are di sti nct poi nt sources. The col or sensed i s a
mi xed col or, i ts hue dependi ng on the spectral qual i ti es
of the col ors of whi ch i t i s composed.
I f you i ncrease the resol vi ng power of your eye by
exami ni ng a s mal l area of a page of col ored comi c
stri ps under a hand l ens, you wi l l see that there are
numerous dots of di ferent hues. Wi thout the l ens, ad
j acent dots bl end together and form a si ngl e hue.
1 09
SUBTRACTIVE COLOR MI XI NG occurs whenever l i ght
passes t hrough two or more sel ecti vel y absorbi ng mate
ri al s . Dyes, and al so pi gments, may be mi xed together
to form a si ngl e col ori ng agent ( col orant) that wi l l pro
duce sel ecti ve absorpti on. Separate fl ters whi ch are
traversed by the l i ght i n any order al so cause s ubtracti ve
col or mi xi ng. Even surface fl ms from whi ch the l i ght i s
successi vel y refected subtract l i ght. The process i s cal l ed
" subtracti ve" because the fl ms or fl ters subtract certai n
porti ons of t he spectrum from t he i nci dent l i ght, l eavi ng
the remai nder wi th a hue compl ementary to that sub
tracted. A pi ece of gl ass whi ch absorbs the bl ue and
green wavel engths of whi te l i ght appear s red because i t
transmi ts onl y the l onger wavel engths. I f the gl ass absorbs
the green, i t transmi ts a mi xture of red and bl ue
magen.a.
At each wavel ength, the fl ter obeys the l aw of ab
sorpti on ( p. 5 1 ) . The fl ters not onl y change the col or
of the l i ght, but they reduce i ts i ntensi ty. I f addi
ti onal fl ters of the same type and thi ckness are
pl aced i n the l i ght path, each wi l l absorb the same
fracti on of the l i ght. That i s, i f one thi ckness trans
mi ts '/ of the l i ght, two thi cknesses wi l l transmi t '/ ,
Exampl es of subtracti ve col or
mi xi ng are shown bel ow wi th
pai nts ( pi gments) and fl ters .
In the former the col ors that
PI GMENTS
Yel l ow
Cri mson Yel low
are not absorbed are refected
from the surface. I n fl ters the
col ors not absorbed are trans
mi tted through the fl ter.
FI LTERS
WHI TE LI GHT, represented by
its red, bl ue, and green compo
nents, i s shown enteri ng vari ous
combi nati ons of fi l ters from the
l eft. Several combi nati ons of yel
l ow, cyan and magenta fl ters
are shown . Each i ndi vi dual fl ter
al l ows al l but one of the col ors
enteri ng i t to pas s . Each pai r
of fl ters ( as i n A, 8, and C) al l ows
a di ferent part of the whi te l i ght
to pass through. I n the l ast ex
ampl e ( D) , no l i ght passes the
thi rd fl ter.
three thi cknesses wi l l transmi t '/a , and so on . When a
fl ter consi sts of a col orant di ssol ved i n a sol vent, dou
bl i ng the concentrati on of the col orant i s equi val ent to
doubl i ng the thi ckness.
The appearance of a col ored fi l ter may gi ve l i tt l e
i ndi cati on of i ts spectral absorpti on curve. Two fi l ters
that appear i denti cal may transmi t l i ght of di ferent
col ors when combi ned wi th another col o|ed fl ter .
The ar t i st who i s fami l i ar wi t h hi s pai nts can more
easi l y predi ct the resul ts of hi s mi xtures . He knows that
mi xi ng Thal o Bl ue, Al i zari n Cr i mson, and whi te i n the
proper proporti ons wi l l produce l avender. For hi m, sub
tracti ve col or mi xi ng i s a matter of experi ence.
--- 1 00%
absorpti on
cure

I 2 3 4
fl ter thi cknesses
l i ght
1 00%
fl ter
5
fl ter fl ter
1 1 1
COLOR MATCHI NG i s the physi cal process of adj ust
i ng a col or mi xture unt i l it appears to be vi sual l y the
same as a sampl e col or. The manufacturers of pai nts and
dyes, of texti l es and pl asti cs, of toys and cars, and
of books and magazi nes, as wel l as those who pri nt
col or fl m, are vi tal l y concerned wi th good col or matchi ng.
Ei th&r addi t ive mi xi ng of col ored l i ghts or subtracti ve
mi xi ng usi ng fl ters may be uti l i zed to achi eve a col or
match . Any col or of the spectrum can be matched by the
addi ti on of monochromati c l i ght to whi te l i ght. Purpl e,
a mi xture of red and vi ol et, i s not a col or of the s pec
tr um and cannot be matched by thi s method because i t
l acks a s i ngl e domi nant wavel ength . But a purpl e col or
can be i denti fed by the wavel ength of i ts c ompl ementary
col or . Li ght of thi s col or mi xed wi th pur pl e l i ght produces
a col orl ess l i ght.
Vari ous col or matc hi ng systems ( p. 1 25) and col or
i meters ( p. 83) are avai l abl e. Col or standards -sets of
col or patches arranged systemati cal l y for vi sual compari
son -are often preferred to col ori meters . Col or standards
and col ori meters can be cal i brated i n s i mi l ar uni ts and
data can be converted from one system to the other.
COLOR CHARTS are useful tool s
i n the matchi ng of col ors. Pri nt
ers use col or charts that gi ve
i n numbers or percentage the dot
val ue of di ferent i nks that is
requi red to reproduce a gi ven
col or. The col or squares that
provi de thi s i nformati on usual l y
have punched hol es so that the
col or i n a square can b eas i ly
compared to the col or i n the
i l l ustration to be reproduced.
I n ol d col or vi sion tests,
the testees sorted wool
skei ns by hue, tryi ng to
sel ect al l skei ns that
accuratel y matched
l arge one.
COLOR BLINDNESS i s an everyday term referr i ng to any
pronounced devi ati on from normal col or vi si on. The three
maj or forms of col or abnormal i ty are anomal ous tri chro
mati s m (a l ess s evere departure from normal vi si on ), di
chromati sm ( parti al col or bl i ndness ) , and monoc hromati sm
( compl ete col or bl i ndness ) .
The normal observer, known as a tri chromat, can match
any col or wi th one, two, or three col ored l i ghts . Under
control l ed condi ti ons, most tri chromats wi l l use about
the same combi nati on of sel ected l i ghts to match any
parti cu l ar col or . An i ndi vi dual who must arri ve at hi s
col or match i n a markedl y di ferent way from the aver
age tri chromat i s sai d to have abnormal col or vi si on .
Thi s i s usual l y an i nheri ted defect. I t becomes evi dent
i n many school and home si tuati ons and i s confrmed
when the i ndi vi dual i s asked to match two col ors or to
di sti ngui sh between di ferent hues.
The cause of abnormal col or vi si on i s not ful l y known.
There may be some defect i n the cones of the reti na,
s i nce i t i s the cones that di st i ngui sh col or . There may
be too much or too l i ttl e of essenti al pi gments i n the
eye. I n rare cases, the opti c nerve between the eye and
the brai n may not functi on proper l y.
About ei ght per cent of t he mal e popul ati on and l ess
t han one per cent of femal es are born wi th defecti ve
col or vi si on . Abnormal col or vi si on can al so be acqui red.
1 1 3
col or to be
matched
\
observer
ANOMALOUS TRI CHROMATI SM
i s found i n about three-fourths
of al l peopl e wi th abnormal col or
vi si on. An anomal ous tri chromat
sees col ors, but not normal l y.
He can match any col or wi th a
mi xture of three col ored l i ghts,
but wi l l requi re di ferent amounts
of these l ights than the normal
observer. He is poor at mi xi ng
or matchi ng col or s. I f hi s vi si on
i s green weak (the commonest
type) , he wi l l need more than
the normal amount of green i n
a green-red mi xture to match a
parti cul ar yel l ow. Other anoma
l ous tri chromats have red or bl ue
weaknesses.
col or
matchi ng by
anomal ous
tri chromat
MONOCHROMATI SM, or com
plete col or bl i ndness, i s very rare.
Onl y abut one person in 30, 000
is afi cted. In i ts typi cal i n
heri ted form, equal l y common i n
men and women, the monochromat
depends sol el y on ro vi si on.
Si nce hi s eye l acks the hi gh reso
l uti on of the foveal cones, hi s
vi sual acui ty i s l ow. The mono
chromat i s unabl e to di sti ngui sh
any col ors . He can see onl y di f
ferences in bri ghtness and can
match al l l i ghts wi th a si ngl e
l i ght. Rel ati ve l umi nosi ty i s hi s
onl y cri teri on as shown i n the
compari son of normal and mono
chromati c spectra bel ow.
Hue and saturati on as vi ewed by a normal observer.
C
O
4500 A
c
5000 A 5500 A 6000 A. 6500 A

M
4500 A
1 1 4
A typi cal monochromat ' s response to the same chart.
5000 A 5500 A

6000 A

^
6500 A
DI CHROMATI SM occurs in about
2 per cent of white mal es, but
i n onl y o. o1 per cent of femal es.
Abut one-quarter of al l peopl e
wi th defecti ve col or vi si on are
di chromats . A di chromat can
match al l col ors wi th mi xtures
of two pri mary l i ghts rather than
the three used by a normal
observer.
One common form of di
chromati sm i s red-green bl i ndness
whi ch permi ts the i ndi vi dual to
see onl y two col ors -yel l ow and
bl ue. A neutral gray i s seen i n-
stead of bl ue-green and pu rple.
Dar reds, greens, and grays
are confused, and sens i ti vi ty to
bri ghtness i s decreased by about
hal f. I n a s i mi l ar, equal ly common
condi tion, a person sees colors l i ke
the di ch romat but gets no reac
ti on at al l from the l ong-wavel ength
end of the spectrum.
Sti l l rarer are those ki nds ot
defecti ve col or vi si on i n whi ch a
person does not see yel l ow and
bl ue. These condi ti ons may i n
vol ve l ack of sensi ti vi ty to short
waves.
HUE AND SATURATI ON COLOR WHEELS
as seen by
di chromat wi th
red-green bl i ndness
I NHERI TED COLOR BLI NDNESS
is a recessive condi ti on. I f one
parent is nor mal and t he oth er
col or bl i nd, chi ldren wi l l be nor
mal but femal es wi l l be carri ers.
I f a person carryi ng col or bl i nd
ness ( though appeari ng normal )
marr i es another carri er, some
chi lren wi l l be col or bl i nd and
others wi l l be carr i ers. The di a-
Normal
Mal e @
Felole _
Generati on
I l l
gram shows the pssi bi l i ties . V
VI
Carri er

Col or
Bl i nd

1 1 5
1 1 6
DI CHROMATI C COLOR BLI ND
Obb ( p. 1 1 5) can be detected
by the use of special l y col ored
test pl ates, each contai ni ng a
pattern or number made of dots
agai nst a bckground of dots
of another col or or gray. A
person wi th normal col or vi si on
can see the ptterns . One wi th
defecti ve col or vi sion wi l l fnd
some of the patterns confusi ng
or absent because of hi s i nabi l i ty
to di sti ngui s h the col ors of whi ch
the patterns are made. At the
top of thi s pge, two pl ates used
to di sti ngui sh red-green col or
bl in dness from normal vi sion are
reproduced in thei r appropri ate
col ors . A person havi ng red-green
col or bl i ndn ess sees onl y gray
dots . The type of pl ates repro
duced at the bttom of the page
are used to di agnose bl ue-yel l ow
defects . These reproducti ons can
not be empl oyed for val i d tests
because speci al i nks and pri nti ng
techni ques must be used to achi eve
the exact hues seen as gray by
col or-bl i nd i ndividual s . A doctor ' s
charts are more accurate.
STANDARDS are necessary to be sure that al l testi ng
for col or vi si on takes pl ace under standard vi ewi ng con
di ti ons . The i l l umi nati on i s i mportant. For exampl e, the
resul t s mi ght di fer dependi ng on whether the tests took
pl ace under arti fci al l i ght or in s unl i ght.
Two col or sampl es that appear to match under i l l umi na
ti on A may not match under i l l umi nati on B, even though
a normal observer says that i l l umi nati on A matches i l
l umi nati on B. To avoi d thi s di fcul ty, standard l i ght sources
( p. 1 7) are used for i l l umi nati on of sampl es. Under such
standard l i ghti ng condi ti ons, al l observers woul d sti l l not
see the same t hi ng. But by averagi ng the vi sual charac
teri sti cs of many i ndi vi dual s, a composi te ' ' standard ob
server ' ' has been devel oped who al ways sees thi ngs i n
the same way. The I nternati onal Commi ssi on on I l l umi na
ti on ( see p. 1 30) has devi sed a standard observer of thi s
nature. Thi s fcti ti ous i ndi vi dual i s si mpl y a set of vi sual
sens i ti vi ty curves and energy di str i buti on data by whi ch
the resul ts of col or experi ments can be cal cul ated and
standardi zed .
A l umi nous efci ency curve
shows the abi l i ty of di f
ferent wavel engths to
sti mul ate vi si on. Thus i t
i s the spectral sensi ti vi ty
curve for humans. Lumi
nous efci ency curves nor
mal l y fal l between the
l i mi ts s hown here ( curves
a and b) . Humans rarel y
match exactl y the curve
( c) of the fcti ti ous stan
dard observer.
i . o
o. 5
w
' D
4
U
w
O

C

O
.
o. o
ooo A 6ooo A
Wavel ength ( Angstroms)
1 1 7
COLOR PERCEPTION
Col or percepti on depends l argel x on human physi ol ogy.
Man has three vi sual pi gments, each i n di ferent cone
shaped receptor cel l s . One pi gment senses pr i mar i l y bl ue
l i ght, one pr i mar i l y green, and one pri mar i l y red. These
cone-shaped cel l s are ti ghtl y packed i n the foveal regi on
but are i ntermi xed wi th rod- shaped cel l s el sewhere i n
the reti na. Because of these three pi gments, man i s abl e
t o di scr i mi nate among a wi de range of col ors . Thei r
presence was postu l ated i n 1 80 1 , but they have onl y
recentl y been i denti fed wi thi n the reti na.
Previ ousl y i t was thought that the i mpul ses from the
cones travel ed three di screte pathways to the brai n.
Evi dence now i ndi cates that i mpul ses from t he three types
of receptor cones are somehow combi ned i nto a coded
si gnal pri or to transmi ssi on from the eye to hi gher vi sual
centers i n the brai n. The combi nati on takes pl ace i n the
gangl i on cel l s , nerve cel l s l ocated on the opposi te s i de
of the reti na from the cone cel l s . Changes i n wavel ength
or i ntensi ty of the col or sti mul us change the patterns of
coded si gnal s .
[ 1 00

The three cone pi gments

that sense bl ue, green, and
red have spectral sensi
bi l i ty curves wi th peaks
at 4, 470 A ( bl ue-vi ol et ) ,
at 5, 400 A ( green) , and
at 5, 770 A ( yel low) . Even
though the red receptor
pi gment has its peak i n
the yel l ow, i t extends
i nto the red so the brai n
senses red.
5
= 75
^

O
<
0 25
L
5
O
0
4000 A
1 1 8
5000 A 6000 A
Wavel ength ( Angstroms)
MODES OF PERCEPTI ON
Col or i s percei ved as bel ongi ng
to a l i ght source when the l ight
source i s i ncl uded i n t he fi el d of
vi ew ( 1 ) . Thi s is cal l ed t he i l
l umi nant mode of col or percepti on .
I n the i l l umi nat i on mode of col or
percepti on, the l i ght source i s not
i n the scene, but the di recti on
2
and qual ity of the l i ght i s evi
dent from the pattern and con-
trast of the shadows 2) .
The obj ect mode of col or per
cepti on occurs when l ight i s di f
fusel y refecte from an obj ect,
and we percei ve the col or of the
surface ( 3) . The col or percei ved
depends partl y on nearby obj ects .
The vol ume mode of col or per
cepti on occurs when l i ght passes
through a transl ucent or trans
parent substance such as a col
ored l i qui d or gl ass ( 4) . I nternal
qual i ti es predomi nate rather than
the surface ones.
The fundamental or aperture mode
of col or percepti on occurs if an
obj ect i s vi ewed through an
openi ng that exc l udes the sur
roundi ngs ( 5) . Si mpl est and most
eas i ly reproduced, thi s method
i s often used i n experi mental work .
5
1 20
ce' e: ei ee -ci: o-o e -
--i a-e- e---i ' ' e -oi e-
---- i-eeq- ie ih- ee:-~- i--
' q-i: o-o ie e- i-- :o-.
w- i- -co-e-:c--i . q-i '' e
-oi-:ee-ci: e- ' -ii. ce' ---
io, -e o-e e' e-q--- :eec-:,
=- c- o-o =-i- ie i-- ee
:---, ~ec-e i-- ' ' e -oi e-
e- i-- q-i.
COLOR CONSTANCY is a term used to descri be the
abi l i ty of the human eye to compens ate for ordi nary
changes i n i l l umi nati on and vi ewi ng condi ti ons that afect
the col or of a parti cul ar obj ect.
You can tel l the col or of an obj ect by l ooki ng at i t
under whi te l i ght. Under a di ferent i l l umi nati on you
muy sti l l be abl e to tel l the coJ or of the obj ect, but
perhaps not so easi l y. Li ght and col or refected from
the obj ect may vary greatl y wi th changes i n i l l umi nati on.
A yel l ow book in the sunl i ght refects rel ati vel y much
more bl ue l i ght than does the same book under an i ncan
descent l amp, but our eyes have l i ttl e troubl e i n recog
ni zi ng the same book and the same obj ect col or. Thi s
i s col or constancy. Because of thi s remarkabl e property
of human vi si on, you recogn i ze and i denti fy obj ects i n
spi te of wi del y di ferent condi ti ons of i l l umi nati on. Col or
constancy i s evi dentl y a form of eye adaptati on to the
prevai l i ng i l l umi nati on. The eye adapts si mi l ar l y to changes
d bri ghtness ( p. 3 2 ) .
The bl ue patches i n each of the four rectangl es are the same si ze
and col or. They appear to be di ferent, however, because of si mul
taneous contrast between them and the col ors around them.
CONTRAST i ncreases when two col ors are pl aced si de
by s i de. Thei r di ference seems exaggerated . I f an orange
is presented next to a yel l ow, for i nstance, the orange
wi l l appear redder and the yel l ow greener. Thi s i s si mul
taneous col or contrast, wh i ch accounts for the fne di s
cri mi nati on of t he human eye i n col or matchi ng. Two
col ors that seem to be i denti ca l when vi ewed separatel y
wi l l often be found qui te di ferent i f presented si de by
si de.
A s i mi l ar efect ( successi ve col or contrast) occurs |
t he sampl es are presented one after t he ot her i n qui ck
successi on. These two efects ( si mul taneous and successi ve
contrast) are rel ated. I n col or matchi ng, your gaze moves
rapi dl y back and forth from one sampl e to the other
when you vi ew them si de by si de. Al l your seei ng i s
done wi th a natural scanni ng moti on, and never wi th
a compl etel y fxed gaze. Both efects enhance the con
trast between col ors of di ferent hue, caus i ng each to
move toward the compl ementary of the other .
1 2 1
SIMULTANE OUS CONTRAST efects occur not onl y when
two sampl es are di ferent i n hue, but al so when the sam
pl es are i dent i cal i n hue but di fer i n saturati on ( above) .
Thei r di ference i n saturati on i s accentuated, and the one
of l ower saturati on on the ri ght tends t o acqui re the
compl ementary hue.
When two l i ght sources, one whi te and one of any
hue, produce separate shadows of the same obj ect, then
each shadow i s i l l umi nated by one of the l i ghts -the one
not produci ng the shadow. The background i s i l l umi nated
by both of them and appears in the hue and saturati on
of the combi ned i l l umi nati on. Under such condi ti ons, the
two shadows wi l l tend to appear compl ementary to each
other. The whi te-i l l umi nated shadow on the l eft ( bel ow)
actual l y appears magenta i n contrast wi th the green
i l l umi nated s hadow on the ri ght. Thi s i s an i nteresti ng
exampl e of s i mul taneous col or contrast.
AN AFERIMAGE i s the vi sual sensati on observed after
a l i ght sti mul us has been removed.
A negati ve afteri mage i s a phenomenon that i s caused
essenti al l y by fati gue i n some part of the vi sual sys
tem. As your eyes adapt to a parti cul ar col or there i s
a decrease i n thei r sensi ti vi ty to that col or. When your
gaze i s shi fted to a neutral area, an afteri mage appears
whi ch i s compl ementary to the ori gi nal sti mul us . Thi s i s
cal l ed a negati ve afteri mage.
Hol d thi s book at readi ng di stance and stare at the
cross i n the green c i rcl e ( above) . Then l ook at the dot
to the l eft. You wi l l see a magenta r i ng. Look at the
cross i n the red ci rcl e ( bel ow) and then at the dot to i ts
ri ght to see a green negati ve after i mage.
A posi ti ve afteri mage i s a far more feeti ng experi
ence and difcul t to produce. One way i s to stand i n
bri l l i ant s unl i ght wi th your eyes cl osed and further cov
ered by your hand. Remove your hand and gaze qui ckl y
( for about 2 or 3 seconds) at ei ther of the ci rc l es on thi s
page ( warni ng: do not l ook at t he sun! ) . Cl ose your ey

s
i mmedi atel y and you may get the i mpressi on that you
are seei ng a ci rc l e of the same col or behi nd your eye
l i ds . Thi s posi ti ve afteri mage wi l l sel dom l ast l onger than
5 to 1 0 seconds. It i s caused by the per si stence of col or
vi si on .

1 23
SUCCESSIVE AFTERIMAGES, nei ther posi ti ve nor nega
ti ve, are seen if you l ook steadi l y at an unshaded l i ght
bul b. After a few seconds, put out the l i ght. For a short
ti me afterward, as you si t i n the darkness, you wi l l
see a successi on of varyi ng bri ght col ors . These col ors
have no apparent rel ati onshi p to the whi te l i ght sti mu
l us. I f, i nstead of si tti ng i n darkness, you turn from the
l i ght bul b k gaze at a uni form whi te surface, the col ored
afteri mages you see wi l l become progressi vel y more com
pl ementary to those seen i n the dark.
SPREADING EFFET, i l l ustrated bel ow, i s a seemi ng con
tradi cti on to si mu l taneous col or contrast ( p. 1 2 1 ), i n
whi ch the contrast between two col ors i ncreases when they
are pl aced si de by si de. The same red i nk was used
throughout the top stri p and the same bl ue was used
th roughout the bottom. From what happens dur i ng si mul
taneous contrast, you mi ght expect that the bl ack i nk
next to the red woul d make the red appear l i ghter, or
the whi te next to the red woul d produce a darker red.
Due to the spreadi ng efect, however, the opposi te occur s.
The bl ues surrounded by whi te appear l ess saturated, too,
than those surrounded by bl ack. The spreadi ng efect, as
wel l as the phenomena of afteri mages may be t he res ul t
of t he bl eac hi ng of cone pi gment s i n the ret i na, and thei r
subsequent di fus i on i nto nei ghbor i ng cone cel l s .
L LL LK b 1b 1 b Nb
Experts have l ong sought a fool proof system for speci
fyi ng col or . They woul d l i ke to i denti fy or descri be the
col or of an obj ect or l i ght so that i t can be reproduced
wi th accuracy at another pl ace or ti me. To do thi s they
must be abl e to state the col or i n ter ms so unequi vocal
that a col or match can be made wi th reasonabl e certai nty
wi thi n l i mi ts that are vi sual l y acceptabl e. I deal l y, the
system woul d work, whether the obj ect bei ng observed
was a bal l of wool , an automobi l e wi th a gl ossy fni s h,
or a l i qui d dye. The mode of observat i on ( p. 1 1 9) shoul d
not afect the col or matc h.
Obvi ousl y, no col or di cti onary can handl e the fu l l
range of col ors. The best i n use today i ncl udes l ess
than 4,000 col or names, al though some 1 0 mi l l i on col or s
are sai d t o be di st i ngui shabl e. A vol ume of named col or
sampl es mi ght be useful wi thi n the pai nt or texti l e i n
dustri es. But those sampl es probabl y woul d not dupl i
cat e the many gl ossy and metal l i c col ors us ed on auto
mobi l es today.
Of the three systems descri bed on the fol l owi ng pages,
the Munsel l , the Ostwal d and the CI E, the l ast i s the
most compl ex but the l east subj ecti ve and provi des
the hi gh degree of col or-matchi ng acc uracy many tech
ni ci ans requi r e.
SPECI FYI NG COLOR i s made more
di fcul t because col or i s i n
fuenced by texture. As seen i n
thi s i l l ustrati on, t he col ors of al l
t he obj ects match t he col or sam
pl e. Under actual condi ti ons, they
mi ght not because s urface texture
vari es from obj ect to obj ect,
maki ng thei r col ors appear diferent .
1 26
THE MUNSELL COLOR SYSTEM was ori gi nal l y devi sed
by Al bert H. Munsel l , a pai nter and art teacher . I t i s
an ordered array of col ored paper sampl es. Munsel l
used three col or vari abl es : hue, chroma, and val ue.
Chroma corresponds approxi matel y to saturati on [ p. 1 02);
val ue i s rel ated to the l i ghtness ( p. 35) of the sampl e.
Hues are arranged i n spectral order around a ci rc l e. The
axi s of the ci rc l e is a ten-step val ue scal e, bl ack at the
bottom, through ni ne shades of gray, to whi te at the top.
Chroma var i es al ong the radi i from a mi ni mum at the
central achromati c axi s to a maxi mum at the peri meter.
I n practi ce the Munsel l System i s an atl as of 1 00 sepa
rate pages of paper chi ps, arranged treel i ke about the
verti cal ( val ue) axi s . The chi ps on any one page are al l
of t he same hue, but vary i n chroma from l eft to ri ght
and i n val ue from bottom to top. The di ferences be
tween nei ghbor i ng sampl es have been chosen to repre
sent psychol ogi cal l y equal i nterval s . The Munsel l System
i s an atl as of s urface col ors . I ts rel i abi l i ty depends
somewhat upon the surface texture of the col or sampl e
bei ng compared. For best resul ts, of cour se, a standard
whi te source of i l l umi nati on must be used.
_whi te
9

6
5
4
3
2
bl ack
neutral col or
2 4 6

-chroma
Cordi nates
of the
Munsel l
System
THE MUNSELL COLOR TREE con
si sts of 1 00 verti cal secti ons , one
of whi ch i s shown bel ow. Arrow
poi nts to col or chi p identi fed as
58 4 / 8 ( hue-58, val ue-4,
chroma-8) .
val ue
verti cal section~
9
THE TEN BASI C HUES of the
Munsel l system are red, yel l ow,
green, bl ue, and purpl e and
combi nati ons of these i n pai rs .
For each hue there are ten
gradati ons, maki ng 1 00 di sti nct
hues. Each bsi c hue i s number 5
i n i ts gradati on scal e. Number
1 OY i s fol l owed by 1 GY. Col ored
sampl es for basi blue are shown
at ri ght. The val ue des i gnati on
ranges from 1 at the bottom ( not
shown) through 9 at the top.
Chroma scal es are of diferent
l engths, dependi ng on the parti cu-
lar hue and val ue.
For sal e by the Nati onal Bureau
of Standards, Washi ngton, D. C. ,
and useful i n col or speci fcati on
are 1 8 charts covered wi th
gl ossy col ored chi ps. I ssued
wi th the charts i s a tabl e that
l i sts chi p number, col or name, and
Munsel l notati on.
7
6
5
4
3
2
chrom
2 4 6 8
1 0
1 2 8
THE OSTWALD COLOR SYSTEM i s a materi al system
us i ng col or sampl es s i mi l ar to those of the Munsel l . li ke
the Munsel l system it bear s the i nherent weakness of
pr i nted col ors that cannot compl etel y represent those
proposed by the system. Thi s weakness i s bal anced by
havi ng a system that i s wel l keyed to the CI E system
( pp. 1 30- 1 32 ) and i n whi ch sampl es can be di rectl y
vi ewed and matched. The Ostwal d system i s based on
surface col ors and i s often preferred by arti sts .
The Ostwal d system uses the psychophysi cal vari abl es
of domi nant wavel ength, puri ty and l umi nance i nstead
of the psychol ogi cal vari abl es of hue, saturati on and
bri ghtness, as approxi mated i n the Munsel l system. Ost
wal d arranged hi s system wi th hues of maxi mum puri ty
formi ng an equator i al ci rcl e and wi th compl ementary
col ors opposi te. The axi s of the c i rcl e grades from whi te
at the top down to bl ack. I n practi ce, t hi s for ms a seri es
of 30 col or tri angl es wi th a base of l i ghtness and wi th
the most saturated hue at the apex. Each si x- si ded
sampl e i s i denti fed by three numbers representi ng the
proporti on of bl ack, whi te and " ful l col or, " addi ng up
to a total of 1 00 per cent.
Si mi l ar i n termi nol ogy to the Ostwal d system i s a
vol ume prepared by a bi rd expert, Robert Ri dgway, and
used by bi ol ogi sts for over 50 year s . The Ri dgway col or
di cti onary shows over 1 , 1 00 col ors wi th names that i ndi
cate fu l l col or, ti nt and shade.
COMPARI SON OF OSTWALD AND MUNSELL SYSTEMS
Munsel l
THE OSTWALD COLOR TREE
Numbers on each si x- sided
sampl e i ndi cate percentage
of col or ( C) , whi te ( W} , and
bl ack ( B) needed to match
the sampl e.
VERTI CAL SECTI ON FROM
THE OSTWALD COLOR TREE
1 29
1 30
THE CI E SYSTE M makes it possi bl e to descri be col or
sampl es i n mathemati cal terms and t o represent t he domi
nant wavel ength and puri ty of the sampl e on a di agram.
The system was devel oped by t he Commi s si on l nterna
ti onal e de I ' Ecl ai rage-CI E ( I nternati onal Commi ssi on of
I l l umi nati on) . I t deal s wi th domi nant wavel ength and puri ty
l i ke th e Ostwal d system ( p. 1 2 8 ) and can al so be re
l ated to the Munsel l system ( p. 1 26 ) . Both systems have
now been keyed i n CI E terms , so notati ons can usual l y
be converted from one system t o t he other .
To devel op the CI E system, data was needed on the
col or-matchi ng characteri sti cs of the average eye. Usi ng
a col ori meter, a number of observers made a seri es
of col or matches agai nst a spectrum of monochromati c
col ors empl oyi ng a mi xture of three pr i mary col ors
( speci fc wavel engths of red, green, and bl ue) . Based
on the resul t s, three col or mi xture curves ( bel ow) were
produced. These represent the rel ati ve amount of each
of the pri mari es needed by the standard observer to
match any part of the vi si bl e spectrum. By a mathemati
cal transformati on, a rel oted set of curves was produced
| n whi ch the green curve ( curve y) al so expresses the
l umi nance observed at each wavel ength and i s thus
al so the standard l umi nosi ty curve.
0
O

O
2 .
0
1 . 6
1 . 2
0. 8
0. 4
0
400
0 A 5000 A 6000 A 7000 A
Wavel ength ( Angstroms )
y
A CHROMATICITY DIAGRAM, devel oped by the CE,
wi th val ues from the three col or-mi xture curves serves
as a pi ctori al map on whi ch any col or can be shown.
I n practi ce, t he col or of any sampl e i s defned by c i t i ng
i ts coordi nates on the c hromati c i ty di agram ( bel ow) and
addi ng a fgure for i ts rel ati ve l u mi nance.
To produce t he chromati ci ty
di agram, readi ngs were taken
from the col or- mi xture curves at
a sufci ent number of sel ected
i nterval s. From these were de
ri ved the coordi nates for a se
ri es of poi nts representi ng a
spectrum of ful ly saturated col
ors. Pl otti ng these poi nts and j oi n
i ng them wi th a smooth curve
provi ded the basi c tri angul ar
structure of t he chromati city di a
gram ( fg. 1 . bel ow) .
Al l vi s i bl e col ors can be rep
resented by poi nts wi thi n thi s
fgure. The enti re spectrum of
ful l y saturated hues l i es on the
smooth outer curve, rangi ng from
vi ol et ( 4, 000 A) at the l owest
pi nt through hues of green ( 5, 200
A) at top to red ( 7, 000 A) at
ri ght. Non-spectral purpl es are
found al ong the l i ne that con-
nects the l ower extremi ti es of
the curve. Any strai ght l i ne
through the center poi nt C wi l l
i ntersect the curve at compl e
mentary wavel engths .
Three standard l i ght sources
( p. 1 7) have been defned and
thei r coordi nates al so pl otted
as three poi nts on the chroma
ti ci ty di agram ( fg. 1 ) . These poi nts
represent the col or characteri s
ti cs of an ordi nary i ncandes
cent l amp ( A) , approxi mate noon
sunl i ght ( B) , and average day
l ight ( C) . A' s posi ti on, cl oser to
l ong ( red) wavel engths than C' s,
shows that i ndoor l amps appear
reddi sh compared to dayl ight.
A typi cal CI E notati on for
an i mpure red col or sampl e ( fg.
2 ) might be given as x 0. 58,
y 0. 33, and rel ative l umi
nance ( Y) 0. 24.
0. 8

200
0. 6 -
0. 4
-
r
"
~
L
~
0. 2
-~

:::
0
l
0

0. 2
r-
+--

A
B

~~~
|
7000 A

-
U 1 I
I !

0. 4
X
I
0. 6 0. 8
y
X
1 32
O| | pai nt i ng by | . Candax, from Ibe 5c eoce of Color,
copyri g h t ! 3 by the Opti c al Soci ety of Amer i ca
THE CI E CHROMATI CI TY DI A
GRAM ( l ef) shows col ors de
termi ned by the CI E graphs and
equati ons . The CI E system works
on formul as, not on col or sam
pl es, but the i l l ustrati on does
give a rough vi sual i ndi cati on.
Along the smooth curved pe
ri meter are the col ors of the spec
trum wi th much s pace for green s
because the eye i s more sensi
t i ve t o them. Purpl es l i e on the
strai ght l i ne connecti ng the red
and bl ue ends of the curve. Al l
other col ors are represented by
poi nts encl osed by the curve.
The achromati c poi nt ( whi te) i s
near the cent er. Col ors i ncrease
i n saturati on wi th thei r di stance
from the achromati c poi nt . Thus,
oval zones around thi s poi nt rep
resent col ors of equal saturati on.
Each pi e- l i ke sector contai ns a
smal l range of hues, graded by
saturation. Hues at opposi te ends
of any strai ght l i ne through the
center are compl ementary. An
addi ti ve mi xture of any two col ors
i s represented by an i ntermedi ate
poi nt somewhere on the strai ght
l i ne between the poi nt s repre
senti ng the two col ors.
L I UH 1 N L LL LK b 1 LLL b
Li ght and col or are so much a part of our l i ves that we
often overl ook thei r fundamental i mportance to many busi
nesses such as adverti si ng, tel evi si on, photography,
pai nt, pri nti ng, opti c s, and many others . Arti sts, deco
rators, and desi gners use l i ght and col or i n thei r crea
ti ons . The arti st ' s task, for exampl e, i s not one of repro
ducti on, but of representati on. By l i nes, and for m, and
col or he seeks to represent those features of a person, a
scene, an i dea, or an emoti on that he feel s are i nter
esti ng or i mportant . He must know and use the symbol i s m
and emoti onal efect of hi s col ors no matter what hi s
styl e or school . He must keep i n mi nd t he efects of col or
constancy and col or contrast, and he must ei ther appl y
or purposeful l y i gnore the r ul es of harmoni ous col or
combi nati ons.
Even the real i st does not try t o pai nt a scene exactl y
as he sees i t . The pi cture i s not the actual scene, and the
vi ewer ' s response to the pi cture may di fer from hi s atti
tude toward the scene i tsel f.
I 33
1 34
HARMONY AND DISCORD are descri pti ve terms ordi
nari l y associ ated wi th mus i c, but they al s o appl y to col or .
Harmony and di scord i n both cases i ndi cate combi nati ons
that are pl easant or unpl easant wi thi n our cul ture. Rul es
of col or harmony and di scord are deri ved from experi ence
and sancti oned by soci al acceptance. They have no known
mathemati cal or sci enti fc bas i s .
An arti st or a dec
.
orator may di scuss harmony and di s
cord i n terms of col or ci rcl es of ti nts, hues, and tones.
Ti nts are produced when whi te i s added t o saturated
hues. Addi ng bl ack, i nstea
d
, produces tones or shades .
Adj acent col ors and opposi ng compl ementary hues on
the c i rcl es harmoni ze fai r l y wel l . Wi del y separated hues,
not compl ementary, tend to produce di scord.
Al l ful l y saturated col ors do not appear to have tle
same degree of saturati on. A saturated yel l ow appears
2
HARMONI OUS HUES i ncl ude
yel l ow and green ( 1 ) , cl ose on
the hue ci rcl e, and complemen
tary bl ue and yel l ow ( 2) .
3
DI SCORDANT HUES, such as
magenta and yel l ow ( 3 ) , ore for
aport on the hue c i rcl e, but not
for enough to b compl ementary.
much bri ghter than does i ts compl ementary saturated bl ue.
Si mul taneousl y, t he range of col ors from a pal e yel l ow
ti nt to a ful l y saturated yel l ow seems greater than from
a pal e bl ue ti nt to a darker, ful l y saturated bl ue. Nor
mal l y a saturated bl ue seems pl easant near a l ess
saturated yel l ow. The reverse si tuati on, pl aci ng a ful l y
saturated yel l ow next to a l ess saturated bl ue, appears
unpl easant even though the two col ors are compl emen
tary. Whi l e adj acent col ors of the hue ci rcl e bl end fai rl y
wel l , they tend to make a bl and and uni nteresti ng com
posi ti on. Arti sts wi l l often add a spl ash of col or from a
diferent part of the spectrum, a del i berate di scord, to
gi ve spi ce and emphasi s to a scene.
DI SCORDANT APPEARANCE ei
two usual l y harmonious col ors i s
due t o t he di ference i n satura
tion. The yel l ow i s f ul l y satu
rated and the bl ue i s not ( 4 ) .
4
teo' oao: ei ae o c,o- , 5j
ore di scordant as shown. The
some ce' e:s ore used i n ( 6) , but
the cyon i s ee. -o-i o-J the
cembi -oti e- i s horme-i ees
1 36
Custom decrees that boy babi es b dressed in bl ue, gi rl babi es
i n pi nk; that bri des wear whi te and mourni ng wi dows wear bl ack.
THE SYMBOLISM OF COLOR has devel oped over the
years as certai n col ors have become as soc i ated wi th
speci al mean i ngs. I n general , dark, saturated col ors gi ve
a feel i ng of r i chness and el egance. Br i ght, satur ated col ors
express l i vel i ness and gai ety. Dark, u nsaturated col ors
are sad and moody, wh i l e l i ght unsaturated ones tend
toward fr i vol i ty and c heerfu l nes s .
Li terature and cus tom tel l us that reddi s h hues are
warm; bl ui s h ones are col d . Red i s the col or of anger
and courage. Whi te stands for pur i ty, i nnocence, and
hope. Green i s the col or of youth and vi gor, but al so
of envy and i nexper i ence. Yel l ow suggests cowardi ce,
al so cheerfu l ness and sunshi ne. Bl ue can be puri tani cal ,
moody, i ndecent, or true. Pas s i on i s frequent l y pur pl e,
but vi ol et pur pl e has the di gni ty of roya l t, wh i l e red
di sh pu rpl e i s the col or of rage.
Col ors often have di ferent meani ngs i n diferent cul
tures . I n Western cul tures, bl ack expresses wi ckedness,
sorrow, and despai r . I t i s a funeral col or, whi l e i n Chi na
mourners wear whi te. The Aztecs associ ated col ors wi th
the fou r compass poi nts, North bei ng red. Emoti onal
associ ati ons wi th col or may be an i ndi vi dual and not a
cul tu ral matter, and two peopl e may often fnd thei r tastes
i n confi ct.
PAINTS, u sed to protect or to decorate su rfaces , consi st
of f nel y grou nd pi gment parti cl es s us pended i n a l i qu i d,
th e vehi cl e. The pi gment parti cl es { p. 1 3 8 } a re wh i te
or col ored, and are usual l y opaque.
The veh i c l e hel ps to spread the pai nt even l y, and, when
dry, bi nds or gl ues the pi gment to the s urface. The oi l
pai nt us ed by arti sts i s a pi gment paste i n a veh i cl e of
l i nseed or poppyseed oi l that i s th i nned wi th tu rpenti ne.
A fami l i ar vehi cl e of househol d pai nts i s l i nseed oi l . The
pai nt i s th i nned, most common l y wi th turpenti ne or Q
petrol eum der i vati ve. The th i nner may a l so speed up dry
i ng . I n newer pai nts the veh i cl e i s a r ubber- based, fast
dryi ng compound, or some pl asti c such as a vi nyl or
acryl i c type. The type of veh i cl e used may afect the
degree of gl oss or the fatness of the pai nt, and thus
the appearance or col or of the su rface pai nted. A gl ossy
or enamel pai nt on a smooth-textured su rface i s s hi ny
due to regul ar refecti on of l i ght . The col or of a gl ossy
surface i s seen most easi l y when vi ewed from the di rec
ti on of the i nci dent l i ght. When vi ewed from the oppo
si te di recti on, the gl oss tends to hi de the col or . A fat
pa i nt di fuses rather than refects the l i ght regul arl y
from a surface.
To i mpar an ai r of cheerful ness
or efci ency to i nteri or wal l s,
pai nts wi th high reflectance val ues
( percentage of i nci dent l i ght re
feeted) are often used. Reflect
ances of 50-60% are hel d de
si rabl e for school s and ofces;
6 1 % 48%
35-55% for t he home. Pai nts that
give l ower refectance val ues
( 30-40%) can be used for tri m,
fors, and furni ture. The ap
proxi mate refectance val ues for
four fat green pai nts are shown
bel ow.
38% 20%
PIGMENTS provi de the col or and the coveri ng or hi di ng
power of pai nt . They al so contri bute to i ts durabi l i ty
and to the permanency of the col or i n weather i ng. Natu
ral , or mi neral , pi gments are made of fnel y ground earth
mater i al s, such as ci nnabar, ochre, charcoal , and others .
Pi gments may be ei ther organi c or i norgani c, but most of
them are now produced syntheti cal l y. The ol dest whi te
pi gment i s whi te l ead, a carbonate of l ead made by
corrodi ng l ead sheets and then col l ecti ng and dryi ng
the fne powder. Because i t has about ni ne ti mes greater
hi di ng power, and i s i nert chemi cal l y, ti tani um di oxi de
i s repl aci ng whi te l ead. Some red and many yel l ow and
brown pi gments are deri ved from an i ron oxi de. The
common yel l ow used by arti sts, however, i s cadmi um
yel low. A green pi gment i s produced from chromi um
oxi de; br i ght Pr ussi an bl ue i s a compl ex i ron cyani de.
Bl ack i s made of fnel y di vi ded l ampbl ack ( carbon) .
Pai nt extenders are whi te or near l y whi te pi gments
that add l i tt l e or no col or to the pai nt, but hel p to gi ve
it body. Metal s i n powder form may be added in the
vehi cl e to make vari ous metal l i c pai nts . Lumi nous pai nts
contai n pi gments or dyes that gl ow when i l l umi nated,
as by automobi l e headl i ghts.
When a beam of whi te l i ght stri kes
a pai nted surface, some l i ght i s re
fected, par of i t penetrates and
i s absorbed. The remai nder i s
di fusel y refected and i s respon
si bl e for the col or you see.
0. 8
0. 6
cadmi um yel low
5
T
O

0 0. 4
L

pi gment mi xture
O

O
0. 2
.
ul tramari ne bl ue
0
4000 A 5000 A 6000 A 7000 A
Wavel ength ( Angstroms )
Spectral refecti on curve for
a mi xture of two ports of cad
mi um yel l ow ( upper curve) wi th
one port of ul tramari ne bl ue
( l ower curve) does not show pure
efects of ei ther addi ti ve or sub
tracti ve mi xi ng. Mi ddl e curve i s
the bl ended poi nt .
Pi gments do not di ssol ve, nor do they uni te chemi cal l y
wi th t he pai nt vehi c l e. I f two pi gments are mi xed i n a
pai nt, the col or of the pai nt appears to change though
i t sti l l consi sts of the two di sti nct pi gment s. Thi s efect
i s due to addi ti ve col or mi xi ng ( p. 1 07) . The mi xi ng of
pai nts t o obtai n desi red col ors i s compl i cated because
not onl y addi ti ve but al so subtracti ve col or mi xi ng ( p.
1 1 0j i s i nvol ved. A s uccessful predi cti on of the resul ts
usual l y requi res much experi ence. I n fact, one. of the
probl ems of the pai nt i ndustry i s to deter mi ne how to
rel ate the col or of a pai nt mi xture to the spectral refec
ti on characteri sti c s of i ts component pi gments . Resul ts
cannot be predi cted on the basi s of the curves from the
component
,
Pi gments. A parti al understandi ng comes from
knowl edge about the rel ati ve amounts of scatteri ng and
absorpti on that occur i n the pi gments.
1 39
DYES are col orants. Unl i ke pi gments, they are sol ubl e,
and the parti cl es of the dye are of mol ec ul ar si ze and
cannot be seen even wi th the most powerful opti cal
mi croscope.
Most dyes can be appl i ed di rectl y, parti cul arl y to the
ani mal fbers, such as wool and si l k. Others are efec
ti ve onl y i f the fber i s treated frst wi th a dye fastener,
or mordant, a chemi cal that causes the dye col ors to ad
here to the fbers. Cotton and l i nen usual l y requi re a
mordant. Syntheti c fbers often i nvol ve compl ex dyei ng
probl ems.
Near l y al l dyes are organi c compounds. Or i gi nal l y
they were made from frui ts, fowers, bark, roots, i n
sects , and mar i ne mol l usks. A few used i n ear l i er days
were of mi neral ori gi n, but most used today are pro
duced syntheti cal l y. The frst of these was an ani l i ne
dye, di scovered acci dental l y i n 1 866 . Thi s beauti ful
mauve dye was the begi nni ng of the enormous coal -tar
dye i ndustry that today produces nearl y al l dyestufs .
1 40
About 4, 000 di ferent dyes are avai l abl e commerci al l y.
These ft i nto 22 chemi cal c l asses and are each i denti fed
by dye experts wi th a fve-di gi t number . Dyes are cl as
si fed chemi cal l y, but al so by thei r col or, by the materi al s
they col or, and by the dyei ng methods used. The ul tra
vi ol et rays of s unl i ght break down many dyes i nto col or
l ess compounds. A good dye resi sts fadi ng. Dyes must
al so resi st the reacti on of detergents and other house
hol d chemi cal s . Dyes that are not eas i l y removed are
known as fast dyes. To get sui tabl e dyes for a great
number of fabri cs and other materi al s wi th a vari ety of
textures, computers are now used to summari ze the
vari abl es.
The probl ems of dyei ng are l ar gel y practi cal . The
di ference between the absorpti on c urve of the dye and
the refecti on c u rve of the dyed materi al attest to the fact
that the col or of the dye sol uti on and of the dyed mate
ri al are often qui te di ferent . I n vi ewi ng and matchi ng dyed
mater i al s, standard i l l umi nati on i s i mportant, as every
woman knows who takes a ski rt to the wi ndow where
she can see i ts true dayl i ght col or .
CHROMOPHORES, groups of
atoms that contai n loosel y held
el ectrons capabl e of sel ecti vel y
absorbi ng some wavelengths from
white l i ght and transmi tti ng t he
rest, give col or t o organi c dyes.
Si nce onl y a porti on of the wave
lengths contai ned i n whi te l ight
remai ns and reaches your eyes,
the l i ght from the dye appears
col ored. Chromophores are found
i n al l col ored organic compounds,
or chromogens . To convert a
chromogen to a dye, another
group of atoms , the auxochrome,
must be present . These atoms fix
( attach ) the dye to a fabri c . El e
ments of the structural formul a of
the dye cal l ed Butter Yel low are
shown bel ow.
~N ~

chemical benzene
.,|ec|e

N= N~gN| 0M |
Butter Yel l ow
( para di methyl
ami noazobenzene)
1 4 1
l l I l l l l
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
COLOR IN BUSI NESS AND INDUSTRY has many uses.
Showi ng debi t fgures i n red i nk and credi ts i n bl ack
i nk i s an exampl e of col or cddi ng. A more el aborate
code i s used to mark el ectroni c resi stors and capaci
tors . Each numeral i s assi gned a uni que col or ( above) ,
so t hat a sequence of bands or dots can be used t o i ndi
cate the val ue of a component. A 25 ,000- ohm resi stor
i s marked as shown bel ow. Red stands for the two, green
for the fve, and orange, i n thi s posi ti on, means the
number ends i n thr ee zeros. The si l ver band i ndi cates
that the resi stor val ue is accurate wi thi n 1 0 per cent.
a col or-coded resi stor

COLOR CODES may be used to

di sti ngui sh the diferent ci r
cui ts i n electri cal wi ri ng. Some
codes are for conveni ence and ef
fi ci ency, whi l e others are pri
mari l y for safety. One of the
most common col or codes i n ex
i stence i s the red, yel l ow, and
green trafc l i ght.
The use of accurate col or match
i ng devi ces al l ows chemi sts to
anal yze sampl es rapi dl y or to
control qual i ty. Col or i s the key
to the temperature of furnaces
and to the testi ng or gradi ng of
food products such as tomatoes
or bananas.
Mass producti on often demands
that parts manufactured . at di f
ferent pl aces match in col or when
fnal l y assembl ed. Thi s requi res
el aborate methods of col or control .
Col or codi ng i s evi dent i n the
el ectroni c ci rcui t at l eft and i n
the wi res that make up the tel e
phone cabl e bel ow.
I n packagi ng, what ' s outsi de
counts most. The desi gn and col or
on the exteri or ofen determi ne
the success or fai l ure of a product.
Bol d hues ai d i n the " hard sel l . "
COLOR IN ADVERTISI NG has three uses: to attract
attenti on, to decorate, and to i nfuence by symbol i sm.
Bri ght col ors and contrast are more i mportant i n catch
i ng the eye of a prospecti ve customer than a brand name
or sl ogan. The brand name i s read after t he eye has
been caught, and often after the customer has pi cked
up the package i n hi s hand. An attracti ve appearance
can often sel l an i nferi or product. Manufacturers spend
mi l l i ons of dol l ars each year to ensure that thei r
products are decorated to the customer ' s taste, know
i ng that many ti mes a si mpl e change i n col or has meant
the di ference between commerci al success and fai l ure.
The powerful symbol i sm of di ferent col ors can strongl y
afect the deci si on to buy or rej ect. A yel l ow soap, for
i nstance, may be thought stronger than a whi te soap,
perhaps because yel l ow i s symbol i c of power. A man
may buy ci garettes i n a red package, but avoi d them
i f the package i s pi nk-because the col or i s not a
" mascul i ne" one. I n recent years, a maj or gasol i ne
company deci ded that i t needed a more aggressi ve
marketi ng approach and changed i ts trade col ors from
a tame green and whi te to a bol d red, whi te, and bl ue
at a cost of mi l l i ons of dol l ars . Col or may even be the
deci di ng factor i n the choi ce of an expensi ve car .
1 43
PHOTOGRAPHY depends on a photochemi cal reacti on i n
an emul si on of si l ver hal i de crystal s embedded i n gel a
ti n. Li ght rays produce a l atent i mage i n the emul si on
whi ch i s reduced t o pure si l ver by treatment wi th a
devel oper. After devel opment, the unreduced s i l ver hal i de
i s removed by t he fxi ng process . The resul ti ng i mage
consi sts of a deposi t of pure s i l ver embedded i n hard
ened gel ati n. The densi ty of t he deposi t i s determi ned
by the exposure. Thi s i s a negati ve i mage because i t
i s dark where the ori gi nal scene was l i ght, and l i ght
where t he or i gi nal scene was dar k. To produce a posi ti ve
i mage, l i ght i s passed through thi s negati ve onto another
photographi c emul si on, ei ther on fl m or on paper.
I f the or i gi nal devel oped fl m i s not fxed, but i s
bl eac hed i nstead, a uni form exposure of the fl m to
l i ght wi l l then produce a posi ti ve l atent i mage whi ch
may be devel oped i n t he usual way. Thi s reversal pro
cess i s used for many amateur col or fl ms , both movi e
and sti l l . Bl ack and whi te photographi c emul si ons are
often more sensi ti ve to one col or than to another. By
dye-sensi ti zi ng, they can be made more sensi ti ve to
di ferent wavel engths, as desi red.
COLOR NEGATI VE shows maxi
mum density and deepest col or
where i mage i s l i ghtest. I n a
subtracti ve fl m the col ors on the
negati ve are compl ementary to
the col or of the i mage.
COLOR POSI TI VE i s made by
pl aci ng a sheet of col or fl l m or
paper behi nd the negati ve and
exposi ng them to l i ght. When
the fl l m or paper i s devel oped, a
posi ti ve col or i mage resul ts.
mosai c
screen
|
l ight
| |
Cross-secti on of addi ti ve, three-col or, mosai c system camera fl m
COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY done for commer ci al purposes
uses dyes or col ored fl ters , and near l y al l i nvol ve three
separate i mages made by expos ure to l i ght from t hree
di ferent parts of the spectrum. Col or processes di fer
mai nl y i n methods of maki ng and combi ni ng the i mages.
The three mai n methods i n use today are the col or
negati ve ( p. 1 44 ) , di rect rever sal ( whi ch produces tran s
parenci es, p. 1 46 ) , and col or separati on . The l ast i n
vol ves maki ng a separate negati ve for each col or, and
i ts use i s restr i cted exc l us i vel y to the pr i nt i ng and com
merci al pi cture i ndustri es ( p. 1 49) .
ADDI TI VE COLOR emul s ions
( Dufaycol or) often us e a fne
grai ned mosai c of mic roscopi c
red, bl ue, and green dots . li ght
from the i mage passes through
these dots to reach the emul sion,
a l i ght-sens i ti ve l ayer of si l ver
hal ie. The si l ver hal i d crystal s
are afected by the pattern of
the i mage comi ng through the
col ored dots.
When the fl m i s devel oped,
the darker areas turn to metal -
The Dufaycol or fl m used to make
the accompanyi ng photograph was
covered wi th a cross-hatchi ng of
fne l i nes, as many as 1 , 000 to
the i nch, each dyed red, green,
or bl ue. I t i s an obsol ete, addi
ti ve col or process.
l ie s i lver and are removed, l eav
i ng a posi ti ve transparency. The
transparent dots, too smal l
t o be seen i ndi vi dual l y on pro
j ecti on, fuse vi sual l y i nto hues
approxi mati ng those of the i mage.
EMULSI ON
SENSI TI VE TO
bl ue
# 1 emul si on I oyer
yel l ow fl ter
# 2 emul si on I oyer
# 3 emul si on I oyer
fl m bse
cros s secti on of Kodachrome fi l m
COMMON COLOR FI LMS, such as
Kodachrome, Ektachrome, and
Anscochrome, contai n three di fer
ent emul si on l ayers and a yel l ow
fl ter . In Kodachrome ( above) the
frst I oyer of emul si on i s sensi
ti ve to bl ue l ight , the s econd to
bl ue and green, and the third
to bl ue and red. But the yel l ow
flter, between the frst and
second emul s ion l ayers , bl ocks
the bl ue l i ght, al l owi ng only
red and green to pass through .
As a resul t , the s econd emul
si on I oyer i s sensit i zed onl y by
green l i ght, and the thi rd I oyer
only by red . I n thi s way, three
negati ve i mages representi ng the
three pri mary col ors ore formed
si mul taneousl y.
Duri ng devel opment, the s i lver
i n each i mage i s repl aced by the
appropri ate dye, and the yel l ow
fl ter is bl eached out. Because
t he i mages or e negati ve, each
I oyer must be dyed i ts compl e
mentary col or to form posi ti ve
i mages. The bl ue sensiti ve emul
si on I oyer is dyed yel l ow, the bl ue
and green sens i ti ve I oyer i s dyed
magenta, and the bl ue and red
sensi tive I oyer i s dyed cyan.
Kodachrome photograph
I n Kodachrome, the dye-formi ng
chemi cal s ( cal l ed coupl ers) are
contai ned in the devel oper, and
processi ng i s qui te compl i cated.
The fnal col or transparency i s
normal l y pl easi ng, and resol ution
of detai l i s excepti onal l y goo.
I n other mul ti l ayer fl ms, the
dye coupl ers are contai ned i n
the emul sions. The three-col or
i mages con be devel oped al l at
once i n the same devel oper, a
process wel l wi thi n the capa
bi l i ty of many amateurs .
POLACOLOR FILM, i ntroduced i n 1 963,, enabl es one
to obtai n a fni shed col or pri nt one mi nute after taki ng
the pi cture. The mul ti l ayer Pol acol or negati ve i s exposed
i n a Pol aroi d Land Camera. Processi ng occur s i nsi de of
the camera for the rol l fl ms and outsi de of the camera
i n a l i ght-ti ght sandwi ch for the pack fl m.
A POLACOLOR LN assembl y
( 1 ) cons i sts of t he negati ve,
the pod and the recei vi ng sheet
( posi ti ve) . The negati ve contai ns
three emul si on l ayers, each sensi
ti ve to a diferent regi on of the
spectrum. Next to each l ayer i s
a l ayer contai ni ng yel l ow, magenta
,-
or cyan dye-devel oper mol ecul es.
I n the pod i s a t hi ck, j el l y- l i ke
processi ng reagent to acti vate the
dye-devel opers. The fni shed col or
posi ti ve i s formed on the recei v
i ng sheet.
After exposure, the fi l m assem
bl y i s pul l ed t hrough a set of rol l
ers ( 2 ) that burst the pod and
spread the reagent between the
negati ve and the recei vi ng sheet
( 3) . Wherever l i ght has acti vated
an emul sion l ayer, dye-devel oper
mol ecul es bcome trapped i n the
negati ve. Wherever the emul si on
has not been afected by l i ght,
the dye-devel oper mol ecul es con
ti nue through the negati ve t o the
recei vi ng sheet where they are
l ocked i n pl ace to form a posi
ti ve col or pri nt ( bel ow) .
devel opi ng rPrnFnt.
pod
tab
No.
4
PRI NTI NG i s one of the most i mportant methods of
communi cati on usi ng l i ght and col or. Thi s anci ent art
probabl y began wi th hand-carved wooden bl ocks pressed
agai nst an i nky surface and then appl i ed to paper. The
use f movabl e type put pri nti ng on a mass producti on
basi s. Now, photo-typesetti ng, often control l ed by a
computer, i s repl aci ng type. Hi gh-speed presses turn out
newspapers, magazi nes and books at speeds greater than
1 , 500 feet per mi nute. About a bi l l i on books and about
2 . 5 bi l l i on magazi nes are pri nted annual l y i n the U. S.
doctor
bl ade
m

LETTERPRESS, deri ved from the

ori gi nal method of pri nti ng from
carved bl oks, pri nts from a
rai sed surface. Type is made wi th
el evated letters; photographs
are transl ated i nto patterns of
rai sed dots . Many newspapers are
pri nted by l etterpress, wi th a
typesetti ng devi ce-the Li notype
machi ne-usi ng raised l etters .
GRAVURE is the reverse of l et
terpress. I nk i s pi cked up from
depressi ons i n the pl ate. Gravure
devel oped from i ntagl i o where
the l etters or desi gns were
carved i nto wood. The pl ate i s
i nked, then wi ped so that i nk re
mai ns onl y i n the pits unti l i t is
pi cked up by the paper in pri nt
i ng. Pri nti ng of of rotary pl ates
rotogravure-i s very rapi d.
LI THOGRAPHY, ori gi nal l y pri nt
i ng from a stone, now i mpri nts
both i l l ustrati on ond text from
rel ati vel y smooth metal pl ates .
To reproduce a photograph or
other pi cture wi th l i ght and shade,
the i l l ustrati on i s photographed
through a camera that has a
Ful lcol or pri nti ng of Gaugui n ' s
sel f portrait requi res three col or
pl ates and one bl ack. Dots are
al igned at a di ferent angl e to
b sure they do not pri nt on one
another.
rotatabl e screen. The cri ss
crossi ng rul ed l i nes of the screen
produce a seri es of dots on the
negati ve. The fner the screen,
the better the detai l . Newspapers
use a 65- l i ne screen (65 dots per
l i near i nch) . Thi s bok uses i11.
To make your eyes regi ster the
dots as a conti nuous tone val ue,
the camera screen i s set so that
the paral l el rows of dots on the
negati ve occur at some angl e to
the hori zontal . For bl ack or any
si ngl e col or hal ftone, the angl e
i s 45 degrees.
I n ful l -col or reproducti on, the
i l l ustrati on i s photographed
through bl ue, green, and red
fl ters, produci ng a separate
negati ve for each col or. The dots
are l arge where the ori gi nal
col or i s saturated; smal l where
i t i s weak. A pri nti ng pl ate i s
made for each negati ve, the proc
ess bing very si mi lar to pri nt
i ng a photograph from a negati ve,
but a metal pl ate coated wi th a
l i ght- sensi ti ve emul si on is used
i nstead of photographi c paper .
Nei ther a rai sed nor a de
pressed surface i s needed on t he
met al pl at es used i n l i thographi c
pri nti ng. I nstead, each pl ate i s
waxy or otherwi se repel s the i nk
except at those pl aces where
l etters or desi gns appear.
Yel l ow, magenta, and cyan i nks,
compl ementary i n col or to the fl
ters, are used wi th the pl ates
to dupl i cate the ori gi nal i l l us
trati on . Someti mes the overl ap
of these three i nks does not gi ve
a strong bl ack, so a bl ack-and
whi te hal ftone i s usual l y added.
Four-col or separati ons were used
for many of the i l l ustrati ons 1 n
thi s book as shown above.
I N OFFSET LI THOGRAPHY, the
rol l er-mounted pl ate becomes
i nked as i t revol ves . I ts i mage i s
trans ferred ( ofset) i n reverse onto
a rubber mat or "blanket" whi ch
enci rcl es another cyl i nder. As
thi s mat turns , i t trans fers the
now unreversed i mage onto papr
hel d frm duri ng the moment of
i mpres s ion by a counter- rotati ng
thi rd cyl inder, A seprate three
cyl inder uni t operates for each
col or.
1 49
1 50
col or TV camera
l umi nance or
B&W si gnal
oder

mi rrors mi rror col or tubes

The col or TV camera records the scene i n three pri mary col ors .
COLOR TELEVISION empl oys a mosai c method of addi
ti ve col or mi xi ng ( p. 1 09) . The i mage i s produced by
the acti on of a beam of swi ft el ectrons on a fuores
cent screen. The fne beam of el ectrons sweeps across
the screen 525 ti mes for each pi cture, and 30 pi ctures
are presented each second. To achi eve sati sfactory def
nfti on, the i ntensi ty of the el ectron beam i s modul ated at
frequenci es up to 4. 5 mi l l i on cycl es per second [ 4/

mega
cyc l es ) . The l arge bandwi dth of thi s frequency means that
the transmi tti ng stati on must use carri er waves l ess than
1 0 feet l ong. [ tu radi o waves are about 1 , 000 feet l ong. )
I n the tel evi si on studi o, the col or camera vi ews a
scene through a system of col or separati ng ( di chroi c)
mi rrors, produci ng a separate el ectroni c si gnal for each
pri mary col or. About 20 per cent of the l i ght that enters
the camera bypasses i ts three col or tubes and i s di rected
to a monochrome tube. The si gnal from thi s l atter tube
contai ns most of the i nformati on needed to produce pi c
ture detai l and bri ghtness. After the si gnal s l eave the
camera, they combi ne to modul ate the carri er wave,
whi ch i s then broadcast by a transmi tter and antenna.
ELECTROMAGNEIC WAVES transmi tted from the tel e
vi s i on stati on are pi cked up by the antenna of the re
cei ver, and are separated i nto the th ree ori gi nal col or
components and the monochrome ( bl ack and whi te) porti on
by el ectroni c ci rcui t s. The col or components are converted
i nto three smal l vol tages used to control the emi ssi on
of el ectrons from three el ectron guns, one for each col or
component. The el ectrons themsel ves do not carry col or
character i sti cs, but represent the vol tages produced by the
l i ght enter i ng the camera. The col or screen of the recei ver
i s covered by rows of three-dot cl usters of phosphors
that emi t red, bl ue, or green l i ght when exci ted by an el ec
tron ( p. 24) . The amount of l i ght emi tted i s rel ated to
the number of el ectrons that stri ke the phos phor.
The dots i n each c l uster are arranged so the el ec
trons from the green gun al ways str i ke the phosphor that
emi ts green l i ght, those from the red gun al ways str i ke
the phosphor that emi ts red l i ght and those from the
bl ue gun exci te the phosphor that emi ts bl ue l i ght. As
di ferent vol tages are suppl i ed to the red, bl ue and green
guns, varyi ng l evel s of each col or are emi tted by the
phosphor cl uster s . Si nce the dots are very s mal l and cl ose
together , they cannot be resol ved sepa ratel y by the eye,
but are mi xed by mosai c fusi on ( p. 1 09) i nto the hue
that was ori gi nal l y seen i n that area of the pi ctu re by
the camera. As al l of the rows of three-dot cl usters are
scanned, a col ored pi cture i s produced .
I n the R. C. A. -type col or tel e
vi si on tube, beams from three
el ectron guns exci te the phos
phor dots on the screen.
screen wi th
phosphor
dots
Beam from ruby l aser
LASERS produce an i ntense, monochromati c beam of
l i ght that can be focused to wel d, mel t, or vapori ze a
smal l amount of any substance. They may be u sed i n
communi cati ons, i n the accel erati on of chemi cal reacti ons,
and i n surgery. Laser i s an acronym for ' ' l i ght ampl i f
cati on by st i mu l ated emi ssi on of radi ati on. " The frst
l aser was bui l t i n 1 960.
Lasers emi t coherent ( i n-step) l i ght waves , whereas an
ordi nary l i ght source radi ates l i ght of mi xed wavel engths
i n an out-of- step ( noncoherent) and random manner. The
l umi nance of the i mage of ordi nary l i ght cannot exceed
the source' s l umi nance. But a l aser can form a very
l umi nant i mage becau se i ts paral l el rays can be focused
to a ti ny SfOt and are added together i n phase.
Penci l -thi n l aser bam is used in opti cal and mechani cal al i gnment.
The l i ght from a smal l l aser, i n fact, can be focused
to form an i mage of l umi nance greater than that of the
sun ' s s urface. The concentrati on of energy i s so great
that extremel y hi gh temperatures are produced . li ght
rays from a l aser can be beamed through space wi th a
fracti on of an i nch spread per mi l e. The l i ght i s al so
extremel y pu re i n col or ( monochromati c ) .
I N A RUBY LASER ( bel ow) a
ruby crystal rod has pl ane parol
l ei pl i shed ends whi ch are
si l vered l i ke mi rror s. One end
i s onl y parti al ly si l vered and acts
as a wi ndow for the l i ght to get
out. Energy i s suppl i ed to the
ruby crystal by a powerf ul Aash
tube l amp. Thi s serves to pump
the ( chromi um) atoms of the crys
tal to a " metastabl e" energy state
i n whi ch they l inger for a few
thousandths of a second before
droppi ng to the ground state wi th
the emi ssi on of a photon of l i ght .
Most of t hese photpns pass out of
the crystal wal l s and are l ost,
but soon one photon wi l l move
di rectl y al ong the ro and i s re
Aected from the pol i shed ends,
passi ng back and forth along the
rod unti l i t encounters an atom
i n the exci ted metastabl e state.
The exci ted atom then radiates
cool ant
its photon i n exact phase wi th
the photon whi ch struck i t . Thi s
second photon may i n turn sti mu
l ate another atom, and t hi s "cas
code" process conti nues unti l the
whol e crystal i s fl l ed wi th i n
phose radi ati on osci l l ati ng back
and forth i ns i de the rod. Part
of thi s radi ati on is emitted
through the hal f-s i l vered end of
the rod and becomes the l aser
beam. Al l of thi s tokes pl ace
wi thi n a few bi l l i onths of a
second, then the Aash tube fres
agai n and the process i s repeated.
Modern lasers have been made
of sol i d c rystal s, gl ass, l iquids
and gases. Some operate i n pu l ses
as descri bed, but many emi t con
ti nuousl y. I n al l , the radi ati on i s
monochromati c and coherent. I t i s
thi s hi g degree of coherence that
makes l aser l ight diferent from
that of al l other sources.
cool ant
1 53
HOLOGRAPHY i s a speci al ki nd of photography i n whi ch
the fl m captures not the i mage of the subj ec t but the
patter n of the wavefronts of l i ght refected from the
subj ect . I nvented by Denni s Gabor i n 1 948, the pro
cess took on new i mportance when the l aser was i n
vented. I n addi ti on to i ts uses i n the entertai nment
fel d, hol ography has many sci enti fc and i ndust ri al
appl i cati ons, wh i ch are bei ng devel oped rapi d l y.
TO MAKE A HOLOGRAM, a
coherent l i ght beam ( from a l aser)
i s spl it i nto two pars-an obj ect
beam whi ch i l l umi nates the sub.
j ect, and a reference beam whi ch
i s di rected to the photographic
fl m by mi rror s. At the fl m
the |iht refected from the sub
j ect i nterferes wi th the reference
beam to cause a compl ex pattern
of l i ght and dark fri nges i n the
fl m when i t i s devel oped.
When a hol ogram i s hel d i n a
beam of coherent l iht, part of
l aser
beam
ARRNGEMENT FOR
PRODUCI NG A HOLOGRAM
USE OF HOLOGRAM I N
PRODUCI NG REAL AND
VI RTUAL I MAGES
t he di fracted l i ght i s a repro
ducti on of the ori gi nal l ight
wave pattern t hat came from the
subj ect . Thus, a viewer l ooki ng
through the hol ogram can see a
l i f- l i ke reproducti on of the ori gi
nal scene. Thi s vi rtual i mage i s
trul y three-di mens ional , s i nce the
vi ewer can move hi s head and
see a di ferent per specti ve of the
subj ect. Bes i des the vi rtual i mage,
there i s al so a real i mage formed
by the rays difracted i n another
di recti on .
rea l i mage
FI BE R OPTICS i s th resul t of an i ngeni ous appl i cati on
of a si mpl e pr i nci pl e. I magi ne a l i ght ray that has en
tered the end of a s l i m sol i d gl ass rod. I f i t al ways
stri kes the surface of the gl ass at angl es greater than
the cri ti cal angl e ( p. 44) , the ray wi l l be total l y refected
each ti me and trapped wi thi n the gl ass. Refected from
si de to si de, the l i ght ray wi l l be conducted al ong the
rod l i ke water i n a hose. Fi nal l y, the l i gh-t ray hi ts the
end of the rod at a smal l angl e to the perpendi cul ar and
l i ght ray travel i ng through fber
A bi g advance i n fber opti cs
came wi th the devel opment of very
fne cl ear fbers encased in a
thi n coati ng of l ower refracti ve
i ndex. Total refecti on takes
pl ace between the fbr and i ts
coati ng. The fbers are so thi n
( a few mi crons i n di ameter) that
they are fexi bl e, and thei r coat
i ngs al l ow them to be bound i nto
bundl es wi thout i nterferi ng wi th
each other ' s acti on. Such a bun
dl e can conduct l i ght for several
feet. When the fbers are l i ned
up so they have the same rel ati ve
posi ti on at each end of the bun
dle, they can transmi t i mages.
Thi s makes possi bl e a sort of
super-peri scope so fexi bl e that
physi ci ans can use i t to exami ne
the i nteri or of bdy organs. A
sheath of unal i gned fbers around
the bundl e can carry i l l umi nati on
to the area bei ng exami ned.
1 55

i s abl e to exi t. Thi s expl ai ns the success of bent l uci te
and gl ass rods as l i ght-conductors i n adverti s i ng d i spl ays
and i n si mpl e i l l umi nati ng devi ces .
A bundl e of fbers produces a grai ny i mage l i ke a
hal ftone pr i nti ng process. By drawi ng out the fbers so
that one end of the bundl e i s smal l er than the other, the
i mage can be enl arged or reduced and i ts bri ghtness
changed. The qual i ty of the i mage can be i mproved by
shapi ng the end of the bundl e or by adj usti ng the al i gn
ment of the fbers to el i mi nate di stort i ons.
MORE I NFORMATI ON
Burnham, Hanes, Bartl eson, COLOR: A GUI DE TO BASI C FACTS AND
CONCEPTS, New York, N. Y. : John Wi ley Son s, 1 963. A com
pact handbok of defniti ons and facts about col or.
Committee on Col ori metry, Opti cal Soci ety of Ameri ca, THE SCI ENCE
OF COLOR, New York, N. Y. : Thomas Y. Crowel l Co. , 1 953. A
compl ete authori tative reprt for the seri ous student, with extensi ve
reference and gl ossary.
Eastman Koak, COLOR AS SEEN AND PHOTOGRAPHED, Rochester,
N. Y. : A Kodak Coor Data Book, 1 966. A bri ef expl anati on of
col or pri nci ples and col or fl ms.
Evans, Ral ph M. , AN I NTRODUCTI ON TO COLOR, New York, N. Y. :
J ohn Wi l ey Sons, 1 948. A careful expl anati on of al l aspects of
col or i n nontechni cal l anguage.
Evans, Ral ph M. , EYE, F I LM, AND CAMERA I N COLOR PHOTOG
RAPHY, New York, N. Y. : John Wi l ey Sons, 1 959. A thorough
di scussi on of vi sual percepti on and i ts rel ati on to photographi c
representati on.
Fowl es, Grant R. , I NTRODUCTI ON TO MODERN OPTI CS, New York,
N. Y. : Hol t, Ri nehart Wi nston, 1 968. A col l ege textbook that
emphasi zes the latest devel opments i n opti cs, i ncl udi ng l asers.
Mann, I da, and A. Pi ri e, THE SCI ENCE OF SEEI NG, Bal ti more, Md. :
Pel ican Boks, 1 950. Al l about eyes and how they work.
Mi nnaert, M. , THE NATURE OF LI GHT AND COLOUR I N THE OPEN
AI R, New York, N. Y. : Dover Publ i cations, I nc . , 1 954. Expl anati ons
of shadows, mi rages, rai nbws and si mi l ar phenomena.
Neblette, C. B. , PHOTOGRAPHY, I TS MATERI ALS AND PROCESSES,
6th Edi tion , Van Nostrand-Rei nhol d Books, New York, N. Y. : 1 962.
An authori tati ve di scussi on of al l phases of photographic technol oy.
Sears, Franci s W. , OPTI CS, 3rd Edi ti on, Readi ng, Mass . : Addi son
Wesley, 1 949. A popular col l ege textbok wi th excel l ent i l l ustrations.
"
l McA
oI dfoce numeroI s i ndi cate mai n coverage.
Aberrati on, 67
chromati c, 66, 67, 71
spheri cal , 67, 71 , 75
Absol ute temperature
scal e, 1 4
Absorpti on of l i ght, 36,
40, 51 , 57, 99, 1 1 0,
1 39
Accommodati on, 68, 69,
84
Achromati c l ens, 66
Achromati c l i ght, 1 05
1 07, 1 32
Addi ti ve col or mi xi ng,
1 06, 1 07-1 08, 1 09,
1 1 2, 1 30, 1 3 1 , 1 32,
1 39, 1 45, 1 50
Advert i si ng, i nfl uence
of col or, 5, 1 43
Afteri mages, 1 23, 1 24
Ames' d i storted room,
96
Ampl i tude, 9
Andromeda, 7
Angl e of i nci dence, 44
Angl e of refracti on, 44
Angstroms, 6
Anomal ous tri chromat-
i sm, 1 1 3, 1 1 4
Anscochrome fi l m, 1 46
Aqueous humor, 84
Arc l amp, 26, 77, 78
Asti gmati sm, 70
Astronomi cal tel escope,
73
Atmosphere, 21
Auxochrome, 1 41
Bar i um, l i ne spectrum,
1 2
Bi focal gl asses, 69
Bi nocul ar cues, 95
Bi nocul ar vi si on, 95
Bi nocul ars, 60, 72, 76
Bi ol umi nescence, 28
Bl ack body, 1 5, 1 6-1 8
Bl i nd spot, 88
Bl i ndness, 88
col or, 1 1 3-1 1 7
Bol ometer, 29
Brewster's angl e, /
Bri ghtness, 32-33, 91 ,
93, 1 00, 1 0 1 , 1 03,
1 20, 1 33
Bunsen burner, 1 9
Camera, 71 , 75, 79-8 1 ,
92, 95, 1 47
Candl e measure, 1 5, 33
Carbon arc l amp, 1 8, 1 9
Carbon arc, band
spectrum of, 1 2
Carbon bl ock, 1 9
Carbon fi l ament l amp,
22
Catadi optri c i nstru-
ments, 71
Cel si us temperature 1 4
Chemi cal energy, 1 8
Chemi l umi nescence, 28
Chromati c aberrat i on,
66, 67
Chromogens, 1 41
Chromophores, 1 41
Chromosphere, 21
C I E system, 1 1 7, 1 25,
1 28, 1 30-1 32
chromati ci ty di agram,
1 3 1 , 1 32
Coherent l i ght waves,
49, 1 52, 1 54
Col l i mator, 61
Col or
advert i si ng, 5, 1 43
bl i ndness, 1 1 3-1 1 7
br i ghtness, 1 00, 1 03
busi ness and i ndus-
try, 1 42
charts, 1 26, 1 27
chroma, 1 26, 1 27
codes, 1 42
constancy, 1 20, 1 33
contrast, 1 21 -1 22,
1 24, 1 33
control , 1 42
di cti onary of, 1 25,
1 28, 1 29
emot i onal efects of,
1 33, 1 36
harmony and d i s
cord, 1 34-1 35
i mages, 1 44, 1 45
matchi ng, 83, 1 1 2,
1 1 3, 1 25, 1 30, 1 42
mi xtures 1 00,
1 061 1 1 , 1 1 2, 1 39
monochromati c, 1 02,
1 04,
mosai c fusi on, 1 09,
1 51
nature of, 98-1 1 7
nature of l i ght and,
41 7
negati ve, 1 44, 1 45
of l i ght, 98
packagi ng, 1 43
pai nts, 1 06, 1 1 0,
1 37-1 39
percept i on, 99,
1 1 8-1 24
photography, 1 44- 1 47
posi ti ve, 1 44
pri mary, 1 04
psychol ogi cal
response, 98, 1 00,
1 26
psychophysi cal con-
cept, 98, 1 0 1 , 1 28
puri ty, 1 02, 1 28
reproducti on, 1 45
scal es, 1 03
sensati on, 1 00, 1 01 ,
1 02
separati on, 1 45, 1 46
standards, 1 1 2, 1 1 7
symbol i s m of, 1 33,
1 36, 1 43
systems, 1 25- 1 32
tel evi si on, 1 09,
1 501 51
temperature, 1 4, 1 6,
1 7
t i nt s, 1 34
tones, 1 34
transmi ssi on, 1 1 0,
1 1 1
transparency, 1 45,
1 46
val ue, 1 26
Col or bl i ndness,
1 1 3-1 1 7
Col or photography,
1 44-1 47
Col or tel evi si on, 1 09,
1 501 51
Col orant, 1 1 0, 1 1 1 , 1 40
Col ored after i mage,
1 23, 1 24
Col ored fi l ter 1 1 0, 1 1 1 ,
1 45
Col or i meters, 83, 1 1 2,
1 30
Commi ssi on l nter
nati onal e de
I ' Ecl ai rage ( CI E) ,
see I nternat i onal
Commi ssi on on
I l l umi nati on
Compl ementary hues,
1 05, 1 07, 1 32, 1 34,
1 35
Compound l enses 71
Compound mi croscope,
77
1
Cones, eye, 86-88, 1 1 3,
1 1 8
Constructive inter-
ference, 48-49
Contact l enses, 69, 70
Convergence, 91
Convergi ng l enses, 68,
69
Cooper-Hewitt mercury
arc, 1 9
Cornea, 70, 84, 85
Cri ti cal angl e, 44, 1 55
Crystal s, doubl e
refracti ng, 55
Dark chamber, 79
Darkness, 35
Dayl i ght, 3 1 , 1 31
Depth, 91 -93, 94
Descartes, 98
Destructi ve i nter-
ference, 48-49
Devel oper, 1 44, 1 46
Di chromati sm, 1 1 3,
1 1 5, 1 1 6
Di fracti on, 36, 46-7,
50, 77
grati ngs, 58, 62-63
Di fuse refl ecti on, 35,
39, 1 37
Di mi ni shi ng gl ass, 66
Di opter, 65
Di scordant col ors, 1 34,
1 35
Di spersi on, 45, 62, 63,
66
Di stance, 91 , 94, 95
Di sti nctness, 91 , 93
Di vergi ng l enses, 68, 69
Dove pri sm, 60
Dufaycol or fi l m, 1 45
Dyes, 1 1 0, 1 401 41 ,
1 44, 1 45, 1 46
Earth, 21
Edi son, Thomas, 1 8
Ei nstei n,
.
energy equati on, 7
theory of rel ati vi ty, 7
Ektachrome f i l m, 1 46
El ectrol umi nescence, 28
El ectromagneti c waves,
8-1 1 , 1 51
El ectron beam, 77, 1 50
El ectron mi croscope, 77
El evati on, 91 , 92
Emoti onal efects of
col or, 1 33, 1 36
Emul si ons, 1 44, 1 45
Energy, radi ant, 8, 1 4,
1 5, 27, 29, 98, 1 00,
1 53
1 bb
Enl argers, 77, 78
Eye, 29, 30, 8497, 1 09,
1 1 3, 1 1 8
Eyegl asses, 6869, 70
Eyepiece, mi croscope,
77
opera gl asses, 72
refract i ng tel escope,
73
spygl ass, 72
Fahrenhei t temperature,
1 4
Farsi ghtedness, 68
Fi ber opti cs, 1 551 56
Fi l ament l amp, 1 8, 1 9,
22, 23
Fi l m, photographi c, 30,
31 , 78, 79, 80, 8 1 ,
1 46, 1 47
Fi l ter, col ored, 1 1 0,
1 1 1 , 1 45
pol aroi d, 54
Fi xi ng process,
photography, 1 44
Fl uorescence, 28, 52
Fl uorescent l amp, 1 9,
23, 25, 2627
f- number, 80
Focal l ength, 64; 77, 80
Focal poi nt, 59, 64, 65
Focus, 68, 70, 74, 76,
78, 79, 81 ' 84, 85
Four-col or separati ons,
1 49
Fovea, 86, 87, 89, 1 1 4,
1 1 8
Fraunhofer, Joseph, 62
l i nes, 1 2-1 3, 21
Frequency, 8, 1 0, 1 1
Ful l - col or reproducti on,
1 49
Gabor, Denni s, 1 54
Gal i l eo, 37, 72
Gamma rays, 9
Gangl i a, eye, 87
Geometri cal opti cs, 58
Gl are, 54
Gl ass fi ber bundl e,
1 55, 1 56
Gl ow tube, 1 9, 2425,
26
Grati ngs, di fracti on,
58, 62-63
Gravure, pri nti ng, 1 48
Hal e tel escope, 74
Harmoni ous col ors,
1 33, 1 34, 1 35
Heat rays, 1 0
Hol ography, 1 54
Hol ogram, 1 54
Hue, 1 00, 1 01 -1 1 2, 1 1 5,
1 26, 1 27, 1 32, 1 34,
1 35, 1 36
I l l umi nance, 33, 34
I l l umi nati on, 29-35
76, 77, 78, 93, 99,
1 20, 1 22, 1 41
el ectri c, 23
I l l usi ons, 90, 96 97
I mage sharpness, 77
I mages, 58, 64, 67, 76,
77, 78, 1 08, 1 44,
1 45, 1 55; see also,
real i mage, vi rtual
i mage
I ncandescent fi l ament
l amp, 1 2, 1 8, 1 9,
22-23, 1 3 1
I nci dent fl ux, 33
I nci dent l i ght, 36, 41 ,
43, 44, 52, 57
I nfrared radi ati on, 9,
1 0, 1 5, 27
I nheri tance, col or
bl i ndness, 1 1 5
I ntagl i o, 1 48
I ntensi ty of l i ght, 1 5,
30, 32, 33, 82, 99
I nterference, 36, 489,
50
I nter nal refl ecti on, 44,
60, 76
I nternati onal Commi s
si on on I l l umi na
ti on ( Commi ssi on
l nternati onal e de
I ' Ecl ai rage-CI E) ,
1 1 7, 1 30; see also
CI E system
I nternati onal standard
i zed l i ght sources,
1 7
I r i descent col ors, 49
I ri s, 84, 85
Kel vi n temperature, 1 4
Kodachrome f i l m, 1 46
Land, Edwi n, 56
camera ( Pol aroi d) ,
1 47
Lasers, 1 52-1 53, 1 54
Latent i mage, 1 44
Lens, opt i cal , 58, 64-81
aberrati ons, 67
achromati c, 66
camera, 79, 80, 81
chromati c aberra-
ti on, 66, 67
compound, 71
condensi ng, 78
contact, 69, 70
convergi ng, 64
correcti ng, 15
curved gl ass, 64
cyli ndri cal , 70
di vergi ng, 66, 69
doubl e-concave, 66
doubl e-convex, 64
equi concave, 66
mi croscope, 7 1 , 77
negati ve, 66, 69
negati ve meni scus,
66
obj ecti ve, 7 1 , 73, 76
ocul ar, 76, 77
pl anoconcave, 66
pl anoconvex, 64
pos i t i ve, 64, 68, 69,
73, 77
pos i t i ve meni scus, 64
proj ector, 78
spheri cal aberrat i on,
67
tel ephoto, 71
lens, eye, 68, 69, 70,
84-85, 88, 93
letterpress, 1 48
li ght
absorpti on, 36, 51 ,
54, 99, 1 1 0, 1 39
behavi or, 36-57
bri ghtness, 32-33,
91 , 93, 1 00, 1 03,
1 20, 1 33
conductors, 1 55
di fracti on, 36, 467,
50, 77
di spersi on, 45, 62,
63, 66
enteri ng the eye, 87
i nci dent, 36, 41 , 43,
44, 52, 57
i ntensi ty, 1 5, 30, 32,
33, 82, 99
i nterference, 36,
489, 50
measurement, 6, 29,
30, 33
meter, 29
monochromati c, 1 3,
1 0 1 , 1 02, 1 04, 1 07,
1 1 2, 1 52, 1 53
photons 24, 25, 86
pol ari :ed, 53-56, 57
rays, 57, 67, 78, 81 ,
84, 98
refl ected, 35, 36,
39-1 , 44, 49, 50,
54, 58, 60, 98, 99
refract i on, 36, 40,
42-43, 57, 58, 60
scatteri ng, 21 , 36,
50, 54, 99
seei ng, 84
sources, 1 7, 1 8-28, 63
speed of, 7, 37-38,
42, 43
transmi ssi on, 36, 1 55
vi si bl e, 1 0
waves, 6, 8, 9, 1 0, 1 1
whi te, 1 3, 1 7, 45, 1 00,
1 02, 1 05, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2
li ght and col or, as
tool s, 1 33-1 56
nature of, 4- 1 7
l i ghtness, 35, 1 03
l i notype, 1 48
l i ppershey, Hans, 72
l i thography, 1 48-1 49
lumens, 33
l umi nance, 32, 33, 1 02,
1 03, 1 28, 1 52, 1 53
lumi nescence, 28
l umi nosi ty, 30, 1 1 4
l umi nous fl ux, 33
lux measure, 33
Macul a l utea, eye, 86
Magni fi cati on, 65, 71 ,
73, 76, 77
Magni fi er,
pocket doubl et, 71
si mpl e, 64
Measurements, 6, 29,
30, 33
Mercury arc, 1 9, 26
Metric system, 6
Mi chel son, Al bert A. , 38
Mi croscope, 64, 71 , 77
Mi rrors, 41 , 44, 58-59,
6 1 , 64, 67, 74, 75,
77
Monochromati c l i ght,
1 3, 1 0 1 , 1 02, 1 04,
1 07, 1 1 2, 1 52, 1 53
Monochromat i sm, 1 1 3,
1 1 4
Monochromator, 63
Monochrome tube, 1 50
Monocul ar cues, 95
Moonl i ght, 86
Mordant, 1 40
Mosai c addi t i ve col or
mi xi ng, 1 50
Mosai c fusi on, 1 0, 1 51
Mosai c system fi l m, 1 45
Moti on, 91
paral l ax, 94, 95
Mul t i l ayer f i l m, 1 46,
1 47
Munsel l , Al bert, H. , 1 26
col or system, 1 25,
1 261 27, 1 30
Muscl es, ci l i ary, 85
Nati onal Bureau of
Standards, 1 27
Nearsi ghtedness, 66, 69
Negati ve l enses, 66, 69
Neon, 1 9, 2425
Newton, Si r I saac, 45
Newtoni an tel escope,
74
Ni col pri sm, 57
Non- coherent l i ght
waves, 49, 1 52
Nucl ear energy, 1 8
Obj ecti ve l ens, 7 1 , 76
Ofset l i thography, 1 49
Opera gl ass, 72
Opti c axi s, 59, 64
Opt i c chi asma, 88, 89
Opti c nerve, 85, 86, 87,
88, 89, 90
Opti cal i l l usi on, 90,
9697
Opt i cal i nstruments
58-83
Opti cal Soci ety of
Ameri ca, 5
Organi c dyes, 1 41
Ostwal d col or system,
1 25, 1 281 29, 1 30
Pai nts, 1 06, 1 1 0,
1 37-1 39
Parabol i c mi rror, 58, 75
Parabol oi dal mi rror,
74, 75
Paral l ax, 94, 95
Paschen spectrograph,
63
Penumbra, 34
Percepti on, 32, 35, 90,
94, 95, 96, 99,
1 1 8-1 24
Peri scopes, 60, 1 55
Perspect i ve, 91
Phosphorescence, 28,
52
Phosphors, 52
Photoel ectri c cel l , 80
Photography, 56, 71 ,
78, 79-81 , 92, 95,
1 44-1 47
Photometers, 29, 82
Photometri c uni ts, 33
Photometry, 32
Photons, 24, 25, 86, 1 53
Photosphere, 21
Photo-typesett i ng, 1 48
Pi gments, 87, 1 06, 1 1 0,
1 1 8, 1 37-1 39
Pi nhol e camera, 79
1 59
1 0
Pl ane mi rror, 58
Pl ane of vi brati on, 54
Pol acol or fi l m, 1 47
Pol ariscope, 55
Pol ari zati on processes,
36, 57
Pol ari zed l i ght, 5356,
57
Pol aroi d, 54, 56, 57
Land camera, 1 47
Posi ti ve l enses, 64,
68-9
Posi ti ve transparency,
1 45
Presses, hi gh- speed,
1 48
Pri mary col ors, 1 04
Pri nti ng, 1 48, 1 49
Pri sms, 55, 58, 601 ,
62, 63, 76
Proj ectors, 77, 78
Pupi l , eye, 84, 85
Puri ty of col or, 1 02, 1 28
Radi ati on, 9, 1 0, \ \ , 1 4,
1 5, 22, 26, 1 53
detectors, 29, 90
pyrometry, 21
Rai nbow, 4, 5, 98
Real i mage, 58, 59, ,65,
66, 77, 1 54
Refl ect i ng tel escopes,
74
Refl ecti on, 35, 36,
39-1 , 44, 49, 50,
57, 58, 60, 98, 99
Refl ectors, 6 1 , 71 , 74,
78
Refracti ng tel escopes,
73
Refracti on, 36, 40,
42-3, 57, 58, 60,
98
Refracti ve i ndex, 42,
43, 45, 57, 60
Refractors, 71
Regul ar refl ecti on, 39,
1 37
Resol vi ng, 1 09
Reti na, 84, 86, 87, 88,
89, 90, 91 , 1 09, 1 1 8
Reti nene, 86
Rhodopsi n, 86
Ri dgway, Robert, \ Z
Rods, eye, 86, 1 1 8
Roemer, Ol af, 37, 38
Rotogravure, 1 48
Rowl and, Henry A. ,Z
Sacchari meter, 54
Saturati on, 1 00, 1 0 1 ,
1 02, 1 03, 1 1 5, 1 26,
1 34, 1 35, 1 36
Scatteri ng, 2 1 , 36, 50,
57, 99
Schmi dt camera, 75
Screen, projector, 77, 78
Sensati on of si ght, 90,
98, 1 03
Senses, 4, 1 0, 90, 1 00
Shadowgrams, 9
Shadows, 34, 98, 1 22,
1 33
Si l ver hal i de crystal s,
1 44, 1 45
Si mul taneous col or
contrast, 1 2 1 , 1 24
Si ze, known ( or
i magi ned} , 94
Sodi um, spectrum of,
25
vapor l amps, 25
Sound, speed of, 7
Spectrograph, 5, 1 2,
61 , 63
Spectrometer, 61
Spectroscopes, 63
Spectrum, 5, 1 01 3, 25,
62, 98, 1 1 7
Spheri cal aberrati on,
67, 75
Spreadi ng efect,
col ors, 1 24
Spygl ass, 72
Standard i l l umi nati on,
1 41
Standard l i ght sources,
1 7, 83, 1 1 7
Standard l umi nosi ty
curve, 29, 30, 1 30
Stars, col or-temperature
cl assi fi cati on, 1 6
Stereo camera, 95
Subtracti ve col or mi x
i ng, 1 06, 1 1 0-1 1 1 ,
1 1 2, \ 39
Successive afteri mages,
1 24
Sun, 1 5, 2021
Sunl amp, 26
Sunl i ght, 1 3, 1 7, 21 , 98,
99, 1 3 1
Suntan, 9
Superposi ti on, 91 , 92
Surface i l l umi nati on, 34
Suspensory l i gament,
eye, 85
Symbol i sm of col or,
1 33, 1 36, 1 43
Tel ephoto l ens, 73
Tel escope, 64, 72, 75, 76
refracti ng, 73
refl ect i ng, 74
Tel evi si on, col or, 1 09,
1 50-1 51
Temperature, 1 4
col or, 1 4, 1 6, 1 7
Terrestri al tel escope, 72
Thermal rays, 1 0
Thermopi l e, 29
Tourmal i ne, 53, . 54, 56
Transmi ssi on of l i ght,
36
Transparency, col or
fi l m, 1 45, 1 46
Tri chromat, 1 1 3, 1 1 4
Tri pl e mi r ror, 61
Tungsten l amps, 22, 77,
78
Ul travi ol et rays, 9, 1 5,
26, 27
Umbra, 34
Un i versal constant, 7
Unsaturated col ors, 1 36
Vi rt ual i mage, 58, 59,
65, 66, 77, 1 54
Vi si on, 84-97
col or, 98-1 1 7, 1 1 8-
1 24
Vi sual purpl e, 86
Vi treous humor, 84
Water waves, di frac-
ti on of, 46
Wave crests, 8, 9, 48
Wavel ength, defi ni
t i on, 9
domi nant, 1 01 , 1 1 2,
1 28, 1 30
of i nfrared rays, 1 1
of l i ght, 1 0, 39, 46,
77
of vi si bl e rays, 1 1
Wel sbach gas mantl e,
1 8, 1 9
Whi te l i ght, see Li ght
X- rays, 9
Yel l ow spot, eye, 86
L