Appendix A The Mooresville Disaster Action Team (D.A.T.

) of the American Red Cross is responsible for responding to emergencies that impact citizens in the Lake Norman area. There are many emergencies which would require a D.A.T. to mobilize and meet the emergency needs of affected citizens that have experienced disasters ranging from fires to floods, tornadoes, straight line winds, snow or ice. There are 4 D.A.T.s that are based out of Mooresville and each team is comprised of 7 people who are both volunteer and full time personnel. The volunteers are on call one week per month while the full time personnel are either on duty or on call 24 hours a day 7 days per week. I am a volunteer and am required to carry a pager during the 3rd week of every month. Norms and Roles Some of the critical and peripheral norms within our Disaster Action Team at the Mooresville chapter of American Red Cross are: Critical Norms 1. Every member is expected to arrive at meetings on time. 2. Every member is expected to wear an American Red Cross T-Shirt when responding to a disaster so we can be easily identified by affected citizens, media and each other. 3. During the meetings, individual and smaller group roles for the week are assigned, clarified and practiced to ensure maximum efficiency. 4. Every member is expected to complete official American Red Cross training for the different roles the Disaster Action Team performs. 5. Every member is required to carry a pager 24 hours a day for the entire week her or him is on call. 6. Every member is expected to arrive at the Mooresville chapter of the American Red Cross within one hour of being paged about a local disaster. Therefore, during the weeks we are on call, we

are expected to limit our travels to locations that dont exceed 45 miles from the Mooresville chapter. 7. Every group member is required to complete the required training in order to operate the Emergency Response Vehicle (ERV) within one year of initial service in the event that the assigned ERV operator is injured during deployment or fails to respond to the initial dispatch. Peripheral Norms 1. Every member is expected to dress and act in a professional manner during meetings and while dispatched to an emergency (e.g. clean uniform, treat each other and the public with respect, etc.) 2. Prior to our scheduled meetings, coffee and snacks are available for group members. 3. When a new member joins a group, they are asked to speak about who they are and why they joined the Disaster Action Team. 4. After the conclusion of our regularly scheduled meetings group members stay after and chat about issues not related to the Disaster Action Team for about 20 minutes. 5. During meetings, the group sits in chair arranged in a circle and speakers speak and respond in a clockwise manner. 6. When not dispatched to an emergency, group members identify each other on a first name basis. However, when the group is responding to an emergency, we identify each other formally (Mr. or Ms. so and so). 7. Whenever the group meets or is dispatched, we never discuss religion or politics. Roles that are Evident 1. Howard is the most senior full time employee of our team and he is the appointed leader. 2. Sherry is a volunteer and had been a nurse for 15 years. Therefore, Sherry is in charge of triage. 3. Although I am not the most senior member, nor am an employee of the American Red Cross, due to my communication background whenever members of the press are at the scene of a disaster, I am responsible for speaking to sending the message as a representative of the Red Cross. 4. The person responsible for driving the Emergency Response Vehicle is either the leader or the most senior employee or volunteer on the team.

5. Kim is a licensed counselor so she provides grief and loss counseling to affected citizens. 6. The men do all of the heavy lifting. Cohesion Overall our Disaster Action Team has a high level of cohesion. We have all been together for over 2 years and have responded to a wide variety of emergencies ranging from tornados, floods and fires. We know what roles we play and where the expertise lies in our teammates. We meet both inside the realm of our group responsibilities as well as privately. We are a team. We have been guilty of groupthink on several occasions. I recall one occasion when Bruce a retired engineer was examining a mobile home that was damaged by a tornado and I thought the structure looked unsafe. I didnt say anything because I figured Bruce is the engineer and he knows what he is doing. Unfortunately, some drywall broke loose and fell on Bruces head. Although he was wearing a helmet, Bruce did suffer a concussion. At our debriefing meeting, Howard reaffirmed the need for team members to voice any concerns we have that may or may not affect the safety of fellow teammates or the public. Had I not known that Bruce was an expert in the field of structural engineering, I would have been more likely to point out the dangers of the building that Bruce couldnt see from his position. Bruces injury occurred over a year ago and we still refer to it when any of us feel that our teams communication is declining and we are settling into a rut.

Appendix B Diversity

My Disaster Action Team at the Mooresville chapter of the American Red Cross is a very diverse team. Our team crosses gender, generational and racial boundaries. Although we all have a large amount of respect for one another, the diversity does bring some challenges. For example, when someone has a new idea that challenges an old way of performing a task, there is a preference to perform a task the old way. Additionally, the gender diversity has resulted in tasks being assigned to women that are traditionally thought of as female friendly (e.g. women console grieving or panicked victims). Furthermore, the team has assigned roles according to racial stereotypes as well. On one occasion, Howard sent LeShawn (an African American Volunteer to comfort a bleeding black woman who just lost her home in a fire. LeShawn did what she was told and after LeShawn received medical attention and was calm, LeShawn found the nearest trash can and vomited for 10 minutes. Apparently, LeShawn lost her brother in a fire when she was a child and the event brought up some painful memories that obviously had a physical impact. Howard admitted to sending LeShawn to the victim because she shared the same race and gender as the victim. Howard recognized how his gender assumptions negatively impacted a team member and vowed to be more sensitive to the needs of the team. Specifically, he would intentionally avoid assigning roles along racial and gendered stereotypes. However, the men still do all of the heavy lifting. Although the incident with LeShawn was unfortunate, diversity has enhanced the effectiveness of our team. On one occasion we were responding to an apartment fire in Mooresville and we had to provide temporary housing to four low income families. When we provide housing to families, we typically have 3 or four hotels in the area that we send them to. That particular evening I was in charge of assigning homeless victims of the fire to a hotel. I picked the closest hotel (4 miles away) and began writing vouchers when Rosemary (an African American woman in her 60s asked one of the families if they relied on public transportation. They indicated that public transportation is how both the mother and father commute to work. Rosemary then informed me that there is no bus service to the hotel that I picked. When Rosemary was younger, she was struggling financially and had to commute to and from work via the bus. She was familiar with the challenges that relying on public transportation held. I thanked her and immediately and found a hotel that was on the bus line. Rosemarys experience and knowledge helped me provide the quality care that I endeavor to give as a Red Cross volunteer.

Appendix C Verbal and Nonverbal Communication, Listening Verbal Communication

There are many types of verbal communication in the Disaster Action Team at the Mooresville chapter of the American Red Cross. The most prevalent type is task-orientated. Because the nature of our group is to provide immediate emergency response support to victims of tragic and sometimes fatal disasters, every group member needs to know her or his role, what to expect at a particular disaster and how to respond when the unexpected occurs. Fortunately, disasters are rare and the majority of time our team spends relates to role playing disaster scenarios and repetition of tasks. There is also process communication within our group. For example, the most experienced team members usually lead discussions when we practice. The experienced team members have earned the credibility and their experience adds tremendous value to our group. The entire team is intentionally positive when we speak to each other, victims and the public. Our leader, Howard continually reminds us that our function is to provide assistance to people that are experiencing an enormous amount of stress and are possibly in a state of shock. It is the responsibility of our team to remain sincere and positive. Howard insists that the process in how we communicate with others begins with how we communicate with ourselves. Narratives also play a large role in how our team verbally communicates with each other. For example, when our team is going over scenarios, we correlate our actions with past experiences and stories that have come to us through media and internal publications. Group Talk Our Disaster Action Team communicates in a vast amount of group talk roles. However, because our goal is to provide immediate assistance in a dynamic and stressful environment, the majority of our group talk falls into the task-orientated and role-defining types. However, when our team meets socially, socialemotional group talk and humor tend to prevail. Although our group is cohesive, if humor would be used more during role playing disaster scenarios perhaps the rehearsals wouldnt be so mundane. Sometimes, the role playing can be quite dry and boring and the team gets lulled into a lethargic funk. However, during an actual disaster, humor wouldnt be appropriate. Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication plays a huge role in our disaster team. Sometimes when we arrive at a disaster, weather, emergency sirens or other factors limit are ability to verbally communicate with one another. Therefore its imperative that our team plan for and overcome these outside variables that limit our capacity to communicate verbally. Regulation is most commonly used between us. Whether we are backing up the Emergency Response Vehicle to a scene or directing team members to specific locations, quite often, regulation is the only discernable channel of communication until the sirens stop or weather clears. Our team routinely practices these nonverbal directions during meetings so we understand each other when we are responding to a disaster. Our team also displays complementary nonverbal messages during a disaster. The victims are our main concern and we dont want to send any message to victims that would cause additional anxiety. Therefore, every disaster team member is expected to appear competent and confident when we are responding to an emergency, even if we are experiencing something horrific and out of the ordinary. During our initial training class (Disaster Services, an Overview), we are instructed to walk tall, speak with kindness and authority. This involves both posture and tone of voice. The largest barrier to active listening within our disaster team is its reliance on procedure. Quite often, we practice scenarios and when someone has a comment, the comment is dismissed because everyone is focused on getting through the drill. Howard, our leader, has recently implemented debriefing sessions following a drill. This has provided everyone with an opportunity to voice their concerns or questions to the group. Because our group is highly cohesive, we all know value each others opinions and engage in active listening more often than not. Appendix D Conflict and Teams In our disaster team we have two of the five approaches that prevail a great deal more than the other approaches. Ironically, they are on different ends of the spectrum and the choice to utilize one or the other depends on whether or not we are training or responding to a disaster. For the most part when our

team is responding to a disaster, we resolve conflict in a competing fashion with the victor of a given conflict being the person with the most power or status. The competing style of conflict management works while responding to a disaster because there is no place for bickering while serving the emergency needs of victims. Regardless if someone is right or wrong, the person who is entitled with making a decision has overall say and the right to temporarily end the conflict until after the team has concluded the response call. Once our response to a disaster is concluded, we drive back to the Mooresville American Red Cross building and debrief. Its at this time when any potential conflicts are addressed and collaboratively solved. In the time I have been with the team, there havent been any disagreements or conflicts that have taken a long time to resolve. If someone has an alternative way to approach a situation, his or her idea is tested while rehearsing for future disasters. If her or his plan is superior, then we attempt to master the modification and implement the change. Similar to our debriefing session after a disaster, during disaster response practice sessions, we use collaboration in order to resolve the conflict. Conversely, when we are dealing with victims, we strictly adhere to an accommodating conflict management style. Although a victim may react in a confrontational manner towards us, we are trained to understand that victims are not in a stable frame of mind and our job is to provide victims with as much certainty and resources that are available to us. We want them to win. So for us to lose a conflict and let them win an argument is actually a win for us. The multiple approaches we use to manage conflict work well for our team. The only time I think changing our conflict management style would be appropriate would be if an occasion came up where the immediate safety of a victim or team member were in jeopardy and there were no law enforcement around. To date, we have not arrived at a disaster site without the presence of law enforcement. Our whole team has to go below the line quite often when we are out on a call. As I stated earlier, victims of disasters are unpredictable and its our job to assess and provide for their immediate needs. Our team is responsible for discerning if the victim(s) need housing, food, transportation, communication with other loved ones who can help or provide support. Therefore when a victim acts irrational, we have to go below the line and find out why he she or they are really feeling anxious. To

describe one instance would be overkill as nearly every disaster we respond to requires our team to utilize that skill. The dominant types of power in our group are positional and expert. We have a strict chain of command that identifies our place in the hierarchy, roles and power. The expert power is displayed when circumstances on a response requires one of our group members with special knowledge or expertise to take charge (e.g. if there are medical issues that arise, the nurse on our team immediately takes charge of the situation). Teams Our team was a team before I began volunteering with the Red Cross. However, at first, I was considered an outsider and had to earn my place amongst the teammates. After about 6 months, I was considered one of the team. I have seen several people join our team and the assimilation process to include new teammates is consistent with my experience at 6 months. We are an enlightened team as the leader facilitates our meetings and we all contribute. Furthermore, we all help with the agenda and all of our needs are recognized by one another. I believe all teams can better themselves and evolve. Unfortunately some members of our team are intimidated by all of the new technology in our environment. Some of my team members dont even know how to check email and refuse to learn how. Therefore, I believe our team would evolve if we increased our digital media literacy level.

Appendix E Decision Making and Creativity Our uses disaster action team uses different decision-making methods depending on the situation. When we are dispatched on an actual emergency, our team operates through decision by authority. Although this is not the preferred decision-making style for any of our members, all of us agree that having a clear process and making quick decisions supersedes overthinking decisions that need to be made quickly. Once we have concluded a response, we debrief and meticulously analyze all of our decisions. However, in meetings and during disaster drills, our group operates in decision by ranking. We all agree that the time investment is worth the creativity that comes forward during this type of decision-making discourse.

I believe that the way our team currently makes decisions is the most effective for the tasks we have to perform because of the constraints we are under while responding to a disaster (e.g. heightened emotions, limited tangible resources and a short time frame to provide maximum service). Our team has fallen prey to groupthink. A great example of that can be found in Appendix A. Although we have experienced similar events in the past few years I have been a volunteer, the reasons for all of the group think incidents were identical. The high level of cohesion on our team fostered a lethargic and complacent mentality that produced negative results. We are a creative team when our disaster action team is not dispatched to an emergency. We continually evaluate current methods and endeavor to evolve them through brainstorming sessions and ranking. We attempt to implement all ideas in our drills until we perform new methods in harmony. Our team has no fear in revolutionize old methods that become outdated. In fact, next month, we are meeting about incorporating new technology into our communication wheel. That should be interesting. I believe that if our team would creatively incorporate social media and other new methods of technology then our group would become more creative and more effective.

Appendix F Leadership and Influence As disaster action team members we are all called to be leaders to the victims we serve. The leadership law that is most prevalent in our team is the law of legitimate options. When we encounter a victim of a disaster, he or she is experiencing high amount of uncertainty and anxiety. It is our job to provide resources. It would be a mistake for us to only have one option for a victim as she or he may feel trapped and additionally constrained by the lack of options. Therefore, we tend to have at least 5 options for any given scenario. On one occasion, our team responded to a tornado in Concord that destroyed several mobile homes. As usual, when our team arrived, the victims who lost homes were looking for options

about where they were going to sleep. I informed each family that we could arrange for a hotel room, provide transportation to family members that are able to house them, temporarily house them with a host family that has agreed to provide longer term shelter to disaster victims or shelter them in one of several churches that partner with the American Red Cross. Every family member was immediately relieved and surprised that they had options. The families chose a variety of the options and every family followed our lead and all of the victims eventually moved back to their original homes. In this case, I was the influencer and I have studied how influence impacts leadership for several years. Although I didnt know about the law of legitimate options, I was aware that when you give people choices, a proportional reduction in uncertainty and anxiety occurs. I do believe that my awareness of having multiple solutions contributed increased the effective result that occurred as I responded to the tornado disaster.

Appendix G Interview Questions 1. What is your name? 2. How long have you served as a Disaster Action Team member? 3. What is your Disaster Action Team member role? 4. Has there ever been an instance where something has gone wrong while dispatched to a disaster? If so, what happened, why do you think it happened and has the same circumstance ever reoccurred? 5. Has there ever been an instance where you have disagreed with a procedure or policy regarding training for potential disasters?

6.

If so, did you voice your opinion? If not, why?

7. If so, did you feel that your opinions were genuinely heard? 8. How do you feel about the pressure to learn new technology like email and social media from the leadership at the American Red Cross? 9. If you were the leader of your disaster action team, would there be anything that you would do differently?