Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jump to: navigation, search Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) is a channel model in which the only impairment to communication is a linear addition of wideband or white noise with a constant spectral density (expressed as watts per hertz of bandwidth) and a Gaussian distribution of amplitude. The model does not account for fading, frequency selectivity, interference, nonlinearity or dispersion. However, it produces simple and tractable mathematical models which are useful for gaining insight into the underlying behavior of a system before these other phenomena are considered. Wideband Gaussian noise comes from many natural sources, such as the thermal vibrations of atoms in conductors (referred to as thermal noise or Johnson-Nyquist noise), shot noise, black body radiation from the earth and other warm objects, and from celestial sources such as the Sun. The AWGN channel is a good model for many satellite and deep space communication links. It is not a good model for most terrestrial links because of multipath, terrain blocking, interference, etc. However, for terrestrial path modeling, AWGN is commonly used to simulate background noise of the channel under study, in addition to multipath, terrain blocking, interference, ground clutter and self interference that modern radio systems encounter in terrestrial operation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Channel Capacity o 1.1 Channel Capacity and Sphere Packing o 1.2 Achievability o 1.3 Coding Theorem Converse 2 Effects in Time Domain 3 Effects in Phasor Domain 4 See also 5 References
distributed and drawn from a zero-mean normal distribution with variance n (the noise). The Zi are further assumed to not be correlated with the Xi. The capacity of the channel is infinite unless the noise n is nonzero, and the Xi are sufficiently constrained. The most common constraint on the input is the so-called "power" constraint, requiring that for a codeword (x1,x2,...,xn) transmitted through the channel, we have: , where P represents the maximum channel power. Therefore, the channel capacity for the power-constrained channel is given by: Where f(x) is the distribution of X. Expand I(X;Y), writing it in terms of the differential entropy: But X and Z are independent, therefore: Evaluating the differential entropy of a Gaussian gives: Because X and Z are independent and their sum gives Y: From this bound, we infer from a property of the differential entropy that Therefore the channel capacity is given by the highest achievable bound on the mutual information: Where I(X;Y) is maximized when: Thus the channel capacity C for the AWGN channel is given by:
Consider a codeword of length n sent through the AWGN channel with noise level N. When received, the codeword vector variance is now N, and its mean is the codeword sent. The vector is very likely to be contained in a sphere of radius around the codeword sent. If we decode by mapping every message received onto the codeword at the center of this sphere, then an error occurs only when the received vector is outside of this sphere, which is very unlikely. Each codeword vector has an associated sphere of received codeword vectors which are decoded to it and each such sphere must map uniquely onto a codeword. Because these spheres therefore must not intersect, we are faced with the problem of sphere packing. How many distinct codewords can we pack into our n-bit codeword vector? The received vectors have a maximum energy of n(P + N) and therefore must occupy a sphere of radius . Each codeword sphere has radius . The volume of an n-dimensional sphere is directly proportional to rn, so the maximum number of uniquely decodeable spheres that can be packed into our sphere with transmission power P is: By this argument, the rate R can be no more than .
[edit] Achievability
In this section, we show achievability of the upper bound on the rate from the last section. A codebook, known to both encoder and decoder, is generated by selecting codewords of length n, i.i.d. Gaussian with variance P and mean zero. For large n, the empirical variance of the codebook will be very close to the variance of its distribution, thereby avoiding violation of the power constraint probabilistically. Received messages are decoded to a message in the codebook which is uniquely jointly typical. If there is no such message or if the power constraint is violated, a decoding error is declared. Let Xn(i) denote the codeword for message i, while Yn is, as before the received vector. Define the following three events: 1. Event U:the power of the received message is larger than P. 2. Event V: the transmitted and received codewords are not jointly typical. 3. Event Ej: (Xn(j),Yn) is in , the typical set where , which is to say that the incorrect codeword is jointly typical with the received vector. An error therefore occurs if U, V or any of the Ei occur. By the law of large numbers, P(U) goes to zero as n approaches infinity, and by the joint Asymptotic Equipartition Property the same applies to P(V). Therefore, for a sufficiently large n, both P(U) and P(V) are each less than . Since Xn(i) and Xn(j) are independent for , we have that
Xn(i) and Yn are also independent. Therefore, by the joint AEP, P(Ej) = 2 n(I(X;Y) 3).
This allows us to calculate , the probability of error as follows:
Therefore, as n approaches infinity, goes to zero and R < I(X;Y) is a code of rate R arbitrarily close to the capacity derived earlier.
3. Therefore there
Let Pi be the average power of the codeword of index i: Where the sum is over all input messages w. Xi and Zi are independent, thus the expectation of the power of Yi is, for noise level N: And, if Yi is normally distributed, we have that Therefore,
Because each codeword individually satisfies the power constraint, the average also satisfies the power constraint. Therefore Which we may apply to simplify the inequality above and get: Therefore, it must be that . Therefore, R must be less than a value arbitrarily close to the capacity derived earlier, as .
Zero-Crossings of a Noisy Cosine In serial data communications, the AWGN mathematical model is used to model the timing error caused by random jitter (RJ). The graph to the right shows an example of timing errors associated with AWGN. The variable t represents the uncertainty in the zero crossing. As the amplitude of the AWGN is increased, the signal-to-noise ratio decreases. This results in increased uncertainty t.[1] When affected by AWGN, The average number of either positive going or negative going zero-crossings per second at the output of a narrow bandpass filter when the input is a sine wave is:
Where
f0 = the center frequency of the filter B = the filter bandwidth SNR = the signal-to-noise power ratio in linear terms
AWGN Contributions in the Phasor Domain In modern communication systems, bandlimited AWGN cannot be ignored. When modeling bandlimited AWGN in the phasor domain, statistical analysis reveals that the amplitudes of the real and imaginary contributions are independent variables which follow the Gaussian distribution model. When combined, the resultant phasor's magnitude is a Rayleigh distributed random variable while the phase is uniformly distributed from 0 to 2. The graph to the right shows an example of how bandlimited AWGN can affect a coherent carrier signal. The instantaneous response of the Noise Vector cannot be precisely predicted, however its time-averaged response can be statistically predicted. As shown in the graph, we confidently predict that the noise phasor will reside inside the 1 circle about 38% of the time; the noise phasor will reside inside the 2 circle about 86% of the time; and the noise phasor will reside inside the 3 circle about 98% of the time.[1]
[edit] References
Look up Additive white Gaussian Noise in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 1. ^ a b McClaning, Kevin, Radio Receiver Design, Noble Publishing Corporation