Fiberglass Tank & Piping Fundamentals By Sullivan D.

Curran PE Fiberglass reinforced thermosetting plastic (fiberglass) first became a viable alternative to protected steel, stainless steel and exotic materials in 1950. That year centrifugal cast fiberglass piping was first used in the crude oil production industry as a solution to corrosion problems. It was during the 1960s that manufacturers began to develop nationally recognized standards and test methods for fiberglass storage and fiberglass piping systems. Today, there are a number of nationally recognized standards and specifications for fiberglass tanks and fiberglass piping. While there are standards developed for military applications, e.g., MIL standards for helicopter rotor blades, following is a list of civilian organizations with published standards and specifications: Fiberglass Civilian Organizations Tanks & Piping

API American Petroleum Institute ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Material AWWA American Water Works Association FM Factory Mutual Research NSF National Sanitation Foundation UL Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

What is Fiberglass? Fiberglass tanks and fiberglass piping contain glass fiber reinforcement embedded in cured thermosetting resin, hence the term Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) describes the fiberglass material system. This composite structure typically contains additives such as pigments and dyes. By selecting the proper combination of resin, glass fibers, additives and design, the fabricator can create a product that meets the equipment designers performance standard. Glass Fibers: All fiberglass begins as individual filaments of glass drawn from a furnace of molten glass. Many filaments of glass are formed simultaneously and gathered into a strand and a surface treatment sizing is added to maintain fiber properties. Glass fibers are designed for several applications, some of which are for applications in an acid, alkali or other chemical environment. The mechanical strength of a fiberglass product depends upon the amount, type and arrangement of glass fiber reinforcement within the material system and increases proportionally with the amount of glass fiber reinforcement. Resins: The second major component of fiberglass tanks and piping is the thermosetting resin system. Thermoplastic resin systems is one of two basic groups of resins, but is not used with glass fiber reinforcing. A comparison of the two resin systems is shown below:

Thermoplastics are resins that are normally solid at room temperature, but are softened by heat and will flow under pressure. Typical applications include household kitchenware, childrens toys, bottles and other common items. Thermosetting plastics are resins that undergo an irreversible reaction when cured in the presence of a catalyst. They cannot be re-melted and are insoluble.

Fiberglass products use only thermosetting resin systems of which there are two generic types, epoxy and polyester resins. The resin system is chosen for its chemical, mechanical and thermal properties. Epoxy resins are used primarily for the manufacture of small diameter piping, whereas

polyester resins are commonly used for large diameter piping and storage tanks. Polyester resins come in many variations with different properties to resist acids, caustics and high temperatures. Resistance to corrosion in aggressive environments is one of the primary reasons for specifying fiberglass tanks or piping. Typical types of corrosion do not affect fiberglass. This would include galvanic, aerobic, pitting and inter-granular corrosion which harms metals but not fiberglass. Although fiberglass resists a wide range of chemicals and temperatures, it requires the right design, fabrication and installation to match the appropriate application. For example, fiberglass may be subject to chemical attack from hydrolysis, oxidation, or incompatible solutions. However, the proper resin/glass matrix will address this chemical attack. Today, off-the-shelf or custom fiberglass tanks and fiberglass piping is used in corrosive environments and high pressure (e.g. 60 psi) process applications. These fiberglass systems are widely used in retail petroleum, exploration & production, chemical, municipal and industrial applications.

Fiberglass Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Tank & Piping Standards By Sullivan D. Curran PE Executive Summary The purpose of this paper is to provide the design engineer and those responsible for purchasing tanks and piping for use in aggressive environments with an understanding of the design, material system, fabricating methods and quality control standards for the manufacture of fiberglass products. While purchasing decisions are based on quality, service and price, this paper provides guidance on how to improve the quality and safety of fiberglass Reinforced Thermosetting Plastic (RTP) tanks and piping (i.e., pipe, fittings, and adhesives). There are many manufacturers of commonplace plastic and fiberglass products, but only a limited number of tank and piping manufacturers are equipped to meet recognized fabrication standards for design and construction. This list is further reduced to those manufacturers who have established Quality Control and Quality Assurance programs for their manufacturing facility, fabrication process and end product. Certain of these manufacturers voluntarily submit to third party conducted Quality Assurance programs. Two nationally recognized organizations have developed the most widely used programs for fiberglass FRP tank and piping manufacturers. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) have developed standards and conduct Quality Assurance programs for aboveground RTP tanks and underground FRP tanks and piping, respectively. ASME and UL Certified tanks and piping are each labeled with a uniquely numbered RTP-1 or UL stamp to signify their respective certifications. While not all fiberglass products produced by these ASME and UL qualified manufacturers (e.g., hoods, ducts, stacks, large diameter pipes) are ASME or UL labeled, the purchaser of these other products benefits from the overall qualifications necessary to meet the third party Quality Assurance program that is in place. The design engineer and those responsible for the purchasing of tanks and piping for application in an aggressive environment will likely place product quality high on their list of priorities. The specifying of ASME and/or UL third party qualified manufacturers should achieve this goal.

Further, by specifying this level of standard, the user is more likely to receive competitive quotations for like products. Finally, the Quality Assurance programs in place relieves the buyer of the costs associated with conducting plant inspections to ensure that the products meet their purchasing specification. Introduction Fiberglass reinforced thermosetting plastic (fiberglass) first became a viable alternative to protected steel, stainless steel and exotic materials in 1950. That year centrifugal cast fiberglass piping was first used in the crude oil production industry as a solution to corrosion problems. During the mid-50s developments in manufacturing with polyester and epoxy resins resulted in the application of fiberglass tanks and piping in the chemical industry. By the mid-60s fiberglass was accepted for the storage and handling of underground flammable and combustible liquids and industrial, municipal water, sewage and pulp and paper processing applications. It was during the 1960s that manufacturers began to develop nationally recognized standards and test methods for fiberglass storage and fiberglass piping systems. Today, there are a number of nationally recognized standards and specifications for fiberglass tanks and fiberglass piping. While there are standards developed for military applications, e.g., MIL standards for helicopter rotor blades, following is a list of civilian organizations with published standards and specifications:

Fiberglass Civilian Organizations Tanks & Piping APIAmerican Petroleum Institute ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials AWWAAmerican Water Works Association FMFactory Mutual Research NSFNational Sanitation Foundation ULUnderwriters Laboratories Inc.

Background ~ General Fiberglass tanks and fiberglass piping contain glass fiber reinforcement embedded in cured thermosetting resin, hence the term Reinforced Thermosetting Plastic (RTP) describes the fiberglass material system. This composite structure typically contains additives such as pigments and dyes. By selecting the proper combination of resin, glass fibers, additives and design, the fabricator can create a product that meets the equipment designers performance standard. Following is a discussion on the components of a fiberglass material system. Background ~ Glass Fibers Glass Fiber Types: All glass fibers begin as individual filaments of glass drawn from a furnace of molten glass. Many filaments of glass are formed simultaneously and gathered into a strand and a surface treatment sizing is added to maintain fiber properties. Glass fibers are designed for several applications, some of which are shown as follows:

Types Applications E-CR E C Acid Environment Alkali Resistance Chemical Resistance

Glass Fiber Forms: Glass fibers are manufactured for use by the tank and piping fabricator in the following forms:

Continuous Roving: Supplied as strands of glass fiber on a cylindrical spool. Typically used in filament winding and chop-gun spraying applications. Reinforcing Mats: Supplied as chopped strands held together with a resinous binder. Typically used for hand lay-up applications. Surface Veils: Supplied as light weight reinforcing mats to provide a resin rich smooth surface which increases corrosion resistance without the crazing that would occur in nonreinforced resin.

Glass Fiber Reinforcement: The mechanical strength of a fiberglass product depends upon the amount, type and arrangement of glass fiber reinforcement within the material system. Strength increases proportionally with the amount of glass fiber reinforcement. Following are three general types of fiber orientation:

Uni-directional: Glass fiber strength is greatest to forces applied in the direction of the fibers. Continuous strand filament winding incorporates this principle. Bi- directional:Some of the fibers are positioned at an angle to the rest of the fibers. An example is to change the direction of the filament winding at alternating levels within the tank or pipe laminate. Multi-directional: The fibers are positioned in near equal directions. Such arrangements are obtained with the use of chop- gun applications of continuous roving and reinforcing mats.

Background ~ Resins The second major component of fiberglass tanks and piping is the thermosetting resin system. Thermoplastic resin is one of two basic groups of resin systems, but is not used with glass fiber reinforcing. A comparison of the two resin systems is shown below:

Thermoplastics are resins that are normally solid at room temperature, but are softened by heat and will flow under pressure. Typical applications include household kitchenware, childrens toys, bottles and other common items. Thermosetting plastics are resins that undergo an irreversible reaction when cured in the presence of a catalyst. They cannot be re-melted and are insoluble.

Fiberglass products use only thermosetting resin systems of which there are two generic types, epoxy and polyester resins. The resin system is chosen for its chemical, mechanical and thermal properties. Epoxy resins are used primarily for the manufacture of small diameter piping, whereas polyester resins are commonly used for large diameter piping and storage tanks. Polyester resins come in many variations with different properties to resist acids, caustics and high temperatures.

Additional compounds are added to resins such as pigments, monomers (e.g., styrene, vinyl toluene) catalysts (e.g., organic peroxides), hardeners and accelerators. For example, catalysts are typically added to polyester resins to accelerate the curing action, whereas epoxy resins do not use catalysts. Resistance to Aggressive Environments Resistance to corrosion in aggressive environments is one of the primary reasons for specifying fiberglass tanks or piping. Typical types of corrosion do not affect fiberglass. This would include galvanic, aerobic, pitting and inter-granular corrosion which harms metals but not fiberglass. Although fiberglass resists a wide range of chemicals and temperatures, it requires the right design, fabrication and installation to match the appropriate application. For example, fiberglass may be subject to chemical attack from hydrolysis, oxidation, pyrolysis or incompatible solutions. The proper resin/glass matrix will minimize chemical attack. Industry Standards and Specifications Industry Segments Certain industry trade organizations have developed fiberglass tank and/or piping standards and specifications that are specific to their industry. In addition, certain third party organizations have developed standards and specifications that are applicable to several industries with similar corrosive environments. Following is a discussion of civilian fiberglass standards and specifications and their applications: Trade Association Standards & Specifications: Potable Water Pipelines The American Water Works Association (AWWA) maintains the following standards for small and large diameter pressure piping for potable water pipelines and tanks. Pipe C950-88Fiberglass Pressure Pipe Tanks D120-84 Thermosetting Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Tanks Petroleum Production & Exploration The American Petroleum Institute (API) maintains the following standards for high and low pressure crude oil and gases, and produced water (e.g., saline solutions) line piping, well drilling tubulars and oil field non-potable water tanks: Pipe Spec. 15HR Spec. 14LR R.P. 15TL4 TanksSpec. 12P Specification for High Pressure Fiberglass Line Pipe Specification for Low Pressure Fiberglass Line Pipe Recommended Practice for Care and Use of Fiberglass Tubulars Specification for Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks

Third Party Standards & Specifications: Flammable and C ombustible Liquids Storage and Handling Applications Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) is a nationally recognized third party testing laboratory that maintains performance standards. *UL testing and approval also involves the labeling of the product and a listing service. The listing service includes the periodic inspection of the manufacturing facilities as part of a quality assurance program. UL testing standards for fiberglass piping and tanks are shown below:

Pipe *UL 971 Tanks*UL 1316

Nonmetallic Underground Piping for Flammable Liquids Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Underground Storage Tanks for Petroleum Products

Chemical, Industrial and Pulp & Paper Applications The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) maintains standard specifications for the testing of fiberglass materials and the fabrication of fiberglass tanks and piping. The most commonly used standards are listed below: Pipe D 2997-90 D 2996-88 TanksD 4097-88 D 3299-88 D 4021-92 Centrifugally Cast Fiberglass (Glass-Fiber-Reinforced ThermosettingResin) Pipe Filament-Wound Fiberglass (Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting-Resin) Pipe Contact-Molded Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermoset Resin Chemical-Resistant Tanks Filament-Wound Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermoset Resin ChemicalResistant Tanks Glass-Fiber- Reinforced Polyester Underground Petroleum Storage Tanks

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) maintains standards for certain applications of fiberglass piping and storage tanks as shown below. In the case of the tank standard, ASME conducts a manufacturing facility and *tank certification program. This program includes the application of an ASME stamp on the tank and periodic quality assurance inspections by ASME inspectors. Pipe B31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refining Piping Tanks*RPT-1 Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Corrosion Resistant Equipment Quality Control & Quality Assurance Quality Control: The manufacture of fiberglass tanks and piping requires the control of materials and processing parameters to ensure consistency and reliability of the end product. Manufacturers maintain control by implementing a quality control program which includes raw materials inspection, vendor certification, in-process inspection, finished product inspection and testing. Quality Assurance: There is a second level of quality control known as a quality assurance program. This program may be conducted by a qualified outside party and should include the outside party evaluation of the quality control program in place to ensure that it will perform as intended. Finally, the outside party should conduct periodic unannounced plant inspections to verify the performance of the quality control program. Certification Programs General Typically a certification program includes the assignment of a unique identification number to each product manufactured. The manufacturer records all manufacturing, inspection and testing data for each unique number and maintains a filing system for possible future retrieval. There are two methods of certification, self and third certification. Self Certification Self certification is when the manufacturer certifies that the product meets a certain standard or specifications cited in the purchase order. The validity of the certification is based on the quality of the manufacturing process when the product was produced.

Third Party Certification Third party certification is when a qualified third party participates in the certification process and shares in the control of the unique numbers assigned to each product. Two examples of such programs for fiberglass tanks and piping are the UL Labeling and the ASTM Stamp quality assurance programs. UL labels are laminated onto each fiberglass tank, pipe and fitting for underground flammable and combustible liquid service. ASME RTP stamps are laminated onto aboveground tanks for chemical or other industrial service applications. The manufacturer pays for the third party certification service by first paying a fee to have the production facility and product approved or certified. Then there is an ongoing fee for the periodic plant inspections and the purchasing of UL labels or ASME stamps to certify that each product meets the standard setting organizations standard. As a result, there is an added cost to the manufacturer for the third party quality assurance program and product certification. However, the added product cost represents an overall savings to the end user. In terms of user costs, there are savings by minimizing design engineering, purchasing specifications, plant inspections and the longer trouble free life of a quality product. Third Party Certification of Aboveground Storage Tanks The ASME RTP-1 Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Corrosion Resistant Equipment standard applies to Reinforced Thermoset Plastic (RTP) vessels in corrosive and otherwise hazardous material service operating at pressures not to exceed 15 psig external and /or 15 psig internal above any hydrostatic head. The RTP-1 standard addresses the following requirements a fabricator must meet to be certified and manufacture tanks with a RTP-1 stamp. Shop Qualifications Each fabricating facility is surveyed by a team of ASME Inspectors who will conduct an inspection of the following capabilities: 1. Fabricators Facility and Equipment The qualification survey includes the general shop area and certain specific are i. e., raw material storage areas, resin mixing and dispensing, molds (e.g., tank heads) and laboratory equipment. 2. Personnel The fabricators organization shall include specific personnel designated for each of the following functions: Design and Drafting Quality Control Material Control Fabrication Laminators (i.e., a person who makes laminates) Secondary Bonders (i.e., a person who joins & overlays subassemblies) 3. Quality Control Program and Record System The fabricator shall establish and maintain a Quality Control Program for all phases of the fabricating process. This program includes a procedure that assures current designs and specifications are in place. A record keeping system shall be in place to provide a paper trail for all fabricating phases. 4. Materials Inspection Requirements The fabricator is required to conduct minimum inspections and testing of reinforcing material i.e., glass-fiber and resins and curing agents when received. These minimum procedures are cited in the standard.

5. Qualifications of Laminators and Secondary Bonders The Inspector will qualify laminators and secondary bonders based on their ability to produce demonstration laminates to meet all provisions of the standard. They shall be re-qualified every three years. 6. Demonstration of Capability The fabricator is required to produce demonstration laminates for each type of laminate the shop will use on vessels fabricated to the standard. This would include the production and testing of a filament wound vessel and hand lay-up and/or sprayup laminates using all glass-fiber mats and/or glass-fiber roving in the chopper-gun process. The latter two laminates are required for the fabrication of heads or when joining the subassemblies of vessels together. 7. Demonstration Vessel To complete this requirement the fabricator must have a comprehensive understanding of the standard. It involves the fabricators ability to design, execute drawings, qualify demonstration laminates, establish design values, qualify Laminators and Secondary Bonders and follow an effective Quality Control Program. After vessel testing it shall be sectioned to reveal the details and integrity of laminates and secondary bonds. 8. Materials Specifications The fabricator must use resins and glass-fiber reinforcements that meet the standard and were used in the qualification laminates. 9. Test and Analytical Methods The standard includes accepted test and analytical methods for physical mechanical properties. These include stress analysis methods and examination by using acoustic emissions in conjunction with a hydrostatic test. Accreditation An accredited fabricator is one who holds a current ASME RTP-1 Certificate of Authorization. The certificate is issued for a three year period for each shop location, after which time the shop must be re-certified. After initial accreditation, ASME will conduct a continuing audit program of the Quality Control Program i. e., a Quality Assurance program. Third Party Certification of Underground Storage Tanks & Piping Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) is an independent testing laboratory established to investigate materials, products, equipment, constructions and systems with respect to hazards affecting life and property. UL certification i.e., Listing is the largest nationally recognized testing laboratory and is often required by local and regional building codes for the storage and transfer of flammable and combustible liquids. Underground Storage Tanks UL 1316 Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Underground Storage Tanks for Petroleum Products standard applies to spherical or horizontal cylindrical atmospheric-type Reinforced Thermoset Plastic (RTP) tanks that are intended for the underground storage of petroleum- based flammable and combustible liquids, alcohols and alcohol-blended fuels. The UL 1316 standard addresses the following requirements a fabricator must meet to be certified and manufacture tanks with a UL Mark. Performance Standards The manufacturer must submit a representative tank to ULs testing facility for an engineering evaluation of the following components:

General Standards Lift lug strength, pipe connections, man-ways and other fittings are standardized for the installer.

Significant Performance Requirements Following is a summary of major performance requirements included in the UL testing protocol:

1. Internal Pressure Two internal pressure tests are performed on the demonstration tank. First, the tank is placed aboveground on a sand bed with no other support. It is then filled with water to capacity for one hour and shall show no damage. Second, the tank shall withstand without rupture an internal pressure 25 psig for 10 foot and 15 psig for 12 foot diameters, respectively. 2. External Pressure The demonstration tank is to be buried in a pit, filled with water and then subjected to an internal vacuum of 17.9 psig with out failure. 3. Aged Properties Coupons are cut from the demonstration tank and are aged at 158 degrees F in an oven for up to 180 days and must retain 80% of the original flexural and impact strength. 4. Impact and Cold Exposure Coupons are conditioned for 16 hours at 20 degree F and must retain 80% of their original flexural and impact strength. 5. Material Compatibility Coupons are cut from the demonstration tank and immersed in 100 degree F test liquids for up to 180 days and must retain 50% of their flexural and 30% of their impact properties. The immersion liquids include gasolines, heating fuels and gasoline blends up to 100% ethanol and methanol. Underground Piping UL 971 Underground Piping for Flammable Liquids standard applies to primary and secondary containment non-metallic pipe and fittings (piping) intended for use underground to transfer petroleum-based flammable and combustible liquids, alcohols, and alcoholblended fuels. The UL 971 standard addresses the following requirements a fabricator must meet to be certified and manufacture piping with a UL Mark. Performance Standards The manufacturer must submit a representative samples to ULs testing facility for an evaluation of the pipe, fittings and adhesives. 1. Internal Pressure Primary Piping Test samples are subjected to 1.5 million cycles at a rate of 23 cycles per minute. Following this test, the samples are subjected for five minutes to a hydrostatic pressure of two times the rated pressure and then for one minute at five times the rated pressure. 2. Bending Bending moment and bending load tests are conducted on pipe fittings threaded or bonded to the pipe and then tested for leaks. 3. Aged Properties Samples are tested essentially the same as for fiberglass tanks. 4. Impact and Cold Exposure Piping is tested before and after 16 hours of conditioning at minus 29 degrees F by dropping from a six foot height onto pavement and by dropping a steel ball on the piping. The piping then must then pass a leakage test. 5. Material Compatibility Immersion tests and test fluids are essentially the same as for fiberglass tank coupons.

6. Permeability Eighteen inch lengths of pipe are filled with the test fluids and sealed with end caps using the test adhesive or screwed fitting. The primary pipe and containment pipe are weighed over a 180 and 30 day period respectively, to determine if the test fluids permeate the materials. Accreditation An accredited (i.e., Listed) fabricator with Underwriters Laboratories has submitted a demonstration product to UL engineers who have conducted an investigation of the product for compliance with the UL 1316 or UL 971 standard. The registered UL Mark on a product is a means by which a manufacturer can show that UL approves the product as having met the standard test protocol and that the manufacturer participates in a third party quality assurance program. This program typically includes quarterly unannounced UL representative plant inspections of the manufacturers quality control program. Summary 1. Since the 1950s Fiberglass Reinforced Thermosetting Plastic (RTP) has developed as a proven material for tanks and piping applications in an aggressive environment. 2. The fabricator has many different glass-fiber, resin and additive RTP matrices from which to design the appropriate material system for the intended application. 3. Fiberglass standards and specifications are generally industry and/or application specific. An exception may be found with certain ASTM standards. 4. Product quality is an important factor when making a purchasing decision for the storage and transfer of aggressive materials. 5. Product quality assurance is attainable by: Buyers tight specifications and plant inspections Industry standards and self certification by the fabricator, or Third Party Standards and Quality Assurance Program 6. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) are the two nationally recognized organizations that have developed standards and conduct Quality Assurance programs for the manufacture of aboveground RTP tanks and underground tanks and piping, respectively. 7. Third party Quality Assurance Programs: Provide an objective standard Require management dedication to the quality process Result in a higher level of overall service and product quality for all fiberglass products produced at a qualified facility. 8. In the absence of third party quality programs the next best option is to fabricator . Fiberglass tank stds Rev2 May 1, 1997 know your

Fiberglass Pipe ~ Past, Present and Future By Sullivan D. Curran PE Today Fiberglass Reinforced Thermosetting Plastic ("FRP") is being used in many industrial product applications, including the storage and transfer of corrosive materials or the handling of other materials in corrosive environments. While FRP piping has a 30-year history, it is considered a modern day product material with many new emerging applications that take advantage of its corrosion resistance, strength-to-weight ratio, low maintenance and life cycle cost. This paper discusses the history of FRP piping, current applications of FRP pipe and emerging future technological advances for new applications in petroleum storage and handling facilities. Introduction Dont confuse FRP piping with ordinary thermoplastic piping like PVC and polyethylene. Those thermoplastic systems typically employ non-reinforced extruded pipe and injection-molded fittings and flanges. What strength they have comes from the sheer bulk of material. By contrast, FRP piping materials are manufactured by winding processes that employ epoxy resins reinforced with continuous glass filaments. The resins used are thermosetting i.e., they undergo irreversible chemical reactions as they cure, resulting in superior temperature capabilities, while the filament reinforcement makes the piping components mechanically far more capable than ordinary nonreinforced thermoplastics. The result is enhanced performance and lighter weight. Also, dont confuse hand "lay-up" with machine made FRP products. Hand lay-up manufacturers number in the thousands and include small shops which typically specialize in consumer products, such as bathroom vanities or pleasure boats. However, there are relatively few machine made pipe manufacturers. These are large manufacturers that mass produce on-the-shelf or custom piping for petroleum, commercial, industrial and municipal applications for both domestic and overseas markets. Machine made FRP can have a higher glass loading i. e., denser glass fiber filament/resin product which is more reproducible in a quality controlled environment. Therefore, this paper is limited to advancements made in machine made pipe and fittings that will have applications in the petroleum industry. Early Days In the early days, just after Colonel Drakes discovery near Titusville, Ohio, in 1859, no pipe was used at all! This early oil production was pumped directly into wooden barrels for shipment. The first pipes were made from wood and later replaced with steel. However, steel lines were rapidly corroded by the combination of salt water and sour sulfur crude. While FRP technology was developed during World War II, it was later when the first pipe was made from FRP by applying a glass fiber cloth and resin over a male mandrel by hand. This "hand lay-up" method was suitable for some chemical industry applications, but did not have the combination of strength and costeffectiveness necessary to replace steel in the petroleum industry. Machine Made Piping In the 1950s centrifugal casting was the first machine made method to produce pipe suitable for chemical and commercial applications and oil field gathering lines. Next a filament winding process was developed to manufacture pipe with tensioned glass fibers oriented to bear the combination of hoop and axial forces. Filament winding with a dual angle construction called for layers of glass fibers in a near axial orientation and resulted in developing high pressure (up to 2,000 psi) down hole tubing for producing wells. Some of these earlier FRP tubing strings remain in service after more than 35 years of production.

In the 1960s an efficient high volume continuous pipe production process was developed for small diameter pipe rated for pressures (up to 450 psi). Large scale use of this pipe began in 1964 and was primarily installed in two inch crude oil gathering lines. Codes and Standards Development In 1959 the first nationally recognized standards and test methods for FRP pipe were published by the American Society for Testing Materials ("ASTM"). This first specification was ASTM D1694, Standard Specification for Threads for Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe and developed by a group composed of representatives from fiberglass pipe manufacturers, oil companies and other industries. In 1968 the American Petroleum Institute ("API") published their first FRP pipe standard. This first API standard was API 15LR, Specification for Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Line Pipe. Today ASTM and API publish numerous standards, specifications and test methods for FRP piping. Today Today the use of FRP machine made piping has grown from its original major use in oil field gathering lines to applications ranging from handling flammable and combustible liquids at retail consumer facilities to sewer and water mains in the municipal and industrial markets. Following are examples of current FRP piping applications: In the oil and gas production industry, high pressure applications include 4,000 psi 4 inch pipe in oil field service, 2 to 16 inch pipes for water filtration projects in climatic conditions as cold as Alaska and as hot as the Persian Gulf, and a salt water/crude oil 12 inch pipeline operating at 290 psi at temperatures up to 120 F. Flammable and combustible liquid handling includes the underground piping of gasolines, gasolinealcohol mixtures and alcohols at most of the nations retail and commercial vehicle refueling facilities. Since FRP piping was Underwriters Laboratory Listed in the late 1960s, over 60 million feet have been successfully installed and serve the nations motoring public. While sewer and drainage piping continues to be dominated by concrete, there are many areas where FRP is the preferred choice. For example, concrete pipe deteriorates rapidly in sewage due to hydrogen sulfide attack. Hydrogen sulfide erodes the upper surface of the pipe and will eventually cause a cave-in. FRP is unaffected by hydrogen sulfide or purging with caustic or hypochlorite to suppress sulfide odor. As a result, FRP pipe has been used as a liner in large diameter (48 to 60 inches) concrete pipe. The Future Architectural and engineering firms are now able to use computer software programs developed to enhance the design of FRP piping systems. The program includes liquid flow analysis, gas flow analysis, free span analysis, thrust block design, chemical composition and installation information. The program makes it easy to step through complicated calculations and analysis when designing a new FRP piping system or for troubleshooting an existing FRP piping system. The oil and gas production industry will be requiring higher pressure rated and larger diameter piping to control corrosion problems in produced fluid lines (It is not uncommon to "produce" and treat seven barrels of water for each barrel of crude oil brought out of the ground). In addition to solving corrosion problems, FRP piping can be designed with a flame retardant additive to reduce flame spread for non-critical areas or in critical areas, be coated with an intumescent paint or insulated with an intumescent material i. e., the paint and coating expands to form an incombustible foam insulation. This latter system will maintain the serviceability of the piping for a minimum of three hours under flow conditions. FRP firewater protection piping is solving weight problems

when designing offshore oil production platforms. Weight savings in the design of a platform can save the owner from $2.00 to $4.00 per pound in construction costs by reducing the weight of the support structure (e.g., savings up to 750 tons). Trench-less Piping is a rapidly growing technology where micro-tunneling for new piping and sliplining for rehabilitating existing piping do not disturb roadbeds or other aboveground structures. Micro-tunneling: While tunnel boring has been used on large tunnel projects, micro-tunneling is a new application for trench-less piping. In micro- tunneling the FRP pipe is hydraulically jacked and pushes the cutter head through the substrata. It takes hundreds of tons of jacking pressure to push large diameter piping distances of hundreds of feet. For example, 18 inch diameter FRP pipe can be jacked at pressures up to 90 tons and nine foot diameter FRP pipe at pressures up to 1,750 tons. In the past, stainless steel sleeves have been used as a reinforcement around concrete pipe joints to withstand hydraulic jacking pressures. However, FRP sleeve joints are proving to be a costeffective replacement for stainless steel used in concrete pipe jacking. FR P pipe and joint systems are proving to be more cost effective than their concrete counterpart because of the smoother outside surface and lighter weight. These features significantly reduce the jacking pressure required and permit jacking longer runs than concrete, reducing installation costs and time. Slip-lining: Slip-lining is a trench- less method of rehabilitating an existing pipe with a minimum of excavation. New and rehabilitated sewer and drainage pipes are no longer limited to relatively small diameter FR P slip-lining methods. Centrifugal cast FRP pipe technology has advanced and yields a machinemade pipe with close outside diameter tolerances in diameters up to 96 inches. The light weight and smooth outer surface permits jacking the pipe inside an existing pipe, thus rehabilitating leaking concrete sewer pipes up to 102 inches i.e., nine feet in diameter. This system of rehabilitation minimizes the jacking pressures required to push the FRP pipe through the existing concrete pipe and is done even as sewage flow continues. For example, a trench-less project is underway to rehabilitate 6,000 feet of 102 inch sewer in Los Angeles with a minimum of excavation by using nine foot diameter FRP pipe. Chemical processing typically involves piping exposure to such chemicals such as acetone, methylene chloride, hydrochloric acid, ethylene dichloride, phenol, toluene, xylene, ethyl acetate and methyl acetate. Specialty metals such as titanium are typically used for resistance to such chemicals, but are prohibitively expensive. However, resin selection such as furan based materials are extremely solvent resistant and cost-effective. Petroleum Marketing Facility Applications Traditionally petroleum marketing facilities used steel piping which was low in cost and met the 2 hour 2,000 F fire code requirement for the handling of flammable and combustible materials. While retail facilities have adapted to new material advancements e. g., FRP underground tanks and piping and flexible connectors, distribution terminal designers and contractors have been slow to apply non-steel technologies. Following are several areas where the terminal facility designer should consider FRP piping applications: Underground Piping: Underwriters Laboratory has UL 971 Listed FRP piping for flammable and combustible service in diameters of 2, 3, 4 and 6 inches. The 1996 edition of NFPA 30 references UL 971 and permits

using these FRP pipe diameters in distribution terminals. While terminal designers prefer to locate steel piping aboveground for ease of environmental testing i.e., visual inspection rather than periodic pressure testing, the Uniform Fire Code revised their rule in 1995 and now require the installation of piping underground. Underground steel piping will require cathodic protection systems and its inherent periodic testing requirement. Therefore, a cost effective alternative to underground steel piping and cathodic protection is FRP pipe consistent with UL Listed diameters. Sewer and Drainage: Pollution prevention-related projects include containment, recycling, discharge reduction and sewage treatment. Concrete piping is not suitable for the handling of petroleum related effluent because of the high leakage rate in the pipe joining methods available, and steel piping will corrode underground. Large diameter FRP piping is available up to nine feet in diameter and designed with leak free joints. As described above, trench-less new or slip-lining rehabilitation piping methods are cost effective and provide a minimum of disruption in operations. Corrosive Chemicals: Today it is becoming more common to blend motor fuel additives at the terminal. Many of these additives are corrosive to traditional carbon steel. With blending systems located at the truck loading rack, underground piping is common and lends itself to FRP piping. Firewater Protection: Scale from internal corrosion of steel piping in a firewater protection system is known to plug nozzles and sprinkler heads. To combat the effects of corrosion and internal scaling, metallic systems require continuous maintenance. Even then, it is questionable how much of a metallic system is in an effective operating condition at a given moment. FRP fire resistant material systems are being developed and should prove to be cost effective in certain fire protection applications. References 1. Spring, 1996, Composites Institute article "FRP pipe finds its niche in specialty applications," Karen F. Lindsay 2. April, 1993, Ameron Fiberglass Pipe Division, Product literature 3. May, 1996, Smith Fiberglass Products Inc., NACE Materials Performance article "Thirty Years of Fiberglass Pipe in Oilfield Applications", Kenneth J. Oswald 4. April, 1996, HOBAS Pipe Inc., Case histories 5. February, 1996, Composites Institute Conference, "Development of Fire Resistant Fiberglass Pipe", paper by Joie L. Folkers, Ameron Fiberglass Pipe Division FR PipePastTdyFtr 6/96

Static Electricity in Fuel Handling Facilities

By Sullivan D. Curran PE, Executive Director Fiberglass Tank & Pipe Institute Scope Expertise to reduce the hazards associated with fires from an electrostatic discharge is based both on research and years of experience within the petroleum industry. This paper focuses on precautions taken when handling motor vehicle and aviation fuels that may accumulate electrostatic charges because of their relatively high electrical conductivity (i.e., less than 50 picosiemens per meter). Background Static electricity is generated by the separation of like or unlike bodies. For significant electrical charges to develop, the bodies must become and remain insulated with respect to each other. In the petroleum industry, the static charge results from contact and separation that takes place in a flowing liquid. Also, the rate of electrostatic generation in a pipeline or hose increases as the length increases. And in the aviation industry, the large surface area and small openings of micropore filters result in these filters being generators of static. Further, when the charged stream enters a container, charge separation occurs and will be induced on the tank wall. As a result, once a means of generating an electrostatic charge exists, it will be a source of ignition under the following three conditions:

The accumulated electrostatic charge is capable of producing an incendiary spark. There is a spark gap. There is an ignitable vapor-air mixture in the spark gap.

Storage Tanks, Containers and Vehicles is a discussion of common static electricity problem areas found in marketing distribution and aviation fuel Following handling facilities, and precautions to be taken. Underground fiberglass and steel storage tanks for motor vehicle fuels do not present a static ignition hazard provided that: the delivery hose nozzle is in metallic contact with the tank fill pipe or tight connections are used; the outside of a underground fiberglass tank or steel tank is in contact with a conducting medium (i.e., soil); and any accumulated charges are dissipated. Underground lined-steel tanks also store motor and aviation fuels. They are required for aviation gasoline and jet fuel service by the American Air Transport Association of America and major oil standards to minimize fuel contamination from rust and scale. As is the case for all-fiberglass tanks, this internal lining does not insulate the tank from the soil and accumulated charges are dissipated. Aboveground steel and fiberglass storage tanks , during filling, can develop a static charge between the liquid surface and tank shell or metallic fitting in a non-metallic tank (e. g., manhole). To minimize the risk: avoid splash filling; limit the velocity of the incoming stream; avoid ungrounded objects in the tank (e. g., gauge floats); dont introduce entrained air with product flow; and allow a minimum relaxation time of 30 minutes for the charge to bleed off before opening. The addition of grounding systems (e. g., grounding rods) will not reduce the hazard associated with electrostatic changes in the liquid. Portable metal drums and cans should be filled with metal spouts that are held in contact with the container throughout the filling operation to prevent static accumulation and discharge. However, plastic containers conductive to the metal filling spout and can accumulate a static charge on the liquid surface and discharge to the spout as the liquid level rises. When large plastic containers are filled, a grounding rod should be inserted to the bottom of the container before filling. A recent survey documented 27 fires involving both metal and plastic filling when a plastic truck bed or carpeted car trunk supported the container. However, small plastic containers (e. g., one gallon) are less of a problem if the filling velocity is slow and the container is placed on the ground surface. Motor vehicle and aircraft fueling does not require bonding for fueling from a service station type dispenser at rates below 25 gpm. However, the faster fueling of large aircraft requires bonding the hose nozzle to the plane with a short bond wire and clip. Tank trucks are either top or bottom loaded and should be grounded before opening the tank covers. Top loading should be done with downspouts in contact with the tank bottom to avoid turbulence and the initial velocity limited until the flow is submerged for both top and bottom loading. Piping Systems Static electricity accumulation is most likely to be a problem in pipes conveying non-polar fluids at high velocities. Typical small diameter underground fiberglass and steel piping (e. g., 2 to 6 inches) for motor fuel refueling is not considered a discharge hazard. However, large diameter piping that is located in general industrial service, where electrical charge build-up is possible (e. g., aviation installations) is a potential hazard. Large diameter jet fuel piping has been the subject of U.S. Air Force studies on static electricity. Both buried steel and fiberglass piping were found to build up static electricity at about the same rate with fluid flows up to 15 ft/sec. The study also found that the charge was conducted along the layer of fluid next to the inside pipe wall and was drained off

are not

non-metallic piping when the fluid came in contact with metal valves or fittings. Although test data is limited, 10 to 12 ft/sec is considered to be the maximum velocity for non-conductive piping handling jet fuel, and metal valves or fittings should be properly grounded. Another method of discharging static electricity from non-metallic piping is by wrapping a copper wire around the pipe in a helix and attaching it to a grounding rod at approximately 500-foot intervals. In the case of double-wall pipe, static electricity is discharged from the primary pipe by wrapping a copper wire around the primary pipe in a helix and grounding it by passing it through a threaded outlet saddle on the secondary pipe. Finally, fiberglass pipe and fittings are available with a grounding wire entrained in the resin and meets MIL-P-29206A for jet fuels and petroleum liquids. References

1. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. 9.

Protection Against Ignitions Arising out of Static Petroleum Institute RP 2003 Jet Fuel Quality Control at Airports Aviation Equipment & Design Standards

, Lightning, American

and

Stray

Currents,

, Specification No. 103, Air Transport Association of America , Exxon International Company

Storage and Handling of Aviation Fuels at Airports , American Petroleum Institute Publication 1500 5. Petroleum Equipment Institute survey of portable container fires, 1990 through 1995 6. Aboveground Storage Tank Guide , Thompson Publishing, June 1996 Static Electricity , National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 77 , Ameron, Fiberglass Pipe Group

Bondstrand Series 7000 Anti-static Fiberglass Pipe and Fittings Engineering and Design Guide , Smith Fiberglass Products Inc.

Expertise to reduce the hazards associated with fires from lightning and electrostatic discharge is based both on research and years of experience. Our services includes the failure analysis of fiberglass tank, piping and ductwork fire incidents and corrective engineering design for lightning and static electricity protection. Lightning is natures greatest manifestation of static electricity. Nature has a way of preventing most lightning- caused electrical discharge damage, since cloud formation is often accompanied by high humidity. While high humidity does not prevent the generation of static electricity, it does help bond earth surface bodies to the ground and dissipates the electrical charge. However in non high humidity conditions, there is a need for an accepted method of artificial protection against damage from direct-stroke or indirect stroke lightning by dissipating the charge with a minimum of damage. Non-metallic structures (e. g., fiberglass) may be protected from lightning by means of properly designed lightning rods, conducting masts or overhead wires. Static electricity is generated by the separation of like or unlike bodies. For significant electrical charges to develop, the bodies must become and remain insulated with respect to each other. Once a means of generating an electrostatic charge exists, it will be a source of ignition under the following three conditions: 1. The accumulated electrostatic charge is capable of producing an incendiary spark. 2. There is a spark gap. 3. There is an ignitable vapor-air mixture in the spark gap. Static generation is common with operations involving the movement of liquid hydrocarbons (e. g., tank filling), flammable gases or gases contaminated with particles (e. g., metal scale and rust), liquid particles (e. g., paint spray, steam) and dust or fibers (e. g., drive belts, conveyors). The static electric charging rate is increased greatly by increasing the speed of separation (e. g., flow rate and turbulence, low conductivity materials (e. g., hydrocarbon liquids) and surface area of the interface (e. g., pipe or hose length, and micropore filters. Thus, there is a need for an accepted method of artificial protection against damage from electrostatic sources of ignition by dissipating the charge with a minimum of damage. Non-metallic tanks must be protected against direct-stroke lightning by lightning rods or other means. Methods of discharging static electricity from non-metallic tanks is to properly bond structures and equipment to each other and provide a low resistance path for electrical dissipation to ground. Methods of discharging static electricity from non-metallic piping/ductwork includes using a grounding wire entrained in the resin, wrapping copper wire around the pipe/ductwork in a helix, or a carbon veil liner and attaching them to a properly designed grounding rod to create low voltage circuits. Stray currents apply to any electrical current flowing in paths other than those deliberately provided for it. Such paths include the earth, pipelines and other metallic structures in contact with the earth. Stray currents can accidentally result from faults in electrical power circuits, cathodic protection systems or galvanic currents resulting from the corrosion of buried metallic objects. While stray current voltages are typically not high enough to spark across an air gap, intermittent charges can result in a spark that would ignite a flammable mixture, if present. The accepted method of protection against damage from induced ground currents is to properly bond structures and equipment to each other and provide a low resistance path for dissipation to ground.

Design of Methane Ductwork Static Electricity Protection The photographs show ductwork at a California sewage treatment plant. Our services included the electrical, civil and mechanical engineering design of a retrofit static electric protection system for some 4,000 feet of methane ductwork. The service included a continuity testing preventive maintenance program with annual checklist for plant personnel.

FTPI 2007-1 Recommended Practice for the In-service Inspections of Aboveground Atmospheric Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks and Vessels 2007. Handling Petroleum Products & Static Ignition Hazards Part I: Static Electricity and Protection Part II: Lightning, Stray Current and Protection By Sullivan D. Curran PE Introduction Static electricity in one form or another is a phenomenon of nature and often results in electrostatic discharges that can cause fires and explosions. While expertise to reduce these hazards is based on research, in addition there is much industry experience upon which to base safety precautions when handling petroleum liquids. This is a two-part paper, the first of which addresses a basic understanding of static electricity and commonly used precautions used in the operation of vehicle fueling facilities, tank vehicles, storage tanks, aviation facilities, and miscellaneous hazards. The second part addresses a basic understanding of lightning and stray currents, and commonly used protection against such spark promoters, and includes a list of references for further study. Published Research Static ignition research has been sponsored by such organizations as the American Gas Association, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, U. S. Air Force and the petroleum industry. This research is embodied in recommendations for protection against static ignition in publications and videos produced by these and other organizations, such as the American Petroleum Institute and National Fire Protection Association. However, many of these recommendations are based on years of practical operating experience in the petroleum industry. Static Electric Generation Electricity was first observed as a phenomenon of nature when small sparks were observed when some materials were rubbed with silk or wool. Later, when electricity was found to move freely through conductors, the term static came about to describe electricity that was trapped on a body that was said to be charged. A static electrical charge may be either positive (+) or negative (-) and is manifested when some forc has separated the positive electrons from the negative protons of an atom. Typical forces e include flowing, mixing, pouring, pumping, filtering or agitating materials where there is the forceful separation of two like or unlike materials. Examples of static generation are common with

operations involving the movement of liquid hydrocarbons, gases contaminated with particles (e. g., metal scale and rust), liquid particles (e. g., paint spray, steam) and dust or fibers (e. g., drive belts, conveyors). The static electric charging rate is increased greatly by increasing the speed of separation (e. g., flow rate and turbulence), low conductivity materials (e. g., hydrocarbon liquids) and surface area of the interface (e. g., pipe or hose length, and micropore filters). Static Electric Accumulation Electrostatic charges typically leak from a charged body because they are under the attraction of an equal but opposite charge. Thus, most static sparks are produced only while the generating mechanism is active. However, some refined petroleum products have insulating qualities and the charges generated during movement will remain for a short period of time after the product has stopped moving. This accumulation, rather than dissipation, is influenced by how well the bodies are insulated with respect to each other. Since air or air/vapor mixtures are often the insulating body between the opposite charges, both temperature and humidity are factors in this insulation. Thus, very low or high temperatures, with resulting low humidity, will increase the accumulation of the electrostatic charge both while it is being generated and during the normal relaxation period. Spark Gap A spark results from the sudden breakdown of the insulating strength of a dielectric (e. g., air) that separates two electrodes of different potentials. This breakdown produces a flow of electricity across the spark gap and is accompanied by a flash of light, indicating high temperature. For static electricity to discharge a spark, the voltage across the gap must be above a certain magnitude. In air, at sea level, the minimum sparking voltage is approximately 350 volts for the shortest measurable gap. The voltage required will vary with the dielectric strength of the materials (e. g., air, and vapor) that fill the gap and with the geometry of the gap. Flammability of Vapor-Air Mixtures The flammability of a hydrocarbon vapor-air mixture depends on its vapor pressure, flash point and temperature. These properties are used to classify petroleum products whose electrical resistivities are high enough to enable them to accumulate significant electrostatic charges under certain handling conditions. Following are the three petroleum product Vapor Pressure Classifications , including common examples: 1. Low Those with a closed cup flash point above 100F (38C). - These products do not develop flammable vapors under normal handling conditions. However, conditions for ignition may exist, if handled at temperatures above their flash points, are contaminated with higher vapor-pressure materials, or are transferred into containers where vapors are at concentrations at or above those necessary to produce a flammable mixture. - Examples: #2 Fuel Oil; Kerosene, Diesel, Jet Fuel A (commercial), Motor Oil, Asphalt, and Safety Solvents 2. Intermediate Those with a closed-cup flash point below 100F (38C). - These products may create a flammable mixture in the vapor space at ambient temperatures. - Examples: Xylene, Benzene, Toluene, Jet B (commercial), JP-4 (military), and Stoddard Solvents 3. High Those with a Reid Vapor pressure above 4.5 psi absolute (31 kilopascals). - These products, under normal handling temperatures in a closed vapor space, will rapidly produce a mixture too rich to be flammable. However, in some areas, a vapor space may

pass through the flammable range before becoming too rich. - Examples: Motor and Aviation Gasolines, and high vapor pressure Naphthas Ignition by Static Electricity As a result, once a means of generating and accumulatingan electrostatic charge exists, it will be a source of ignition under the following three conditions: 1. The accumulated electrostatic charge is capable of producing an incendiary spark. 2. There is a spark gap. 3. There is an ignitable vapor-air mixture in the spark gap. Control of Ignition Hazards Reducing Static Generation Static charge voltage may be prevented from reaching the sparking potential by reducing the rate of static generation. In the case of petroleum products, decreasing the activities that produce static can reduce the rate of generation. Since static is generated whenever two dissimilar materials are in relative motion to each other, a slowing down of this motion will reduce the rate of generation. This means reducing agitation by avoiding air or vapor bubbling, reducing flow velocity, reducing jet and propeller blending, and avoiding free falling liquid. However, such static control methods may not be commercially acceptable because of slower production. Thus, reducing or rapidly dissipating the charge by bondingor groundingis commonly used to reduce static electricity. Increasing Static Dissipation Bonding and Grounding - Sparking between two conducting bodies can be prevented by means of an electrical bond attached to both bodies. Bonding prevents the accumulation of a difference in potential across the gap, thus no charge can accumulate and no spark can occur. The earth may be used as part of the bonding system. This is known as groundingand is used when a potentially electrically charged body is insulated from the ground. Thus, the ground connection bypasses this insulation. Since the dissipation of the static charge is a function of the liquids conductivity, anti-static additives may be used. These additives do not reduce static generation, but will permit the charge to dissipate more quickly. They should be introduced at the distribution beginning point and their effectiveness may be reduced by passage through clay filters. Controlling the Environment Inerting and Ventilation - When static discharge cannot be avoided by bonding, grounding, reducing static generation, or increasing static dissipation, ignition can be prevented by excluding ignitable vapor-air mixtures where sparks may occur. Two commonly used methods are inerting and mechanical ventilation. Inerting is a method of displacing the air with an inert gas to make the mixture nonflammable. Mechanical ventilation can be applied to dilute the ignitable mixture well below the flammable range. Vehicles, Storage Tanks, and Containers Following is a discussion of common static electricity problem areas found in petroleum distribution and fuel handling facilities, and precautions to be taken. Highway and Aviation Transport Vehicles Static from vehicle motion may be generated by the separation of air and dust particles on the vehicle surface, the separation of the tires from the pavement and agitation of intermediate vapor

pressure products when the tank or compartment is not full. It has been found that drag chains do not effectively bond the vehicle to the pavement since paved surfaces are insulated when dry and bonding is not needed when wet. Thus, static charges may be transported from one place to another, and a dissimilar electric potential may exist between the vehicle and loading or unloading facility. Before tank loading begins, the truck is bonded to the loading facility, which in turn is grounded. Whether top or bottom loaded, splashing or spraying should be avoided by limiting the filling velocity to 3 feet per second until the loading outlet is submerged. When tank vehicles are unloaded into aboveground storage that may or may not be adequately grounded (e. g., airplane fueling), the truck is first grounded, then bonded to the receiving storage and then the nozzle is bonded before refueling begins. There are special precautions taken with the refueling of airplanes from tank vehicles since both have been subject to static accumulation due to the air and tire movement described above. For example, the US Air Force has discontinued the use of alligator clamps and now uses jack assemblies. However, unloading into underground fiberglass, interior lined and steel storage tanks does not present a static ignition hazard, provided that the delivery hose nozzle is in metallic contact with the tank fill pipe, or tight connections are used. Experience indicates that the outside of a buried fiberglass, interior lined or steel tanks is in contact with a conducting medium (i.e., ground), and accumulated static charges are dissipated. Tank Cars, Marine Vessels Generally, tank cars are sufficiently well grounded through the rails, and bonding of the tank car is not necessary for protection against static generation. However, there is the possibility of stray currents (see Part II, Lightning and Stray Currents), and the loading lines should be bonded with the rails to assure a permanent bond. Marine vessel loading and unloading does not require bonding cables between the vessel and the shore. This is unique since the hull of the vessel is inherently grounded by virtue of its contact with water. Thus, accumulation of static charges on the hull is prevented. Instead, an effort is made to electrically separate the loading and unloading lines from the shore piping by inserting an insulating flange between the vessel piping manifold and the shore piping manifold. Aboveground Steel and Fiberglass Storage Tanks There is product movement during filling that can develop a static charge between the liquid surface and tank shell, or metallic fittings, in a non-metallic tank (e. g., manhole). To minimize the risk: avoid splash filling, limit the velocity of the incoming stream, avoid ungrounded objects in the tank (e. g., gauge floats), dont introduce entrained air with product flow, and allow a minimum relaxation time of 30 minutes for the charge to bleed off before opening. Internal floating-roof tanks require some form of bonding between the floating roof and the tank roof. Open floating-roof tanks require bonding shunts between the floating roof and the tank wall. While these shunts are required for lightning protection (See Part II, Lightning and Stray Currents), they also provide protection from electrostatic charges caused by the products movement. Note: The addition of grounding systems (e. g., grounding rods) will not reduce the hazard associated with electrostatic charges in the liquid. Portable Drums and Cans Drums and container filling-line operations on conducting conveyors should not require additional protection against static accumulation. However, relaxation time should be provided downstream of

any micron-type filters. Single metal containers should be filled with metal spouts that are held in contact with the container or a funnel throughout the filling operation to prevent static accumulation and discharge. However, when transferring into or out of open top (i.e., not spout equipped) containers, the filling stream is broken and splashing occurs. In these operations (e. g., filling an open pail from a drum), a bonding wire should be used to connect the two containers. Plastic containers are not conductive to a metal filling spout or funnel and can accumulate a static charge on the liquid surface. This may cause a discharge to the spout as the liquid level rises. When large plastic containers are filled, a grounding rod (i. e., connected to a bonding wire) should be inserted to the bottom of the container before filling. A recent survey documented 27 gasoline fires involving the filling of both metal and plastic containers on a plastic truck bed or carpeted car trunk. However, small plastic containers (e. g., one gallon) are less of a problem if the filling velocity is slow and the container is placed on the ground surface. Vehicle Fueling Experience indicates that fuel dispensing does not require bonding for fueling from a service station type dispenser at rates below 25 gpm. However, faster fueling of large equipment (e. g., aircraft) requires bonding the hose nozzle to the receiving equipment with a bond wire and clip. Piping Systems Small Diameter Piping Static electricity accumulation is most likely to be a problem in pipes conveying non-polar fluids at high velocities. Typical small diameter underground fiberglass and steel piping (e. g., 2 to 6 inches) for motor fuel refueling is not considered a discharge hazard. However, large diameter piping that is located in general industrial service, where electrical charge build-up is possible (e. g., aviation installations) is a potential hazard. Large Diameter Piping Jet fuel movement in large pipelines has been the subject of U.S. Air Force studies on static electricity. Both buried steel and fiberglass piping were found to build up static electricity at about the same rate with fluid flows up to 15 ft/sec. The study also found that the charge was conducted along the layer of fluid next to the inside pipe wall and was drained off non-metallic piping when the fluid came in contact with metal valves or fittings. Although test data is limited, 10-to12 ft/sec is considered to be the maximum velocity for nonmetallic piping handling jet fuel, and metal valves or fittings should be properly grounded. Another method of discharging static electricity from non-metallicpiping is by wrapping a copper wire around the pipe in a helix and attaching it to a grounding rod at approximately 500-foot intervals. In the case of double-wall pipe, static electricity is discharged from the primary pipe by wrapping a copper wire around the primary pipe in a helix and grounding it by passing it through a threaded outlet saddle on the secondary pipe. Non-metallic fiberglass pipe and fittings are available with a grounding wire entrained in the resin and meets MIL-P-29206A for jet fuels and petroleum liquids.

Filters and Relaxation Chambers When a fluid is pumped through a pipe, the magnitude of the electrostatic charge generated will increase as the velocity increases. When this liquid is transferred into a smaller pipe, the liquid velocity will increase as will the static charge. When a filter is placed in the pipe, the static charge generation increases by a factor of 10 to 100. However, there is no danger from this excessive charge as long as the liquid is kept in the pipe (i.e., not discharged). Thus, before the liquid is discharged at least 30 seconds relaxation time should be provided in the piping system by means of a relaxation chamber between the filter and the point of discharge. Special Situations Switch Loading Potential ignition conditions can exist when low-pressure product is loaded into a vessel that contains a flammable vapor from previous use at or above the lower flammable limit. The most common example is the loading of diesel fuel into a tank transport that previously contained gasoline. However, similar conditions can develop when product lines are flushed, manifold valves leak, and during vacuum truck operations. Static generation will be reduced by filling at the lowest possible rate until agitation is minimized or blanketing the liquid surface with an inert gas. Sampling, Gauging, and High-Level Devices Both conductive probes and insulating conductive floats can cause sparking at surface potentials much lower than those required for sparking from the free oil surface to the vessel or the vessels internal supports. It has been found that there is a slower than normal decay of field strength (i. e., due to relaxation) in large storage or ships tanks thus, 30 minutes delay should be observed before hand gauging or sampling. In smaller vessels, (e. g., tank trucks, tank cars), a one-minute delay time should be sufficient to allow for dissipation of the static charge. Purging and Cleaning Tanks and Vessels Purging involves removing a fuel vapor from an enclosed space and completely replacing it with air or inert gas. The purging operation can involve static electricity generation if steam jets, or CO2 jets are discharged into a flammable vapor-air mixture. Both steam and CO2 can generate static charges on the nozzle and should be avoided. Vacuum trucks are often used to remove hydrocarbon liquids from vessels that are being cleaned. Ignitions may occur unless suction hoses and conductive pipe wands have electrical continuity. The refilling of empty vessels when returned to service, should begin at the lowest flow rate to avoid the incoming stream from breaking the liquid surface. And, in the case of floating roofs, the flow should be reduced until the roof is floating off its support- legs. Part II: Lightning and Stray Currents Lightning Lightning is natures greatest manifestation of static electricity. Falling raindrops develop a static charge by breaking and separating and bringing one charge to earth and leaving a separate charge in the cloud. Thus, electrical storms involve the relatively slow movement of these heavily charged clouds, which set up an electrostatic field over a large area of the earths surface below the cloud. The charge on the earths surface includes tanks, equipment and other objects. As the cloud passes through the atmosphere, the opposite ground surface charge follows the cloud. In this scenario, lightning (i.e., electrostatic discharges) may impact facilities or equipment located on the earths

surface in the following manner: Direct- stroke Lightning- At some point when the gap between the cloud and an object on the earths surface narrows, there is a direct lightning stroke. When this happens, a heavy ground current flows toward the impact point where facilities or equipment are in the path of a high lightning-caused current. Direct stroke lightning generates high temperatures that can severely damage objects in its path and ignite flammable materials. Indirect Lightning C urrents The abrupt change in the electrical field caused by direct-stroke lightning neutralizes the static charge almost instantaneously and collapses the field. These abrupt changes can induce secondary sparking at equipment that is relatively remote from the direct stroke. Cloud-to-Cloud Lightning The static charge developed by the breaking and separating of raindrops brings one charge to earth and leaves a separate charge in the cloud. As a result, adjacent clouds and the ground charge beneath each cloud may have opposite charges. When the gap between the charged clouds narrows or accumulates a heavy charge, lightning will occur between these clouds. While this neutralizes the charged clouds, the earth bound charges will also neutralize by way of a passage of current through the conductor with the lowest path of resistance (e. g., ground, and pipeline). These abrupt changes can induced charge-causing sparks, and usually occur when an insulated metallic body is present. Protection Nature has a way of preventing most lightning-caused electrical discharge damage, since cloud formation is often accompanied by high humidity. While high humidity does not prevent the generation of static electricity, it does help bond earth surface bodies to the ground and dissipates the electrical charge. However, the accepted method of artificial protection against damage from direct-stroke or indirect stroke lightning is to dissipate the charge with a minimum of damage. Metallic structures that are in direct contact with the ground or bonded to the ground (e. g., underground piping) are sufficiently well grounded to provide safe dissipation of lightning strokes. However, artificial grounding (e. g., ground rods) does not provide adequate dissipation and damage may result. Non-metallic structures may be protected from direct-stroke lightning by means of properly designed lightning rods, conducting masts or overhead wires. The accepted method of protection against damage from induced ground currents is to bond structures and equipment to each other and provide a low resistance path for the ground current. Aboveground Tank Protection Ground mounted metallic fixed roof and horizontal tanks are bonded to the ground and will safely dissipate direct-stroke lightning. However, these tanks are known to ignite when flammable vapors are venting through roof openings (e. g., gauge hatches) or vents not adequately equipped with back- flash devices such as pressure-vacuum vent valves. Non-metallic tanks must be protected against direct-stroke lightning by lightning rods or other means. Open floating-roof tank rim fires occur when there is a direct-stroke lightning or when an induced charge is released by clouds discharging to the ground in the tank vicinity. Most of these fires occur above the seal and are extinguished with hand foam or dry-chemical extinguishers. The most common method of protection is to install metallic straps (shunts) on the circumference of the roof, between the floating roof and the metallic shoe that slides on the inside of the shell. These shunts

will permit the charge to drain off without igniting the vapor in the seal area. Internal floating-roof tanks are typically covered with conductive roofs that will act as lightning rods. However, the floating roof still requires bonding to the shell for protection against electrostatic charges due to product flow. Introduction to Stray Currents The term stray current applies to any electrical current flowing in paths other than those deliberately provided for it. Such paths include the earth, pipelines, and other metallic structures in contact with the earth. Stay currents can accidentally result from faults in electrical power circuits, cathodic protection systems or galvanic currents resulting from the corrosion of buried metallic objects. While stray current voltages are typically not high enough to spark across an air gap, intermittent charges can result in a spark that would ignite a flammable mixture, if present. Protection Against Stray Currents Pipelines Where stray currents are known or suspected in a pipeline, arcing at points of separation (e. g., valves, and spools) is reduced by connecting a bond wire of reasonably low electrical resistance. Spur Tracks Tank cars loading or unloading spots on spur tracks are typically served by a pipeline located alongside the rails. Stray currents may flow in the pipelines or in the rails. Thus, the pipeline and rail should be permanently bonded with low electrical resistance material. Wharf Lines The resistance of the vessels hull to ground (water) is very low and the connecting and disconnecting of wharf piping may produce sparks. Insulating flanges in the pipe manifold proved the best assurance against sparking at the point of connection and disconnection of the hose. Cathodic Protection Systems Generally, an engineering study is required to locate and size bonding when cathodic protection systems are employed to protect a facility against corrosion. For example, the option of de-energizing an impressed current system does not immediately remove the potential and render it safe, since the polarized metal structure will persist for a period of time.

Fiberglass AST Inspection RP The Fiberglass Tank & Pipe Institute has published FTPI 2007-1 Recommended Practice for the Inservice Inspections of Aboveground Atmospheric Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Tanks and Vessels. This Recommended Practice was developed over three years in response to requests by aboveground fiberglass tank users, engineering companies and governmental bodies. Members of the Institute and an industry peer review group have shared their fabrication, operation and maintenance expertise on aboveground fiberglass tank in corrosion resistant applications to make this publication possible. The Institute was incorporated in 1987 as a non-profit organization. Its purpose is to provide a forum through which the fiberglass reinforced thermoset plastic (FRP) industry can work together effectively toward the common goal of advancing the use of all fiberglass products in the tank and piping marketplace, i.e., coordinating studies and statistics, combining talents and resources to provide standard-setting organizations with superior technical data, and disseminate information to the government, industry and the public. The R ecommended Practice peer review group included the Environmental Protection Agency US Office of Emergency Management; N. Y. State Dept. of Environmental Conservation Spill Response & Bulk Storage Tank Section, Lyondell Chemical Inc., two fiberglass Inspection companies, three fiberglass Consultants and Engineering companies and both Institute and nonInstitute aboveground fiberglass tank manufacturers. FTPI 2007-1: The R ecommended Practice is a 27 page document that includes recommended inspector qualifications, periodic preventive maintenance inspections, certified external inspections, certified integrity inspections, internal inspections and alternate non-intrusive inspection methods. The document also includes report forms for monthly, annual and periodic preventive maintenance and certified inspections and a section on aboveground fiberglass tank fabrication information. The purpose of this Recommended Practice is to provide procedures for conducting periodic preventive maintenance (PM) inspections and certified inspections of fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) atmospheric tanks and vessels in corrosive industrial and commercial service after a set period of time and when there is a change of service. The procedures are intended to:

minimize maintenance costs, ensure compliance with environmental and safety requirements, minimize system failures and ensure that proper engineering, construction and maintenance practices are in place.

PM Inspections: The Preventive Maintenance inspections are required to document tank or vessel inspections in written reports using where applicable the minimum information included in FTPI 2007-1 standardized check lists. In addition, the reports shall contain conclusions, recommendations and supplemental sketches with dimensions and/or photographs. The photographs shall have a minimum resolution of 3 mega pixels with the photograph locations identified. PM Inspector Qualifications: The Preventive Maintenance (PM) inspector shall be a person familiar with the equipment to be inspected, this FTPI 2007-1 Recommended Practice, and is designated by the equipment owner or operator. Periodic preventive maintenance tank and vessel inspections are

the process of ongoing data collection through exterior inspections using investigative tools and methods. The inspection data should be documented in a manner that provides for a long-term trend evaluation. Qualified inspectors shall have education and experience equal to at least one of the following:
a. A degree in engineering plus one year of experience in the inspection of FRP tanks or vessels. b. A 2-year certificate in engineering or technology from a technical college, and two years of experience in manufacturing, repair, operation or inspection of FRP tanks or vessels manufactured in accordance with applicable standards or codes. c. The equivalent of a high school education, and three years of experience in manufacturing, repair, operation or inspection of FRP tanks or vessels manufactured in accordance with applicable standards or codes.

Certified External Inspections: Certified external tank and vessel inspections shall be performed by a certified tank or vessel inspector as follows:

every 5 years for tanks or vessels in Hazardous Substance service, or every 10 years for tanks/vessels greater than 10,000 gallons capacity and in other service, or if evidence of material stress appears, or tank or vessel leaks occur, or before there is a change in service to a dissimilar stored material, or if a tank or vessel is relocated.

Certified Integrity Inspections: Certified integrity tank and vessel inspections shall be performed by a certified tank or vessel inspector as follows:

every 20 years for tanks/vessels in Hazardous Substance service, or every 20 years for tanks/vessels greater than 10,000 gallons capacity and in other service, or if evidence of material stress appears, or tank or vessel leaks occur, or before there is a change in service to a dissimilar stored material. or if a tank or vessel is relocated.

Certified Inspector Report: The report of Certified Inspections shall be delivered to the owner. These reports shall include the inspectors recommendations, which shall include one or more of the following:
1. No remedial action 2. Further investigation or analysis 3. Repairs 4. Changes in tank or vessel operation 5. Replacement

RP FTPI-2007 Applications and Availability: Recommended Practice FTPI 2007-1 may be used for the inspection of aboveground fiberglass tanks or vessels in Animal Fats, Vegetable Oil (AFVO) oily water, or other materials subject to the SPCC Rule or in Hazardous Substance service. Those interested in purchasing a copy of the FTPI 2007-1 Recommended Practice for the In-service Inspections of Aboveground 2007 Atmospheric Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks and Vessels may order it by forwarding a company check in the amount of $195.00 to cover development and mailing costs to Fiberglass Tank & Pipe Institute, 11150 S. Wilcrest Dr., Suite 101, Houston, Texas 77099-4343. Sdc 10/22/07 rev.12/18/07

References Following is a list of relevant published references and videos for those wishing to explore the subject of static electricity further: 1. Protection Against Ignitions Arising out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents , American Petroleum Institute (API) RP 2003 2. Precautions Against Electrostatic Ignition During Loading of Tank Truck Motor Vehicles , API Publication 1003 3. Safe Operation of Vacuum Trucks in Petroleum Service , API Publication 2219 4. Safe Entry and Cleaning of Petroleum Tanks , API Publication 2015 5. Cleaning of Mobile Tanks in Flammable or Combustible Liquid Service , API Publication 2013 6. Ignition Hazards Involved in Abrasive Blasting of Atmospheric Hydrocarbon Tanks in Servic , API Publication 2027 7. e Method for Electrical Conductivity of Liquid Hydrocarbons by Precision Meter , ASTM Test D 4308 8. Static Electricity , National Fire Protection Association, (NFPA) NFPA RP 77 9. Lightning Protection Code , NFPA 78 10. International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals , OCIMF 11. Aviation Ground Operation , Safety Handbook, National Safety Council 12. Electrostatic Charging Test for Aviation Fuel Filters , Coordinating Research Council, Inc. 13. Survey of Portable Container Fires 1990 through 1995 , Petroleum Equipment Institute 14. Aboveground Storage Tank Guide , Thompson Publishing, June 1996 15. Bondstrand Series 7000 Anti-Static Fiberglass Pipe and Fittings , Ameron, Fiberglass Pipe Group 16. Engineering and Design Guide , Smith Fiberglass Products Inc. 17. Flammability Characteristics of Combustible Gases and Vapors , U.S. Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 627 18. Video Minimizing Static Electricity , U.S. Bureau of Mines, A Kennedy Production 19. Video Great Balls of Fire , U.S. Air Force 20. Video Minimizing Static Electric Hazards , Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX