Main arguments of Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, and Claude Meillassoux Miers and Kopytoff put the

e word slave in quotation marksdont believe there was truly slavery in Africa The Western slave is a commodity and chattel, no control over destiny, no rights, no chance for children to get aheadMiers and Kopytoff construct their argument by showing that these conditions dont apply to African internal slavery o Rights-in-personsslaves were not the only people bought and solda lineage owned its members Marriage in Zaire was a transaction in which husbands matrilineage purchased bride and her lineage Children could be sold/pawned Children of free man and slave belonged purely to male advantage to having children with slave o Acquisition of slavesnot necessarily violent Borgouorphans adopted as slaves Serious crimes necessitated giving up kin members as slaves War/raid most common method, however o Societal Marginality Not permanentsuccessive generations half-belonged Slaves often given powerful positionsconsidered trustworthy, no other allegiances o Slave-trade High demand for people within Africa, but not necessarily for labor o Slavery within Africa one end of kinship-slavery continuum. Existed before European contact. Mellaissoux claims there is no continuumkin-slave as opposites, not ends of continuum o Admits that slaves can have surprising privileges, while heads of families can have complete power over their kin o Slaves defined by their status as commodities on the marketresult of a violent act o Two conditions for slavery to emergemarket, foreign traders African-born slave narratives: Equiano and Baquaqua Equiano and Baquaquas writings very uniquevery few such sources by Africans who were born in Africa Doubts about authenticity of bothabolitionist intent, written long after Middle Passage, desire to glorify African homeland Olaudah Equiano o Born in Benin province of Nigeriakidnapped, as a child sold to British slavers in 1756

o Lots of detail about Equianos villageauthority based on agediscusses how slaves were barely treated differently than villagers o Not taken directly to coastbought and sold by Africans multiple times doesnt arrive on coast until eight months after kidnapped o While he has been able to communicate with people all through his travels to the coast, he cant understand anyone on the slave ship o Slaves perceive ship as magicalmany people resist, are flogged, try to commit suicide o Brought to West Indies Baquaqua o Born in northern Benin to a merchant Muslim fatherserved as a porter on trade expedition to Ghana o Kidnapped into slavery while drunk-taken to Benin, put on ship to Brazil (unlike Equiano) o Sailed from Rio de Janeiro to NY (where slavery was illegal) with load of coffee o Abolitionists tried to free Baquaqualegal proceedingsBaquaqua escaped from ship with other manwent to Haiti o Converted to Christianitybecame involved with various churches determined to return home Alcoholic at this point in his lifenot very Muslimcalls into doubt his conversion to Christianitywas he just trying to get back to Africa? o Found racism prevalent in USAwent to Canadawrote book African trade relations with Europe and Asia, c.1500 to c.1700 Before 1700, African gold exporting was more significant and profitable (for Europeans) than the slave trade. In 1665, the Company of Royal Adventurers made of its profit from gold and other commodities. West Africa Notable scholar Rodney claimed that African trade with Europe created African dependency, because Africa imported manufactured goods o Notably cloth, metal goods, currency, and non-utilitarian items such as beads o However, Africa was capable of producing these for itselfall of thof these goods were luxuries o Africa actually imported bed mats, horns, and saltcellars Both African and European governments tried to regulate trade, while European chartered companies tried gain monopolies (Dutch West India Company, English Royal Africa Company) o Everyone was pretty unsuccessfultrade was too diverse and nonessential From 1500-1620, trade dominated by Portuguese

 Dutch entered market around 1620, but not very successful in dominating trade African states protected buyers by demanding taxes/bribes/gifts East Africa Largely traded with India o Mutapa state traded gold/ivory for cloth/beads from India Trade not essential to Mutapa o Goods shipped from Sofala to Kilwa (Swahili cities), then out into the Indian Ocean basin o Not exploited eithertraded for what they wanted