1 Fluids substances that can flow and can easily change in shape usually are liquids and gases

Fluid Mechanics Fluid Statics study of fluids at rest Density Pressure Buoyancy Archimedes Principle Surface Tension Pascals Principle Fluid Dynamics study of fluids in motion Bernoullis Principle

Density Pressure

ratio of mass of a substance to its volume independent to the amount present in a substance force per unit area

(rho) P

Kinds of pressure hydrostatic pressure exerted on an object by a column of liquid air/atmospheric pressure exerted on an object by air

A barometer is an instrument used to measure pressure. It was invented by Evangelista Torricelli. Pascals principle (by Blaise Pascal) states that for any change in pressure applied at any given point on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid

Buoyancy is the apparent loss of weight of objects when submerged in a liquid Buoyant force ( ) is the upward force exerted by water that seems to balance the force of gravity Archimedes principle states that a body partly or entirely submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal in magnitude to the weight of the displaced fluid

2 Surface tension the surface behave like a stretched membrane caused by the attractive forces Capillary action the liquid in the tube will rise some distance above the surface of the surrounding liquid the smaller the diameter, the higher is the level of the liquid inside the tube Bernoullis Principle (by Daniel Bernoulli) as the velocity of the fluid increases, its pressure decreases rate of flow Two flow types: Laminar flow smooth motion of particles in a fluid Turbulent flow irregular motion of particles in a fluid

Thermodynamics branch of physics that deals with heat and its transformation into mechanical energy came from the Greek words thermos which means heat and dynamos which means movement Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of a body; average kinetic energy of particles Heat is energy in transit from a body of higher temperature to lower temperature Temperature indicates the direction of heat flow while heat is the actual energy transferred Measuring temperature: 1] Touching the easiest way of measuring temperature yet very unreliable because of personal biases 2] Thermometer any thermal sensor that measures temperature Kinds of thermometers: 1] Liquid in glass thermometer made of glass tube with a bulb on one and which contains a liquid (mercury/alcohol) 2] Rotary thermometer uses a bimetallic strip which contains brass and iron 3] Thermocouple indicates temperature by sending electric signals 4] Liquid crystal indicated temperature by changing in color To get the conversion factor of one scale to another: wherein: or temperature scale, freezing point of temperature scale, and interval between the freezing point and the boiling point of the scale

3 H2O Boils 100C H2O Freezes 0C

Scale Celsius

Interval 100

Proponent Anders Celsius Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit Lord Kelvin

Conversion ( )

Fahrenheit Kelvin

180 100

212F 373K

32F 273K

Linear Thermal Expansion wherein: is the length of an object, is the linear thermal expansion coefficient ( or is the temperature in Kelvin or degrees Celsius Volume Thermal Expansion wherein: is the length of an object, is the volume thermal expansion coefficient ( or is the temperature in Kelvin or degrees Celsius

), and

Three modes of heat transfer: 1] Conduction direct contact conductors are materials that conduct heat well; has loosely-bound electrons insulators are materials that delay heat transfer 2] Convection currents in the fluid 3] Radiation through electromagnetic waves hotter objects emit shorter wavelengths while colder objects emit longer wavelengths Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of a quantity by 1C wherein: is change in temperature, is the specific heat capacity constant, is the mass of the object, and is change in heat The SI unit of specific heat capacity is or ( )

Latent heat is the amount of energy/heat given out / absorbed when a substance changes phase which do not change in temperature Latent heat of fusion ( ) is the amount of heat that must be added to a substance at its melting point to change from solid to liquid Latent heat of vaporization ( ) is the amount of heat that must be added to a substance at its boiling point to change from solid to liquid

4 History of Wave and Harmonics birth of acoustics and optics 19th century BC the interest in musical instruments prompted the mathematical 14th century BC study of vibrating bodies and of the propagation of sound through air Pythagoras established the connection between musical sounds 4th century BC and mathematics Robert Hooke and Christian Huygens believed light to be a form of wave motion Thomas Young (1800) firmly established the wave nature of light Heinrich Hertz (1886) established that radio waves were of the nature of light waves AM radio waves are measured in kHz while FM radio waves are measured in MHz 20th century wave concepts were used to develop the theory of quantum mechanics called wave mechanics Vibration is the periodic or repeated motion of a particle or mechanical system. Simple harmonic motion is the back-and-forth vibratory motion of a swinging pendulum wherein the restoring force is proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium. Hookes Law: wherein: is the spring constant; and is the change of length of the spring Types of waves: 1] According to the medium requirement: A] Mechanical waves waves that require a medium (water waves, sound waves, waves that move along a rope or a string) B] Electromagnetic waves waves that does not require a medium 2] According to the number of travelling pulse: A] Pulse waves single travelling pulse B] Periodic wave continuous generation of pulses 3] According to the direction of motion A] Transverse wave have vibrations that are at a right angle or perpendicular to the direction of the wave B] Longitudinal wave have vibrations that are along the direction of the wave C] Surface wave is a combination of both transverse and longitudinal waves. Measure of a wave wavelength () Description distance between crests or troughs two consecutive period (T) time to complete one cycle frequency (f) the number of complete waves or cycles per unit time Hz s Formula SI Unit m

5 the displacement from the midpoint to the crest/trough of the wave depends on the medium through which the wave moves energy carried by the wave is proportional to the frequency of the wave

amplitude wave speed (v)

m m s

wave energy (E)

Characteristics of a Sound Wave: we cannot see sound waves, but we can measure all their properties composed of waves of compression and rarefaction (a sound wave is a longitudinal wave) follows an orderly pattern carries energy Sound is produced when vibration causes pressure variations in the medium. Propagation of sound: travel through solids, liquids and gases but not in vacuum travel more efficiently in denser materials propagates three-dimensionally (all directions) approximately spherical The human ear is an amazing sound detector Three Tiny Bones: Anvil, Hammer, Stirrup

Outer Ear

Cochlea

Auditory Nerve

Brain

Physical properties of sound waves: 1] Pitch perception of highness or lowness of sound depends on the frequency of sound wave A] audio frequency range: 20Hz 20 000Hz B] ultrasonics: above 20 000Hz C] infrasonics: below 20Hz Doppler Effect (Christian Doppler) is the change in frequency or pitch of a sound that is caused by the movement of either the source, the listener, or both blue shift is the increase in frequency due to the Doppler effect while the red shift is the decrease in frequency due to the Doppler effect 2] Loudness sound level or intensity determined mainly by the amplitude of the sound wave the threshold of hearing is 0dB while the threshold of pain is 120dB
1

is the Plancks constant (

6 the second sound is noticeably louder than the first sound if the second sound is 1dB higher than the first sound; the second sound is twice as loud as the first sound if the second sound is 10dB higher than the first sound; two equal sound levels combined will create a sound that is 3dB higher than their original volume 3] Timbre tone color or tone quality distinguish between two different sounds that have the same pitch and loudness depends on the wave form of the sound wave different wave forms creates different tone quality Speed of sound doesnt depend on the source but on the medium through which they move. It is dependent on the following: 1] density since sound waves move well through dense materials because their molecules are close together 2] elasticity since sound waves move fast through elastic materials 3] temperature since sound waves travel faster through warm air than through cold air has less effect on solids or liquids m at 0C the speed of sound in gas is estimated to be about s m for every increase in temperature speed increases by about s a supersonic boom will occur if a source moving at speeds greater than the speed of sound that would cause the waves to pile up Sound wave characteristics: 1] Reflection bouncing of wave an echo is any reflected sound heard shortly after the original sound affected by two factors: A] properties of the reflecting sound since greater energy is reflected if the surface is hard and smooth B] distance of the reflecting surface from the source since to hear an echo, the sound source must be at least 17m away from the reflecting surface 2] Refraction sound waves bend or refract as they move through air (differences in air densities) 3] Diffraction bending of sound waves due to a barrier or opening greatest in high pitch sounds and less in low pitch 4] Interference has two types: Constructive Interference occurs when two waves combine with each other and create another wave of higher intensity Destructive Interference occurs when two waves combine with each other and create another wave of lower intensity Music pleasing combination of tones regular pattern rhythm, harmony, melody, pitch, quality vs Noise random and irregular unwanted sound

7 Musical Instruments String Instruments produce tone when strings vibrate higher vibration yields higher volume long and thick strings produce low pitch sounds while short and thin strings produce high pitch sounds Wind Instruments contain a column of air that vibrates when air is blown a long air column will produce a low pitch sound while a short air column will produce a high pitch sound Percussion Instruments produce sound when they are struck depends on how hard one strikes the instrument pitch is affected by the tension on the drum covering

8 Optics is the study of light Wave Christian Huygens Thomas Young James Clerk Maxwell Heinrich Hertz Albert Einstein Nature of Light light does spread out (Christian Huygens on his Wave Theory of Light) light travels only in a straight line (Isaac Newton on his Corpuscular Theory) discovered the diffraction and interference of light which can be explained only in terms of wave theory (Thomas Young, 1801) predicted that changing electric and magnetic fields can propagate through space as electromagnetic waves and light itself is an electromagnetic wave (James Clerk Maxwell, 1860) discovered the existence of electromagnetic waves through radio waves shared same property of light (Heinrich Hertz, 1880) proposed that energy comes in discrete units called quanta (Max Planck, 1900) theorized that light is composed of bundles of wave energy called photons (Albert Einstein, 1905, on his Photoelectric Effect) shared that photons of X-rays decreased in energy when colliding with electrons (Arthur Compton, 1923) light has a dual nature; behaves as both wave and particle (Louis Victor de Broglie, 1924) Particle Isaac Newton Max Planck Arthur Compton

Producing Visible Light an illuminated object is an object that reflects light waves a luminous object is an object that gives off its own light Two Ways to Produce Light incandescence light is produced when the atoms of an object are heated emitted nearly all extremely hot objects when temperature is lower, the wavelength is higher which will produce a reddish color; conversely, when temperature is higher, the wavelength is lower which will produce a bluish color luminance only electrons of the atom are involved no need for large amount of heat caused by the movement of electrons from higher to lower energy level a] Chemiluminescence production of light as a result of chemical reaction b] Bioluminescence production of light by organisms c] Fluorescence production of light when excited by another source of radiation light ceases when external excitation stops d] Phosphorescence production of light when excited by another source of radiation luminescence persists even after the removal of the external excitation

Ionized Gases Color Gas red light Pure Neon greenish blue light Argon and Mercury golden yellow light Helium pure violet light Krypton

Formation of Shadow shadow formation is a proof that light travels in a straight line size of shadow depends on the distance of the point source and the size of light source

The Speed of Light (c) is equal to Person Experiment Galileo Galilei lantern experiment Olaus Roener studied the period of Io Christian Huygens refined Roeners data Armand Hippolyte toothed wheel Louis Fizean Jean Bernard Leon rotating mirror Foucalt Albert Michelson octagonal mirror

Value

Photometry is the measurement of the properties of light Luminous candela brightness of light Intensity (cd) Luminous rate at which light is emitted from a Flux lumen source and strikes the surface of a (Luminous (lm) whole sphere Power) Illuminance Luminous Efficiency measures the amount of illumination ratio of light flux emitted by the source to the power supplied to the source lux (lx)

Types of Materials opaque materials absorb light waves that fall on them; absorb light without reemission translucent materials allow light to be transmitted through them but its rays are distorted during the passage transparent materials transmit light waves and permit objects to be seen clearly through them; produce a chain of absorption and re-emission of light Light Wave Interactions reflection is the bouncing off of light waves diffraction is a kind of reflection wherein light strikes a rough, uneven surface regular/specular reflection is a kind of reflection wherein light strikes a smooth, flat surface refraction is the bending of light waves due to difference in density law of refraction (Snells Law) (index of refraction)

10 total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a denser to less dense medium and strikes the surface at an angle greater from the critical angle, the light beam is not able to get out of the denser material dispersion is the process by what light is separated into its colors due to differences in degrees of refraction interference (Thomas Young on his Double Slit Experiment) diffraction is the bending of light waves due to a barrier or opening Huygens Principle states that every point on any wave front of light from a point source may be regarded as a new point source of secondary waves polarization occurs to a light wave if its vibrations are confined to a single place a polarizer transmits only the wave that vibrates parallel to the alignment of the crystals in it an analyzer transmits only the wave that vibrates perpendicularly to the first polarized sheet

Colors Isaac Newton made a systematic study of colors using his prism-spectrum experiment an object can reflect only light of frequency present in the illuminating light Color Mixing color mixing by addition mixing colored lights of different frequencies white light has three regions, primary addition colors, which are red, green, and blue color mixing by subtraction mixing pigments which absorb different frequencies of light three regions, primary subtraction colors, which are magenta, cyan, and yellow Pigment R G B Y C M Absorbs B G B R R G R G B Reflects R G B R G G B B R Mirrors Plane Mirrors flat surface Curved/Spherical Mirrors Convex curves outward diverging mirror Concave

curves inward like a cave converging mirror Parts of a curved mirror Vertex V Center of C Curvature Focal Point F Radius of R Curvature Focal Length F

center of the sphere from which the mirror is formed midpoint of C and V distance from C to V distance from F to V

11 line passing through C, F, and V tangent to the curve of the vertex and perpendicular to the mirror

Principal Axis

PA

Parameters of mirrors type (virtual/real) orientation (inverted/upright or erect) position (between/at point/beyond) size (smaller/larger/same size) Ray Diagram a ray parallel to the PA is reflected through the focal point, F a ray passing through the focal point, F, is reflected parallel to the PA a ray passing through the center of curvature, C, is reflected back along its own path The TOPS parameter of a concave mirror F~C C~ F~V @C @F Real Real virtual real no image Inverted Inverted upright inverted no image C~ F~C behind @C no image Larger Smaller larger same no image @ real ??? F no image

Location Type Orientation Position Size

Lenses are curved pieces of glass or some other transparent materials that are used to refract light convex (converging) lens thicker at the center than at the edges has six TOPS cases (see below) concave (diverging) lens thinner at the center than at the edges has only one TOPS case: T virtual O upright P ??? S smaller The TOPS parameter of a convex lens F ~ C C ~ F ~ O @ C @ F Real Real virtual real no image Inverted Inverted upright inverted no image C~ F~C F ~ O @C no image Larger Smaller larger same no image @ real ??? F no image

Location Type Orientation Position Size

12

Mirror/Thin Lens Equation: is the distance of the object and Magnification Equation:

wherein

is the focal length,

is the distance of the image. wherein is the magnification, is the height of

is the distance of the object, is the distance of the image, the object and is the height of the image.