THE REACTIVE POWER AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

A mini project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
of the

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University

Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh By Name 1. D. Anuroop Reddy 2. Dharam Santhosh Kumar 3. Narayan Selvam Harinath 4. N. Shiva Kishore Under Esteemed Guidance of Koyi Srinivas Rao Assistant Divisional Engineer 220KV SS, Shapurnagar Regd. no 08H51A0210 08H51A0212 08H51A0234 07H51AO215

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY Kandlakoya, Medchal Road, Hyderabad-501401. A.P. INDIA. 2011-12

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project entitled

THE REACTIVE AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
of the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh is record of bonafied work carried out by

Name 1. D. Anuroop Reddy 2. Dharam Santhosh Kumar 3. Narayan Selvam Harinath 4. N. Shiva Kishore

Regd. no 08H51A0210 08H51A0212 08H51A0234 07H51AO215

College: CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY Kondlakoya, Medchal Road, Hyderabad 501401. Under our supervision and guidance of Koyi Srinivas Rao Assistant Divisional Engineer 220KV SS, Shapurnagar

Head of the Department

External Examiner

Acknowledgment
With great pleasure we want to take this opportunity to express our heartfelt gratitude to all the people who helped in making this project work a grand success. We are very much thankful to Mr. (External Guide) for giving us this opportunity to do this project. we express our deep sense of gratitude to Mr. (External Guide) for his constant guidance throughout our project work. First of all we would like to thank Mr. G.Deva Das, Head of the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, for being moral support throughout the period of our study in CMRCET.

We are highly indebted to Principal Prof. M. Ramalinga Reddy, for giving us the permission to carry out this project. We would like to thank the Teaching & Non- teaching staff of Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering for sharing their knowledge with us.

Last but not the least; we express our sincere thanks to Mr. Ch. Gopal Reddy, Secretary, CMR group of institutions, for his continuous care towards our achievements.

Mr. D. Anuroop Reddy Mr. Dharam Santhosh kumar Mr. Narayan Selvam Harianth Mr. N. Shiva Kishore

LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO FIG.NO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 5.1 7.1 7.2 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Power Triangle Beer-Mug analogy

DESCRIPTION

PAGE NO 2 4 10 11 12 24 31 34 35 40 42 44 45 46 48

Single (fixed) power factor correction Group power factor correction Bulk compensation Voltage collapse The sources and sinks of reactive power An electric motor requires active power P and reactive power Q from the power system The Nature Of Reactive Energy Individual compensation Centralized compensation Transformer reactance per phase Reactive power absorption by series inductance Power transmission system: (a) simplified model; (b) phase diagram Transmission system with shunt compensation: (a) simplified model; (b) phase diagram; (c) power-angle curve

16

9.7

Transmission system with series compensation: (a) simplified model; (b) phase diagram; (c) power-angle curve

50

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13(a) 9.13(b) 9.13(c)

Phasor diagram of improving power factor principle of automatic compensation of an installation Global compensation Compensation by sector Individual compensation A .c. generator supplying a load The phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex power of (P + j Q) VA The phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex power of

52 53 55,56 57,58 60 62 65 63

LIST OF TABLES

S.NO TABLE NO 1 2 3 4 5 6
3.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.1

DESCRIPTION
Advantages and disadvantages of PFC methods Approximate values of reactive power Reactive power compensation methods The impact on the short-circuit level, the transmission phase angle and the voltage after load rejection Initial readings of MWH, MVARH, MVAH of Power Transformer (80MVA, 50MVA, 50MVA). final readings of MWH, MVARH, MVAH of Power Transformer (80MVA, 50MVA, 50MVA).

PAGE NO 23 41 94 96 131 131

CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO

DESCRIPTION

PAGENO

1 2 3 Why4 5 6
7

Introduction Reactive power Power Factor Concepts Why do we need to improve reactive power? The Sources of Reactive power Different types of reactive power The importance of reactive power in Power Generation, Transmission & Distribution

1 2 6 24 30 31 33

8 9 10 11 ---------------------------

Reactive Power Limitations and its disadvantages Compensation of Reactive Power Case study Conclusion Specification of respective equipments Bibliography

38 39 131 133

ABSTRACT
The project report is on the role of reactive power and its importance in power generation, transmission and distribution systems. Nowadays the power utilization for industrial purpose and also household has increased drastically. So the active power and reactive power has major role to play. Although the reactive power physically doesnt exist it does effect the total power consumption. So it includes the - >The importance of the reactive power in power generation. - >Different types of reactive power and its effect on the power consumption - >The importance of reactive power compensation techniques and the devices which reduces power consumption costs. - >Design and constructional features of the capacitor banks and also installation of the capacitor banks at 220kv/132kv/33kv substation. - > functioning and failures occur in capacitor banks. - >The protection of capacitor banks. - >Advantages and disadvantages of using capacitor banks and other devices for reactive power compensation. - >The above mentioned concepts are mainly to improve power factor correction which in turn reduces the electricity consumption and electricity consumption and electricity costs. So it also include the different types of power factor correction like individual correction, group correction and their advantages/ disadvantages.

Finally this project includes the study of the reactive power and its effects on the power generation, transmission and distribution. (i)

CONTENTS
Abstract. (i) Chapter 1: Introduction .1. 1.1 Introduction.1.1 Chapter 2: Reactive Power.2. 2.1 What is reactive power? .2 2.1.1 Confusions3 2.1.2 Analogies...3 Chapter 3: Power Factor Concepts.6 3.1 Power Factor Calculations..7 3.2 Why do we need to improve Power factor? ................................8 3.3 Power factor correction....9
3.3.1 Single (fixed) power factor correction .10 3.3.2 Group power factor correction..10 3.3.3 Bulk compensation 11

3.4 Power quality problems related to the power factor correction13 3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the methods of PFC22 Chapter 4: Why do we need to improve power factor.. 24. 4.1 Voltage collapse.24
4.1.1 Proximity to instability...25 4.1.2 Voltage transients...26.

4.2 Voltage Coordination.27

4.2.1 Voltage Schedule...27. 4.2.2 Transformer tap settings.28 4.2.3 Reactive device settings.28 4.2.4 Load shedding schemes.28

4.3 Voltage & reactive power control28

Chapter 5: The sources and sinks of reactive power.30 Chapter 6: Different types of reactive power32 Chapter 7: Importance of reactive power in generation, transmission and

Distribution 33
7.1 Plant and appliances requiring reactive energy35 7.2 Transformers produce reactive powers KVAR losses36 7.3 Lines and cables..37 Chapter 8: Reactive power limitations and its disadvantages38 8.1 Limitations..........38 8.2 Disadvantages 38 Chapter 9: Compensation of reactive power...39. 9.1 Why compensation of reactive power is required? 39 9.2 Compensation systems40
9.2.1 Individual compensation..40 9.2.2 Centralized compensation42 9.2.3 Mixed compensation43

9.3 Reactive power compensation for different equipments43. 9.4 Degree of reactive power compensation51. 9.5 Equipment for compensating reactive energy52
9.5.1 Where to install capacitors? ...........................................54 9.5.2 Capacitor banks in distribution systems...61 9.5.3 Precautions considered during installations of capacitor banks .66 9.5.4 Protection for capacitor banks.67 9.5.5 Economic justification for use of capacitors ...77

9.6 Reactive power compensation methods.94 9.7 Types of Reactive Power Compensation and Control ...95 9.8 Classification of compensating devices121 9.9 What kind of compensating devices will be used for a particular case? 121 9.10 Merits & Demerits of using compensating devices for

compensation of reactive power ..121 9.11 Advantages of reactive energy compensation..122 9.12 Relationship between the power of the capacitors and the improvement of Cos(V, I)125 9.13 Determining compensation power in relation to the energy bill ...126 9.14 Search for optimum compensation..127 Chapter 10: Case Study..131

Chapter 11: Conclusion .141

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this project is to provide the brief idea of reactive power impact on the power systems.

As reactive power is a concept that describes the energy movement in A.C systems arising from the production of electric and magnetic fields. These fields store energy through each A.C cycle. Devices which store energy by virtue of magnetic field produced by a flow of current are said to absorb reactive power: those who store energy by virtue of electric fields are said to generate reactive power.

Reactive power flow can give rise to substantial voltage changes across the transmission systems, this voltage changes does effect or disturb the balance between the sources of generation and points of demand. So reactive power flow in power system must be carefully controlled within acceptable voltage limits. To control the reactive power, transmission systems should secure the transmission networks to the defined voltage and stability criteria, which is predominantly achieved through circuit arrangements , transformers, and shunt or static compensation using VAR systems, variable reactors, mechanically switched capacitor banks, synchronous condensers, induction motors etc.,

By controlling the reactive power the charges on the electricity bill can be controlled , because the reactive power flow can decrease the real power consumption due to the heating effect in the transmission and distribution conductors caused by the back and forth movement of the reactive power, which in turn effect the life expectancy of the respective conductors. From the above mentioned reactive power compensation the capacitor banks are the efficient and low cost device compared to other devices.

So, here the brief study of capacitor banks is done . that is it includes the protection and allocation of capacitor banks on the transmission networks and distribution feeders, and also the reactive power charge analysis has been described using the capacitor bank reactive power compensation.

2. REACTIVE POWER 2.1 What is reactive power?

Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power. This definition is often mathematically represented as kW/ Kva, where the numerator is the active (real) power and the denominator is the (active+ reactive) or apparent power. Reactive power (Q) = IVI III Sin (V, I) [in var or kvar]

Fig2.1 Power Triangle S : Apparent power P : Active power Q : Reactive power (V, I): Phase displacement between the apparent power and the active power (equal to the phase displacement between the current and voltage) In the case where there are no harmonics, the active, reactive and apparent powers are expressed as follows: P =VI Cos (V, I) Q =VI Sin (V, I) S =VI

Hence S*S = P*P+ Q*Q In this case Cos (V, I) =P/S is called the power factor.

2 Though the definition is very simple, the concept of reactive power is vague or confusing even to many of those who are technically knowledgeable. Explanation for reactive power says that in an alternating current system, when the voltage and current go up and down at the same time, only real power is transmitted and when there is a time shift between voltage and current both active and reactive power are transmitted. But, when the average in time is calculated, the average active power exists causing a net flow of energy from one point to another, whereas average reactive power is zero, irrespective of the network or state of the system. In the case of reactive power, the amount of energy flowing in one direction is equal to the amount of energy flowing in the opposite direction (or different parts -capacitors, inductors, etc- of a network, exchange the reactive power). That means reactive power is neither produced nor consumed. But, in reality we measure reactive power losses, introduce so many equipments for reactive power compensation to reduce electricity consumption and cost.

2.1.1 Confusions:
The undisputable law of conservation of energy states, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed yet we talk about Conservation of Energy!! The confusions erupt when we yells out the theory of conservation ignoring other theories of thermodynamics - like one, which states that entropy (low quality energy) is ever increasing. Mathematical sum of total energy has no meaning to an energy user, and hence he must be concerned about the efficiency of conversion and conservation of energy. Similarly, though we can mathematically prove that loss in reactive power is no real loss and no reactive energy is lost, we have several other reasons to be concerned about reactive power improvement. This can be better explained by physical analogies.

2.1.2Physical Analogies:
Suppose I want to fill a water tank with water, one bucket at a time. Only way is to climb a ladder, carrying a bucket of water and pouring the water into the tank. Once I fill up 3 the tank, then I have to go down the ladder to get more water. In this one cycle of going up the ladder and coming down I have done some work or the energy required to go up is more than the energy required for coming down. If I had climbed the ladder with an empty bucket, and I had come down with the same bucket I am not doing any work. The energy for upward and downward motion is the same. Though I have not done any work worth paying for- I require some energy. That is, the energy that it takes to go up and down a ladder carrying nothing either way requires reactive power, but no real power. The energy that it takes to go up a ladder carrying something and come down without carrying anything requires both real power and reactive power. The analogy can be extended for explaining 3 phase system if If we put 3 ladders going up to the tank and 3 people climb up in sequence such that there is always a steady flow. Another analogy, a bit simplistic, is the Beer Mug analogy.

Fig2.2 Beer-Mug analogy Power Factor = Active power/Apparent power = kW/kVA = Active power/ (Active Power +Reactive Power) = kW/ (kW +KVAR) = Beer/(Beer +Foam) The more foam (higher kVAR) indicates low power factor and vice versa. (In Electrical terms kW, kVA, and kVAr are vectors and we have to take the vector sum).

What causes low power factor in Electrical System? Various causes, which can be attributed for low PF, may be listed as follows. 4 1. Inductive loads especially lightly loaded induction motors, and transformers. 2. Induction Furnaces 3. Arc Lamps and arc furnaces with reactors. 4. Fault limiting reactors 5. High Voltage. The reactive power required by these loads increase the amount of apparent power in the distribution system and this increase in reactive power and apparent power results in a lower power factor.

3. POWER FACTOR CONCEPTS

The term power factor is defined as a ratio of the current drawn that produces real work to the total current drawn. Like most aspects of modern electrical systems, power factor is a complex issue intertwined with utility rate structures, economic consideration and system capacities. Power factor ranges from 1.0, or unity, to near zero. Incandescent lighting load share resistive and result in a power factor of 1.0, or 100 percent. The power factor ratio becomes less than unity when loads draw reactive and or harmonic currents in addition to the current that does real work. Real work performed by motors, heaters, and lights is a result of the current in phase with the voltage. This real work is measured as active power in kw, and can be equated to hp, cal, or lumens based on the efficiency of the device converting the electrical power to another form of power. Electrical power, expressed in KW, is the capacity to do work. This is equivalent to power in a mechanical system in that force, or voltage, accompanied by displacement, or current flow, delivers power. No work is done, however, and no energy is expended unless power is applied over a period of time. When power is applied over a period of time, energy expressed in kwh is expended and work is performed. Inductive loads such as motors, transformers, and lighting ballasts constitute a large portion of the load at most industrial facilities and to a lesser extent in commercial buildings. The inductance of these devices causes the current to lag behind the voltage. This lagging effect is caused by the magnetizing current required for operating these electro-mechanical devices. Without this magnetizing current, the devices would not work. Thus the lagging power factor effect is a fact of life that must be addressed. Current not operating in phase with the voltage does not produce any real work, and therefore cannot be billed as kwh of electrical energy consumed. However, as these amperes of magnetizing current "move back and forth" in the distribution equipment, they do place an additional burden on the electrical system. These

magnetizing amps cause additional heating to occur in equipment and conductors upstream from the load resulting in avoidable energy loss. This current contributes to reactive power known as kilovolt amperes reactive (kvar). Because the utility company must invest in 6 over sized equipment and lose energy in transmission to serve low power factor loads, a penalty is commonly assessed on the electric bill to recover these equipment costs and the lost energy from the magnetizing current flowing through the equipment and conductors. At present in India only industrial loads are under the penalty purview. Capacitive components in an electrical system cause the current to lead the voltage. The leading current of a capacitor will counteract the lagging current required by an inductive device and cancel the effect of the lagging current. Since very few capacitive components exist in typical electrical systems, capacitors or synchronous machines often are used to supply leading current to meet the kvar requirements of inductive loads. This reduces the kvar demand on the utility supply and the components in the PDS. Over correction with too much capacitance can cause a leading power factor of less than unity. This situation is undesirable and can cause over voltage conditions, system instability and resonance to occur.

3.1 Power Factor Calculations:

The power factor ratio measures the relative amounts of work-producing active power measured in kw versus the total apparent power (kva). Power factor is defined as the cosine (Cos) in the following equations: Power = Vrms Irms Cos (V, I) = kw / kva Most Electricity Distribution Companies have today adopted the carrot and stick policy towards industrial consumers. They offer financial rewards for maintaining a power factor greater than the stipulated minimum and levy a penalty from users who do not attain the minimum. Traditionally, power factor is based on the 50 Hz fundamental frequency. Harmonic currents drawn by adjustable speed drives, PCS, PLCs, and electronic office

equipment are increasing in the modern facility. As a result, power factor now must be viewed in reference to harmonic frequencies of the 50 Hz fundamental. Conventional power factor is now called displacement power factor to relate it to the displacement between the system current and voltage waveforms. Distortion power factor, on the other 7 hand, takes into account the harmonic Current that do not contribute to the real work produced by the load. Distortion power factor is defined as the ratio of the fundamental component of the line current to the total line current. The total power factor is thus a combination of both displacement and distortion power factors.

3.2 Why do we need to improve Power factor?

Reduction in the cost of electricity

An improvement of the power factor of an installation presents several technical and economic advantages, notably in the reduction of electricity bills. Good management in the consumption of reactive energy brings economic advantages. These notes are based on an actual tariff structure commonly applied in Europe, designed to encourage consumers to minimize their consumption of reactive energy. The installation of power-factor correction capacitors on installations permits the consumer to reduce his electricity bill by maintaining the level of reactive-power consumption below a value contractually agreed with the power supply authority. In this particular tariff, reactive energy is billed according to thetan criterion. But

The power supply authority delivers reactive energy for free:

If the reactive energy represents less than 40% of the active energy (tan <

0.4) for a maximum period of 16 hours each day (from 06-00 h to 22-00 h) during the most-heavily loaded period (often in winter)

Without limitation during light-load periods in winter, and in spring and

summer. During the periods of limitation, reactive energy consumption exceeding 40% of the active energy (i.e. tan > 0.4) is billed monthly at the current rates. Thus, the 8 quantity kvarh of (to reactive be energy billed) billed = in kWh these periods (tan -0.4) will be:

where:

- kWh is the active energy consumed during the periods of limitation - kWh tan is the total reactive energy during a period of limitation - 0.4 kWh is the amount of reactive energy delivered free during a period of limitation tan = 0.4 corresponds to a power factor of 0.93 so that, if steps are taken to ensure that during the limitation periods the power factor never falls below 0.93, the consumer will have nothing to pay for the reactive power consumed.

Against the financial advantages of reduced billing, the consumer must balance the cost of purchasing, installing and maintaining the power factor improvement capacitors and controlling switchgear, automatic control equipment (where stepped levels of compensation are required) together with the additional kWh consumed by the dielectric losses of the capacitors, etc. It may be found that it is more economic to provide partial compensation only, and that paying for some of the reactive energy consumed is less expensive than providing 100% compensation.

The question of power-factor correction is a matter of optimization, except in very simple cases. 3.3 Power Factor Correction: The two most common types of devices used for power factor correction are capacitors and tuned harmonic filters.

Capacitors can be applied easily and commonly are used in industrial and commercial facilities which have minimum amount of harmonics. Both single-value banks and automatically switched variable banks are available. Overheating problems with capacitor banks are becoming more common as harmonic current levels increase. Furthermore, switched capacitor banks, without appropriate design precautions, also can 9 cause high-voltage switching surges as capacitors are switched in and out of service. Different types of power factor correction: 3.3.1 Single (fixed) power factor correction: Put in practice by connecting power capacitor directly to terminals of a device that has to be compensated. Thanks of this solution, electric grid load is minimized, since reactive power is generated at the device terminals. This method eliminates controlling devices, since capacitor is being switched on and off by means of the same switch as the device. The main disadvantage of this method, is that the capacitor is not being used when the device is not operating. Moreover, the series of type capacitors offered by manufacturers is not always sufficient to meet the requirements.

Fig.3.1 Single (fixed) power factor correction

The figure above depicts capacitors banks (CB) connection in an example electric system. It is noticeable, that each CB is connected directly to a particular load. 3.3.2 Group power factor correction: This method is more effective than the previous one. Group PFC assumes compensation of a group of loads supplied by the same switchgear. 10 Capacitor bank is usually controlled by the microprocessor based device called power factor regulator. Beside this method, force applying protection for power capacitors.

Fig.3.2Group power factor correction

In this case, capacitor banks are connected to the bus-bars, which supply a group of loads. 3.3.3 Bulk compensation: This method assumes one compensating device for the whole object( inside the transformer station or in switching station). This solution minimize total reactive power to be installed and power factor can be maintained at the same level with the use of automatic regulation what makes the PF close to the desired one. The drawback is that supplying and distribution network, transformer as well as mains supplying all the equipment is loaded by reactive current. This type of compensation method demands capacitor banks to have wide range of power regulation, which can be determined by 24h measurements at the place of CB installation. This is not the best solution for large electric system,

11 especially when the distance between the source and nonlinear receivers is long . The longer distance, the bigger losses in transmission system. For this reason most commonly used method of PFC is the group compensation, while for nonlinear loads of big power single compensation is applied. In the matter of fact, each method can be applied for reactive power compensation in power grid, but each with different effectiveness. In order to put in practice particular method, it is necessary to fulfill some conditions. The factors that decide about the choice of satisfying methods are as follows: -Number of receivers in a grid and how many of them need PFC -Demanded level of grid compensation -Size and grid complexity -Possibility of CB arrangement -Type of equipment connected to the compensated mains and its behavior. (inductive/capacitive) -Higher order harmonic presence sometimes, depending on the factors listed above, more than one method has to be applied in order to meet the

PFC requirements.

. Fig 3.3 Bulk compensation

12
3.4 PQ PROBLEMS RELATED TO POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
It is ironic to think that as steps are being taken to improve the operating efficiency at a facility, those very steps may be adversely affecting the facility in other ways. This is sometimes the case when power factor correction capacitors are installed at a facility. As an example, general application of capacitors on motors, when applied without regard to the connected system, can result in the in advertent tuning of a system to a dominant harmonic. (The implications of this are discussed further below).Although harmonic problems are attributed to many power system problems, it is sometimes overly used. There are other ramifications associated with the use of power factor correction capacitors such as voltage rise and switching transients. Each of these power quality concepts will be discussed in turn.

(a) HARMONIC RESONANCE A common problem that occurs when power factor correction capacitors are installed on a system is harmonic resonance. When this occurs, the power system at a facility is tuned to a specific frequency due to a combination of the system inductance and the added capacitance. The system resonates at this frequency, if there are loads at or near the installation that produce that harmonic. When this occurs, the normal flow of harmonic currents, from load to utility source, is altered. When the currents can flow normally, they combine with other load currents across the system. If the bulk of those loads are linear, there will not be a significant percentage of distorted current. However, when the flow is altered by the installation of capacitors, distortion levels may rise, causing problems within a plant, at nearby utility customers or at system substations or currents may flow where they are not desired. When parallel resonant conditions exist, shunt capacitor banks appear to the harmonic source as being in parallel with the system source reactance (or short circuit reactance). When harmonic currents, from the harmonic source, flow through this high impedance circuit, high harmonic voltages develop. The high harmonic voltages can result in an overvoltage condition on the capacitors themselves and/or high 13 voltage distortion. Overvoltage conditions can exceed the voltage rating of the capacitor and result in capacitor failure. High voltage distortion can result in the misoperation or failure of equipment. When series resonant conditions occur, the c capacitor appears to be in series with line impedance, as seen from the harmonic source. This presents a low impedance path to the flow of harmonic currents. Currents, then, will flow on the system in ways that were unintended. This can result in interference on communications circuits that may be nearby, excessive voltage distortion at the capacitors or conductor heating. If the capacitors are placed at the end of long feeders, harmonic voltage distortion can occur at the capacitor bank since the bank acts as a sink for harmonic currents originating elsewhere on the system. If the capacitors are placed on the secondaries of service transformers, the capacitor/transformer combination can appear like a series tuned filter. Since this combination behaves like a sharply tuned filter, its resonance at a significant harmonic would result in a very low impedance path. This would result in a high voltage

distortion on the secondary while the primary distortion would remain within the limits of IEEE 519.Capacitors can fail with as little as 10% of fifth harmonic content and this can take place when there are no other noticeable effects on the system. It has been estimated that 30-40% of capacitor installations are not fully functional due to excessive harmonic currents. In a system that is parallel or series resonant, load has a significant influence on the harmonic distortion. As the load on the system increases, the overall damping factor of the circuit increases and the sharpness of the resonance decreases. When the load decreases, the damping factor also decreases and sharpness of the resonance increases. The sharpness of the resonance determines the impedance that is seen by the harmonic currents. Therefore, harmonic voltage distortion will be worse on lightly loaded systems or when the system load is mostly motors. Resonant conditions and the influence of load become particularly important when a plant is operating from on-site generators. The steady state positive sequence reactance of a generator is much higher than the utility source impedance mentioned above. As a result, harmonic currents produce higher harmonic voltages and overall voltage distortion. 14 Additionally, generator regulators and control systems are sensitive to distortion on the voltage bus. If the non-linear load on a plant is a significant percentage of the overall generator load, the generator may not stay online. Furthermore, high harmonic currents cause heating in the alternator iron which can lead to premature failure. (b) SWITCHING TRANSIENTS As mentioned earlier, capacitors are used at all voltage levels. Utilities install them at various locations on their transmission and distribution systems for voltage and VAR support. When the utility energizes a discharged capacitor, the bus voltage will momentarily collapse. This occurs because the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. This is followed by an oscillatory recovery that lasts about of a cycle. The overshoot associated with this oscillation can result in a voltage that has a theoretical peak value of two times the maximum value of the60Hz sine wave

(crest voltage). The same effect can occur when a capacitor is switched off, if re-strike occurs during the switching operation. Transients of this magnitude and duration are usually not a problem on the utility system but they can produce problems at a user facility. Severe over-voltage scan appear on facility capacitors through a phenomenon known as voltage magnification. The voltage at the end-user capacitor can be greater than the voltage at the utility capacitor. This translates to a peak voltage with a theoretical upper value of 400% although this is rarely seen. The highest transient voltages occur at the low voltage capacitor bank when the characteristic frequency of the switching transient is nearly equal to the resonant frequency of the low voltage system and when the switched capacitor is ten or more times the size of the low voltage capacitor. The IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors, ANSI/IEEE Std. 18-1992 specifies that capacitors may reasonably be expected to withstand transient over-voltages from 205% - 354% of rated peak kV (depending on the number of times a year the over-voltage occurs).Generally speaking, the voltage magnification will not result in capacitor damage. The problem that usually occurs is the failure or misoperation of sensitive loads in the facility where the low voltage capacitors are installed. 15 (c) VOLTAGE RISE

At many facilities, fixed capacitors are used to reduce cost. Fixed capacitors are those that are permanently connected to the load bus and are not switched on and off as the load changes. When the load on the facility is low, the voltage may increase due to the capacitor being sized for the higher load. The limit on steady state voltage is generally taken to be 110% of the rated voltage. If the voltage is allowed to rise above this point, transformers will saturate and overheat, mis-operation of equipment may occur and equipment life will be reduced. If the prevailing bus voltage happens to be high, due to conditions on the distribution system feeding the facility, the voltage rise would be added to this already higher voltage. Therefore, system voltage should be checked when considering voltage rise.

(d) FACILITY SURVEY/NEW CAPACITOR INSTALLATIONS

Capacitor installations are usually straightforward, however, a number of steps can be taken to ensure that the maximum benefit is derived and there will be no problems when the capacitors are installed. For example, a comprehensive facility survey and cost analysis will indicate whether the benefit from the installation justifies the cost. Many times, when a decision has been made to install power factor correction capacitors, the cost analysis has been limited to an examination of the utility bills and an estimation of the likely savings. In most cases this is probably sufficient. However,
whenever power quality issues to consider, this type of analysis may not reveal all of

the costs. The presence of non-linear loads, utility capacitors and mis-operating equipment might indicate that power quality problems exist and could be made worse by adding capacitors to a system. The true final cost may also include extended monitoring, an engineering study, re-location of existing capacitors, filter design and installation, switching equipment and/or follow-up measurements and rework. To determine what elements may be required, it is best to begin with a facility survey to identify non-linear loads, the size of the service entrance transformer, other plant data and utility information. 16 This information, taken together, is usually sufficient. In some cases, additional information is required which may involve extended monitoring and/or verification of the system one-line diagram. The cost analysis would take into consideration the additional requirements and indicate what the true costs will be. After data has been collected on the facility, a quick assessment can be made to determine what level of effort may be required to complete an installation. For a simple installation, where there are no non-linear loads, the process may be as simple as sizing the capacitor and having it installed. (e) IS AN ENGINEERING STUDY REQUIRED? The following checklist identifies situations where an engineering study is probably required. This checklist can be used if: - Capacitors are being added for the first time - Capacitors are currently installed and additional capacitors are being added

- Capacitors are currently installed and problems are being encountered. Are capacitors being added to a system where 20% of the connected load is harmonic sources? Have there been unexplained operations of fuses or other protective devices? Are measured RMS capacitor currents 135% (or greater) of rated current? Have there been any failures of capacitors currently installed at the facility? Have there been any instances of swelling or unusual noises on capacitors currently installed at the facility? Have there been unexplained failures or mis-operations of sensitive equipment? Have there been an unusual number of motor failures or unexplained motor failures? Has the utility imposed harmonic limits? Is a plant expansion currently being planned that might include additional harmonic sources? Is there on-site generation that will provide power to a significant number of harmonic sources? (f) MITIGATION TECHNIQUES Detuning Reactors: Detuning reactors are connected in series with power factor correction capacitors to 17 reduce harmonic currents and to ensure that the series resonant frequency does not occur at a harmonic of the supply frequency. The reactors are usually chosen and rated as either 5% or 7% reactors. This means that at the line frequency, the capacitive reactance is reduced by 5% or 7%. Using detuning reactors results in to a low impedance, increasing the current, so the capacitance will need to be reduced for the same level of correction. When detuning reactors are used in installations with high harmonic voltages, there can be a high resultant voltage across the capacitors. This necessitates the use of capacitors that are designed to operate at a high sustained voltage. Capacitors designed for use at line voltage only, should not be used with detuning reactors. Check the suitability of the capacitors for use with line reactors before installation.

The detuning reactors can dissipate a lot of heat. The enclosure must be well ventilated, typically forced air cooled. The detuning reactor must be specified to match the KVAR of the capacitance selected. The reactor would typically be rated as 12.5KVAR 5% meaning that it is a 5% reactor to connect to a 12.5KVAR capacitor. (h) DETUNING De-tuning a system refers to techniques that are used to change the resonance point of a system and move it away from significant harmonics. As mentioned earlier, when shunt power factor correction capacitors are added to a system, the parallel combination of these capacitors and the system source impedance can tune the system to resonate at a particular harmonic frequency. This high impedance path is the source of harmonic voltages when harmonic load current flows through the system. One technique used to de-tune a system is to add a reactor to the system. Harmful resonance conditions are generally between the shunt capacitors and the source impedance. The reactor is added between the source and the capacitor bank. An effective way to do this to add the reactor in series with the capacitor bank to move the system resonance point without tuning the capacitor to create a filter. 18 Another method that can be used is to change the size of the capacitor bank being considered. This is often one of the least expensive options. If the capacitor can be sized to move the resonance point without impacting other operational aspects (over/under correction, voltage rise, etc.) there would be no requirements for other mitigation. De-tuning can also be accomplished by moving capacitors to a point in the system with a different short-circuit impedance. This can also be considered if the installation of a capacitor causes telephone interference problems. In many cases, the capacitor cannot be moved far enough in a plant to make a difference, however the technique should not be dismissed outright. If capacitors are currently installed and problems related to harmonic current sources have been encountered, it may be cost effective to remove the capacitors. In this case, a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis must be performed.

(i) FILTERING In some situations it may be necessary to install filters to minimize the harmonic currents that are flowing on a system. Generally, filters provide a low impedance path to shunt the harmonic currents rather than them flowing back through the distribution system. Filters also change the system frequency response, most often, but not always for the better. Adding a filter creates a sharp parallel resonance point at a frequency below the filers tuned frequency. Filters are tuned slightly below the harmonic in case there is a change to the system or there is a component failure, either of which might move the resonance point into the filter. Filters typically cost about three times what a simple capacitor installation might cost. Filters are usually applied close to the component in a system where there is significant generation of harmonic currents. These filters are typically tuned to the fifth harmonic, for three phase loads, and the third harmonic for single-phase loads. These frequencies represent the lowest harmonic usually encountered on these systems and the first filter in a system should be tuned to the lowest frequency. Filter application is not as simple as simple capacitor application. 19 Analysis that may range in scope from a survey to long term monitoring and computer modeling may be required. Filter capacitors are usually wired in a delta configuration on 480volt systems. As a result, they are largely ineffective when it becomes necessary to control third-harmonic currents. If triplen harmonics are determined to be a problem, other configurations can be used. Filters should be placed on a bus where the available fault current is expected to remain constant. Although the notch frequency of the filter will not change, the system resonance point might move. Finally, filters must be designed with the capacity of the bus in mind. The filter cannot be sized solely on the load that is producing the harmonic. (j)GROUPING OF LOADS In installations where there are several harmonic current sources, it may be possible to electrically group the loads. As an example, this technique is used when

the sources are 6-pulse motor drives. Groups of 6-pulse drives can be fed from transformers with different winding configurations. If the loads are balanced, the fifth and seventh harmonics tend to cancel with the net profile being closer to that of a 12pulse drive. In a configuration such as this, the lowest harmonic would be the eleventh or thirteenth. This not only moves the predominant harmonic away from typical High frequency resonance points but it results in higher frequency harmonics.

harmonics do not have enough energy to damage a system, as would a low order harmonic. In addition to grouping loads for transformer feeds, the grouping also allows some cancellation that naturally occurs from the statistically random nature of loads and the corresponding harmonic spectrums. Although this cancellation is not of the magnitude discussed above, it is noteworthy. (h) EQUIPMENT CHANGES If it is determined that power factor correction capacitors may affect power quality at a facility, one solution may be to make some equipment changes. This may mean replacing some equipment with newer technology equipment or adding enhancements to that equipment. 20 If adjustable speed drives were installed without isolation transformers or line side reactors, consideration can be given to adding the appropriate equipment to the installation. Transformers and line reactors can provide solutions to a number of problems. Line reactors are a cost-effective way to eliminate nuisance tripping of drives due to the transient over-voltages that result from utility capacitor switching. In addition, line reactors prolong the current pulse that is typical of the rectifiers on the input of these drives. This results in a different, and much improved, harmonic current spectrum. Determining the correct reactor size, for transient voltage isolation, requires a detailed transient simulation that takes into account utility capacitor size and transformer rating. Standard isolation transformers can provide the same sort of transient isolation but size and cost considerations may preclude this option. Specialized transformers that provide harmonic mitigation may also be used. Any equipment added should be installed close to the drive and electrical connections

should be kept as short as possible. If grouping of 6-pulse adjustable speed drives is not practicable, consideration may be given to replacing an older technology drive with a newer one or with a12-pulse unit. (g) UTILITY SUPPORT If voltage transients resulting from utility switching are having an effective on power quality at a facility, consideration can be given to discussing mitigation techniques with the utility. There are a number of techniques that the utility can use to minimize these effects. The most common control techniques are pre-insertion devices and controlled closing. When pre-insertion is used, a resistive/reactive element is inserted in to the circuit briefly to damp the first peak of the transient. When reactors are used, they are helpful in limiting the higher frequency components. Controlled closing involves using a control system to ensure that the capacitor switching mechanism closes when the voltage on the capacitor closely matches the system voltage when the contacts mate. This avoids the step voltage that causes the circuit to oscillate. Finally, it may be possible to schedule the switching at a time that will have the least impact on the facility. 21 The timing may be coordinated with the switching of facility capacitors or the start up of a process. This may involve switching on capacitors before they are needed but this should not have adverse effect, particularly if a thorough analysis has been completed. 3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the methods of PFC Once all PFC methods were discussed in previous section, one can focus on advantages and drawbacks of each one. PFC method Advantages -Compensation at the place of reactive power generation Disadvantages -Maintains demanded tan(V, I) only for one piece of equipment

-Minimize the load at mains -Switching the device off Fixed -Small capacitor power -no regulator for control, multilevel CB stops operation of capacitor bank. -Big amount of compensating units. -Does not compensate whole grid

-Poor adaptation to the -Minimized number of capacitor banks compared to single Group compensation method -Particular parts of the mains are being compensated(closer to the source) main parameters -Very often needs to controlling Devices(PFR) -More expensive than bulk compensation in terms of the bigger number of capacitor banks

-Ensure constant tan(V, I) -The cheapest method -Limited number of Bulk capacitor banks value only at the terminals -Mains inside an object is not sufficiently compensated. -Risk of distortion and resonance phenomenon occurrence.

-The most expensive of motor compensation -No additional distortions compensation. -Energy losers for over compensation of

- Effective compensation method

synchronous and synchronized. -Shorter life expectancy of electric motor. -Grid is not fully compensated.

Tab3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of PFC methods

23 4. WHY DO WE NEED TO IMPROVE REACTIVE POWER?

Reactive power (VAR) is required to maintain the voltage to deliver active power (watts) through transmission lines. Motor loads and other loads require reactive power to convert the flow of electrons into useful work. When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage sags down and it is not possible to push the power demanded by loads through the lines.

4.1 Voltage collapse

Fig4.1 Voltage collapse When voltages in an area are significantly low or blackout occurs due to the cascading events accompanying voltage instability, the problem is considered to be a voltage collapse phenomenon. Voltage collapse normally takes place when a power 24 system is heavily loaded and/or has limited reactive power to support the load. The limiting factor could be the lack of reactive power (SVC and generators hit limits)

production or the inability to transmit reactive power through the transmission lines. The main limitation in the transmission lines is the loss of large amounts of reactive power and also line outages, which limit the transfer capacity of reactive power through the system. In the early stages of analysis, voltage collapse was viewed as a static problem but it is now considered to be a non linear dynamic phenomenon. The dynamics in power systems involve the loads, and voltage stability is directly related to the loads. Hence, voltage stability is also referred to as load stability.

4.1.1 Proximity to instability

Voltage stability analysis can be broadly classified into two categories 1) Static voltage stability analysis 2) Dynamic voltage stability analysis Most of the researchers have considered voltage stability as a static phenomenon and have linked it to the maximum load ability of the system. Static analysis using the conventional power flow model is viable due to the fact that the voltage collapse, in most of the incidences, has been observed as a slow process, thus, being primarily considered as a small signal phenomenon .Power engineers and operators are always interested in knowing how far the system is operating from voltage collapse or voltage instability, so that appropriate actions could be taken. There are several indices that determine the distance to instability of the current operating point of the system. Some of the voltage instability indices are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs. Sensitivity analysis is one of the earliest methods used to find voltage stability problems. Sensitivities were first used to find voltage problems by using QV curves. However, this approach does not always give correct predictions especially in large 25 power systems because sensitivity factors fail to account for large changes in system parameters.

Singular values of the Jacobian matrix have been used as a measure of the proximity to voltage instability and this method takes advantage of the orthogonal decomposition of the matrix [6]. The orthogonal decomposition is used to determine the smallest singular value which gives an indication of how far the system is from voltage instability. Singular values of the Jacobian matrix decrease when the power system is stressed. When any singular value is close to zero, it means that system is very close to voltage instability or voltage collapse.

4.1.2 Voltage transients

High-frequency voltage and current transients occur when switching a capacitor bank into service. The maximum voltage peak does not exceed (in the absence of harmonics) twice the peak value of the rated voltage when switching uncharged capacitors. In the case of a capacitor being already charged at the instant of switch closure, however, the voltage transient can reach a maximum value approaching 3 times the normal rated peak value. This maximum condition occurs only if:

The existing voltage at the capacitor is equal to the peak value of rated The switch contacts close at the instant of peak supply voltage, and The polarity of the power-supply voltage is opposite to that of the charged

voltage

capacitor

In such a situation, the current transient will be at its maximum possible value, viz: Twice that of its maximum when closing on to an initially uncharged capacitor, as previously noted. For any other values of voltage and polarity on the pre-charged capacitor, the transient peaks of voltage and current will be less than those mentioned above. 26 In the particular case of peak rated voltage on the capacitor having the same polarity as that of the supply voltage, and closing the switch at the instant of supply-voltage peak, there would be no voltage or current transients. Where automatic switching of stepped banks of capacitors is considered, therefore,

care must be taken to ensure that a section of capacitors about to be energized is fully discharged. The discharge delay time may be shortened, if necessary, by using discharge resistors of a lower resistance value.

4.2 Voltage Coordination:

The reactive sources must be coordinated to ensure that adequate voltages are maintained everywhere on the interconnected system during all possible system conditions.

Maintaining acceptable system voltages involves the coordination of sources and sinks which include: 1. Plant voltage schedules 2. Transformer tap settings 3. Reactive device settings 4. Load shedding schemes The consequences of uncoordinated operations would include: 1. Increased reactive power losses 2. A reduction in reactive margin available for contingencies and extreme light load conditions 3. Excessive switching of shunt capacitors or reactors 4. Increased probability of voltage collapse conditions

4.2.1 Voltage Schedule

Each power plant is requested to maintain a particular voltage on the system bus to which the plant is connected. 27

The assigned schedule will permit the generating unit to typically operate:

- In the middle of its reactive capability range during normal conditions - At the high end of its reactive capability range during contingencies - Under excited or absorb reactive power under extreme light load conditions

4.2.2Transformer tap settings

Transformer taps must be coordinated with each other and with nearby generating station voltage schedules.

The transformer taps should be selected so that secondary voltages remain below equipment limits during light load conditions.

4.2.3 Reactive device settings

Capacitor on the low voltage networks should be set to switch on to maintain voltages during peak and contingency conditions.

And off when no longer required to support voltage levels.

4.2.4Load shedding schemes

Load shedding schemes must be implemented as a last resort to maintain acceptable voltages.

4.3 Voltage & reactive power control:

Requires the coordination work of all transmission and distribution disciplines.

1. Transmission needs to: Forecast the reactive demand and required reserve margin. 28 Plan engineer, and install the required type and location of reactive correction Maintain reactive devices for proper compensation Maintain meters to ensure accurate data Recommended the proper load shedding scheme if necessary

2. Distribution needs to:

- Fully compensate distribution loads before transmission reactive compensation is considered. - Maintain meters to ensure accurate data - Install and test automatic under voltage load shedding schemes.

29

5. THE SOURCES & SINKS OF REACTIVE POWER

Most equipment connected to the electricity system will generate or absorb reactive power, but not all can be used economically to control voltage. Principally synchronous generators and specialized compensation equipment are used to set the voltage at particular points in the system, which elsewhere is determined by the reactive power flows.

Synchronous Generators - Synchronous machines can be made to generate or absorb reactive power depending upon the excitation (a form of generator control) applied. The output of synchronous machines is continuously variable over the operating range and automatic voltage regulators can be used to control the output so as to maintain a constant system voltage. Synchronous Compensators - Certain smaller generators, once run up to speed and synchronized to the system, can be declutched from their turbine and provide reactive power without producing real power. This mode of operation is called Synchronous Compensation. Capacitive and Inductive Compensators - These are devices that can be connected to the system to adjust voltage levels. A capacitive compensator produces an electric field there by generating reactive power whilst an inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to absorb reactive power. Compensation devices are available as either capacitive or inductive alone or as a hybrid to provide both generation and absorption of reactive power. Overhead Lines and Underground Cables - Overhead lines and underground cables, when operating at the normal system voltage, both produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power. When current flows through a line or cable it produces a magnetic field which absorbs reactive power. A lightly loaded overhead line is a net generator of reactive power whilst a heavily loaded line is a net absorber of reactive

30 power. In the case of cables designed for use at 275 or 400kV the reactive power generated by the electric field is always greater than the reactive power absorbed by the magnetic field and so cables are always net generators of reactive power. Transformers - Transformers produce magnetic fields and therefore absorb reactive power .The heavier the current loading the higher the absorption. Consumer Loads - Some loads such as motors produce a magnetic field and therefore absorb reactive power but other customer loads, such as fluorescent lighting, generate

reactive power. In addition reactive power may be generated or absorbed by the lines and cables of distribution systems.

Fig5.1The sources and sinks of reactive power 31 6. DIFFERENT TYPES OF REACTIVE POWER

There are four different types of reactive power

Displacement reactive power

This is caused by displacement of the angle between current and voltage

Charged monthly on an average basis (contract with the power provider) Nowadays mostly compensated by reactor protected capacitors

Distortion reactive power

This is caused by harmonics in current and voltage

Provided for when connecting high-performance current converters Compensation through filter circuits (passive, active)

Modulation reactive power

This is caused by periodic load fluctuations

Caused by the connection of high-power welding machines, arcing furnaces etc. Compensation through dynamic compensation (SVC)

Asymmetric reactive power

This is caused by one and two-phase loads

Provided for when connecting high-power converters such as welding machines and electric railways Balun as per Steinmetz, mostly dynamic with capacitors and reactors The reactive-power compensation systems from PQM use capacitors to provide

the inductive consumers with the reactive power they need thus reducing CO2emissions, costs and transmission losses.

32 7. IMPORTANCE OF REACTIVE POWER IN POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

All inductive machines i.e. electromagnetic and devices that operate on AC systems convert electrical energy from the power system generators into mechanical work and heat. This energy is measured by kWh meters, and is referred to as active or watt-ful energy. In order to perform this conversion, magnetic fields have to be

established in the machines, and these fields are associated with another form of energy to be supplied from the power system, known as reactive or watt less energy. The reason for this is that inductive plant cyclically absorbs energy from the system (during the build-up of the magnetic fields) and re-injects that energy into the system (during the collapse of the magnetic fields) twice in every power-frequency cycle. The effect on generator rotors is to (tend to) slow them during one part of the cycle and to accelerate them during another part of the cycle. The pulsating torque is strictly true only for single-phase alternators. In three-phase alternators the effect is mutually cancelled in the three phases, since, at any instant, the reactive energy supplied on one (or two) phase(s) is equal to the reactive energy being returned on the other two (or one) phase(s) of a balanced system. The net result is zero average load on the generators, i.e. the reactive current is watt less. An exactly similar phenomenon occurs with shunt capacitive elements in a power system, such as cable capacitance or banks of power capacitors, etc. In this case, energy is stored electro statically. The cyclic charging and discharging of capacitive plant reacts on the generators of the system in the same manner as that described above for inductive plant, but the current flow to and from capacitive plant is in exact phase opposition to that of the inductive plant. This feature is the basis on which power factor improvement schemes depend. It should be noted that while this watt less current (more accurately, the watt less component of a load current) does not draw power from the system, it does cause power losses in transmission and distribution systems by heating the conductors. 33 In practical power systems, watt less components of load currents are invariably inductive, while the impedances of transmission and distribution systems are predominantly inductively reactive. The combination of inductive current passing through an inductive reactance produces the worst possible conditions of voltage drop (i.e. in direct phase opposition to the system voltage).

Fig7.1: An electric motor requires active power P and reactive power Q from the power system For these reasons, viz:

Transmission power losses and Voltage drop The power-supply authorities reduce the amount of watt less (inductive) current

as much as possible. Watt less (capacitive) currents have the reverse effect on voltage levels and produce voltage-rises in power systems. The power (kW) associated with active energy is usually represented by the letter P. The reactive power (kvar) is represented by Q. Inductively reactive power is conventionally positive (+ Q) while capacitive reactive power is shown as a negative quantity (- Q). S represents kVA of apparent power. Figure.2 shows that the kVA of apparent power is the vector sum of the kW of active power plus the KVAR of reactive power. 34 Alternating current systems supply two forms of energy: Active energy measured in kilowatt hours (KWH) which is converted in to mechanical work, heat, light, etc Reactive energy which again takes two forms of : Reactive energy required by inductive circuits (transformers, motors, etc.),

7.1Plant and appliances requiring reactive energy:

All AC plant and appliances that include electromagnetic devices, or depend on magnetically-coupled windings, require some degree of reactive current to create magnetic flux. The most common items in this class are transformers and reactors, motors and discharge lamps (i.e. the ballasts of). The proportion of reactive power (kvar) with respect to active power (kW) when an item of plant is fully loaded varies according to the item concerned being:

65-75% for asynchronous motors. 5-10% for transformers.

Fig7.2 The nature of Reactive Energy

35

7.2 Transformers produce reactive powers KVAR losses:

The transformer by itself generates reactive power due to its inductive nature. Even when at no load, transformer generates no-load loss expressed as active power (watt) and reactive power (var).

While no-load loss in watt is well-known parameter in transformer, reactive power kvar is given less attention, merely because kvar produced by transformer becomes less significant or can be ignored when transformer is loaded (remember the power triangle, phasor relationship between power factor cos phi, active power watt and reactive power var). The higher active power compared to reactive power, the better power factor will be (full load condition). If active power is less or zero (no-load condition), power factor becomes very low since the power triangle is made up from transformer's no-load watt and var losses only. Transformer no-load kvar loss depends on kVA capacity, excitation/magnetizing current and no-load loss (watt). For example:

10 MVA transformer at 2% excitation current and 9000 watt no-load loss produces 200 kVAR reactive power loss at no-load. 4000 KVA transformer at 2% excitation current and 5000 watt no-load loss produces 80 kVAR reactive power loss at no-load. A transformer consumes reactive power which can be approximately

determined by adding: -a fixed part which depends on the off-load magnetizing current I0: Qo = 1.732Un Io - a part which is approximately proportional to the square of the apparent power that flows through it: Q=Usc((S*S)/Sn) Usc : transformer short circuit voltage in p.u. S : apparent power flowing through the transformer Sn : nominal apparent power of the transformer 36 Un : nominal phase-to-phase voltage The total reactive power consumed by the transformer is: Qt =Q0 + Q

The above reactive power decides the power factor cost.

7.3 Lines and cables:

The L and C characteristics of lines and cables are such that these elements consume or produce reactive energy depending on their load. For a three-phase cable or line:

C : cable or line capacitance L : cable or line inductance V : single-phase voltage I : current carried by the cable or line From a practical point of view: - Lines consume reactive power - MV cables produce reactive power at light load and consume reactive power at heavy load - LV cables consume reactive power.

37 8. REACTIVE POWER LIMITATIONSAND ITS DISADVANTAGES

8.1 Limitations:

Reactive power does not travel very far. Usually necessary to produce it close to the location where it is A supplier/source close to the location of the need is in a much better Reactive power supplies are closely tied to the ability to deliver real

needed. position to provide reactive power. or active power.

8.2 Disadvantages:
The economic consequences or excessive reactive energy consumption bills. Maximum apparent power. Losses in conductors at constant active power. Decrease in active power carried at constant apparent current. Reduction of voltage drop which leads to voltage in stability. Less efficient in case of power control capability.

38 9. COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER

9.1 Why compensation of reactive power is required?

The compensation reactive power is required for the reasons briefed below which explained in detail above. So the reasons are as follows:
Energy should be transmitted from the producer to the consumer in electric power

supply networks. In networks operated with alternating current or three-phase current there is also a power that flows between the producer, the power station and certain electric consumers such as electric machines. This power is needed to generate the magnetic field of these machines. The level of this power is determined by the reactive power. However, reactive power makes no contribution the real power, i.e. the active power, so it cannot be utilized. The results of reactive power are the costs for the work it involves and transmission losses. This in turn can lead to a network expansion and its resulting higher CO2 emissions.
The reactive-power requirement should be kept to a minimum. The inductive

reactive-power requirement of an asynchronous machine can be compensated with a capacitor bank, a synchronous machine or a special current converter (power factor correction). This is defined as reactive power compensation. The energy required for generating the magnetic field then no longer flows in the supply network to the generator but only between the asynchronous machine and the capacitor bank or synchronous machine. This reduces the resulting current that is drawn for operation from the network by the drive.
To compensate the above mentioned disadvantages also.

39 9.2 Compensation systems

9.2.1 Individual compensation:

This type of compensation is applied to motors, transformers, and in general to loads with a long operating time. Capacitors are connected directly in parallel to the terminals of the loads

Fig 9.1 Individual compensation

ADVANTAGES

Elimination of additional charges in the electricity bill savings from the omission of devices for the connection and disconnection of the capacitors Reduction to a minimum the current flowing in the lines, allowing the use of smaller size cables and switchgear. In existing installations additional power is released

DISADVANTAGES

Expensive system, as when the loads do not work full time, part of the capacitors are kept out of operation 40 An indication of the necessary compensation of motors is given in table 9.1.

To avoid the danger of self-excitation it is necessary to limit the power of the capacitor to 90% of the no load reactive power of the motor. Qc = 0.9 X l X U3

Approximate values of reactive power PN motor 3000 1500 1000 750 kW HP 7.5 10.0 11.0 15.0 15.0 20.0 18.5 25.5 22.0 30.0 30.0 37.0 45.0 55.0 75.0 rpm kvar 3.0 4.0 6.0 7.5 9.0 3.0 5.0 6.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 50.0 55.0 65.0 rpm kvar 4.0 5.0 7.5 9.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 30.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 rpm kvar 5.0 6.0 7.5 10.0 12.0 15.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 rpm kvar

40.0 12.5 50.0 15.0 60.0 17.0 75.0 20.0 100.025.0

90.0 125.030.0 110.0150.035.0 132.0180.040.0 160.0220.045.0 200.0270.050.0

9.1

Table 9.1 Approximate values of reactive power

41

where: Qc = capacitor power (var) lo = No load current of the motor (A) UN = voltage between phases (V)
9.2.2 Centralized compensation
When there is a large and spread number of inductive load in the installation, the individual compensation can become uneconomical. In these cases the centralized compensation by means of an automatic capacitor bank with automatic regulation offers the most simple and economical solution. Total power is subdivided in a number of capacitors steps that can be connected independently. A reactive power controller measures continuously the needs of the installation and connects or disconnects the capacitors to reach a prefixed Cos .

Fig9.2 Centralized compensation

42
ADVANTAGES

Elimination of additional charges in the electrical energy invoice Total capacitor power smaller than the one needed in individual compensation Reduced installed costs

9.2.3 MIXED COMPENSATION

Usually applied in the case of having an installation with its own distribution transformer and with the power meter in the H.V. side. Reactive power consumed by the transformer when connected to the mains is compensated by permanently connecting a capacitor to the secondary of the transformer.

This type of compensation can also be applied when the installed has a very important load, as for example, a motor of very high power, by using the individual compensation for the motor and the centralized compensation for the rest of the installation.

9.3 Reactive power compensation for different equipments.

(a) Compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer:

Where metering is carried out at the MV side of a transformer, the reactiveenergy losses in the transformer may need to be compensated (depending on the tariff).

The nature of transformer inductive reactance:

All previous references have been to shunt connected devices such as those used in normal loads, and power factor-correcting capacitor banks etc. The reason for this is that shunt connected equipment requires (by far) the largest quantities of reactive energy in power systems; however, series-connected reactance, such as the inductive reactance of power lines and the leakage reactance of transformer windings, etc., also absorb reactive energy.

43

Where metering is carried out at the MV side of a transformer, the reactiveenergy losses in the transformer may (depending on the tariff) need to be compensated. As far as reactive-energy losses only are concerned, a transformer may be represented by the elementary diagram of Figure 9.3. All reactance values are referred to the secondary side of the transformer, where the shunt branch represents the magnetizing-current path. The magnetizing current remains practically constant (at about 1.8% of full-load current) from no load to full load, in normal circumstances, i.e. with a constant primary voltage, so that a shunt capacitor of fixed value can be installed at the MV or LV side, to compensate for the reactive energy.

absorbed.

Fig9.3: Transformer reactances per phase

The reactive power absorbed by a transformer cannot be neglected, and can amount to (about) 5% of the transformer rating when supplying its full load. Compensation can be provided by a bank of capacitors. In transformers, reactive power is absorbed by both shunt (magnetizing) and series (leakage flux) reactance. Complete compensation can be provided by a bank of shunt-connected LV capacitors.

Reactive-power absorption in series-connected (leakage flux) reactance XL A

simple illustration of this phenomenon is given by the vector diagram of Figure 9.4.
The reactive-current component through the load = I sin so that QL = VI sin . The reactive-current component from the source = I sin so that QE = EI sin '. 44 It can be seen that E > V and sin ' > sin '. The difference between EI sin ' and VI sin gives the kvar per phase absorbed by XL. It can be shown that this kvar value is equal to I2XL (which is analogous to the I2R active power (kW) losses due to the series resistance of power lines, etc.). From the I2XL formula it is very simple to deduce the kvar absorbed at any load value for a given transformer, as follows: -If per-unit values are used (instead of percentage values) direct multiplication of I and XL can be carried out.

Fig 9.4: Reactive power absorption by series inductance

(b) Reactive Power Compensation of Transmission Lines.

Basic principal of power compensation in transmission system: Figure 9.5 (a) shows the simplified model of a power transmission system. 45 Two power grids are connected by a transmission line which is assumed lossless and represented by the reactance XL. V11 and V2 2 represent the voltage phasors of the two power grid buses with angle = 1- 2 between the two. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 9.5(b).

Fig9.5 Power transmission system: (a) simplified model; (b) phase diagram The magnitude of the current in the transmission line is given by: I = VL / XL = I (V11 V2 2) I / (XL)

The active and reactive components of the current flow at bus 1 are given by: Id1= V2 sin / X L, Iq1 = (V1 V2 cos ) / XL

The active power and reactive power at bus 1 are given by: P1= V2V1 sin / XL, Q1 = V1 (V1V2 cos ) / XL

Similarly, the active and reactive components of the current flow at bus 2 can be given by: Id2 =V1 sin / XL, Iq2= (V2 V1cos) / XL

The active power and reactive power at bus 2 are given by: P2= V2V1 sin / XL, , Q2= V2 (V2V1 Cos() / XL

Above equations through indicate that the active and reactive power/current flow can be regulated by controlling the voltages, phase angles and line impedance of the 46

transmission system. From the power angle curve shown in Figure 9.6(c), the active power flow will reach the maximum when the phase angle is 90. In practice, a small angle is used to keep the system stable from the transient and dynamic oscillations. Generally, the compensation of transmission systems can be divided into two main groups: shunt and series compensation.

Shunt compensation:
Shunt compensation, especially shunt reactive compensation has been widely used in transmission system to regulate the voltage magnitude, improve the voltage quality, and enhance the system stability . Shunt-connected reactors are used to reduce the line over-voltages by consuming the reactive power, while shunt-connected capacitors are used to maintain the voltage levels by compensating the reactive power to transmission line. A simplified model of a transmission system with shunt compensation is shown in Figure 9.6(a). The voltage magnitudes of the two buses are assumed equal as V, and the phase angle between them is . The transmission line is assumed lossless and represented by the reactance XL. At the midpoint of the transmission line, a controlled capacitor C is shunt- connected. The voltage magnitude at the connection point is maintained as V.

47

Fig9.6: Transmission system with shunt compensation: (a) simplified model; (b) phase diagram; (c) power-angle curve As discussed previously, the active powers at bus 1 and bus 2 are equal. P1=P2= {(2(V*V)) / XL} sin (/2)

The injected reactive power by the capacitor to regulate the voltage at the mid-point of the transmission line is calculated as: Qc= {(4(V*V)) / XL} {1 Cos (/2)} From the power angle curve shown in Figure (c), the transmitted power can be significantly increased, and the peak point shifts from =90 to =180. The operation margin and the system stability are increased by the shunt compensation. The voltage support function of the midpoint compensation can easily be extended to the voltage support at the end of the radial transmission, which will be proven by the system simplification analysis in a later section. The reactive power compensation at the end of the radial line is especially effective in enhancing voltage stability.

48 Series compensation:
Series compensation aims to directly control the overall series line impedance of the transmission line. Tracking back to above equations, the AC power transmission is primarily limited by the series reactive impedance of the transmission line. A series-connected can add a voltage in opposition to the transmission line voltage drop, therefore reducing the series line impedance. A simplified model of a transmission system with series compensation is shown in Figure 9.7(a). The voltage magnitudes of the two buses are assumed equal as V, and the phase angle between them is . The transmission line is assumed lossless and represented by the reactance XL. A controlled capacitor is series connected in the transmission line with voltage addition Vinj. The phase diagram is shown in figure 9.7(b)

49

Figure 9.7 Transmission system with series compensation: (a) simplified model; (b) phase diagram; (c) power-angle curve

Defining the capacitance of C as a portion of the line reactance, XC = k XL The overall series inductance of the transmission line is, X= XL XC = (1k) XL The active power transmitted is, P= {(V*V)/ ((1k) XL)} Sin () The reactive power supplied by the capacitor is calculated as: Q C ={k / [(1 k)* (1 k)]} {(2(V*V)) / XL} (1 Cos ) In Figure 9.7(c) shows the power angle curve from which it can be seen that the transmitted active power increases with k.
50

9.4 Degree of reactive power compensation:

The degree of compensation being decided by an economic point of view between the capitalized cost of compensator and the capitalized cost of reactive power from supply system over a period of time. In practice a compensator such as a bank of capacitors (or inductors) can be divided into parallel sections, each switched separately, so that discrete charges in the compensating reactive power may be made, according to the requirements of the load. Reasons for the application of shunt applications of shunt capacitor units are because of 1. Increase voltage level at the load. 2. Improves voltage regulation if the capacitor units are properly switched. 3. Reduces (I*I) R power loss in the system because of reduction in current.

4. Reduces (I*I) X KVAR loss in the system because of reduction in current. 5. Increases power factor of the source generator. 6. Decreases KVA loading on the source generators and circuits to relieve an overloaded condition or release capacity for additional load growth. 7. By reducing KVA loading on the source generators additional kilowatt loading may be placed on the generation if turbine capacity is available. 8. To reduce demand power is purchased. Correction to 100 percent power factor may be economical in some cases. 9. Reduces investment in system facilities per kilowatt of load supplied.

Size of capacitor to improve power factor from p.f1 to p.f2 Q c =Q1-Q2 =P (tan (V, I) - tan (V, I))

51

Fig 9.8 Phasor diagram of improving power factor

9.5 Equipment for compensating reactive energy

Compensation can be carried out by two families of products: - Fixed-valued capacitor banks - Automatically-controlled stepped capacitor banks which allow compensation to be adjusted to variations in installation consumption.

(a) Fixed capacitor banks:

Capacitor banks have a constant power. They are preferably used: - at the terminals of loads - on the bus bars having a weak load variation.

(b) Automatically-controlled stepped capacitor banks:

This type of equipment allows the reactive power supplied to be adjusted to variations in consumption and thus Cos (V, I) to be maintained at the required value. 52

It is used in cases where the reactive power consumed is high in relation to the transformer power and varies in considerable proportions, i.e. mainly: - at the terminals of the main LV switchboards - on high power outgoing feeders.

Principle and advantage of automatic compensation

A bank of capacitors is divided into sections. The value of cos (V, I) is detected

by a var meter relay which automatically controls closing and opening of the sections in relation tothe load and required cos (V, I).The current transformer must be placed upstream of the loads and capacitor bank

Fig 9.9 principle of automatic compensation of an installation 53

Overcompensation is prejudicial as it abnormally increases the duty voltage. Automatic compensation thus allows steady-state over voltages resulting from over compensation when the network has a small load to be avoided. Thus a regular duty voltage is maintained while paying the utility for reactive energy during periods of high consumption is avoided.

usual rule in low voltage:

If the power of the capacitors (kvar) is lower than 15 % of the power of the transformer, a fixed capacitor bank is chosen. If the power of the capacitors (kvar) is higher than 15 % of the power of the transformer, an automatically controlled stepped capacitor bank is chosen.

9.5.1 Where to install capacitors?

Compensation may be global, by sector or individual. In theory, ideal compensation is that which allows reactive energy to be produced at the place where it is consumed and in quantities adapted to the demand. This compensation mode is very costly and, in practice, a technical-economic solution is aimed at.

(i)Global compensation
Principle
The bank is connected at the origin of the installation (see fig.) and ensures compensation for the entire installation. It remains in continuous service during the reactive energy billing period for normal plant operation.

54

(a)

Advantages

Due to the coincidence factor lower than 1 the bank has a smaller rating. It is continuously in service and there is therefore a much quicker return on investment. Depending on the case, this type of compensation can: - avoid costs for excessive consumption of reactive energy - reduce apparent power by adjusting it to the installation's active power requirement - increase the available active power of the supply transformer. 55
Remarks

- Reactive current circulates in the installation from level 1 to the loads - Joule losses (kWh) and voltage drops in the feeder cables located downstream of the bank are not reduced.

(b) Fig 9.10 Global compensation

Use
When the load is regular, global compensation is suitable.

(ii)Compensation by sector
principle
The bank is connected to the switchboard and supplies the reactive energy required by a sector of the installation. 56 A significant part of the installation benefits from this arrangement, notably the feeder cables supplying each sector. Compensation by sector is recommended when the installation is extensive, and where the load/time patterns differ from one part of the installation to another

(a )

advantages
This type of compensation: - avoids costs for excessive consumption of reactive energy

- optimizes one part of the network, since reactive current is not carried between levels 1 and 2 57 - increases the available active power of the transformer and the active power that can be carried in the feeder cables located upstream of the compensated sector.

(b)

Fig 9.11 Compensation by

sector

Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which standing charges are Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if

usually based

necessary

The size of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduced, Losses in the same cables will be reduced

or will have additional capacity for possible load increases

Comments

Reactive current still flows in all cables downstream of the local distribution For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and the power losses in them, 58

boards

are not improved by compensation by sector

Where large changes in loads occur, there is always a risk of overcompensation

and consequent overvoltage problems

remarks
- Reactive current circulates in the installation from level 2 to the loads - Joule losses (kWh) and voltage drops in the feeder cables connecting level 2 to level 1 are reduced - There is risk of overcompensation in the event of significant variations in load (this risk can be eliminated by installing stepped banks).

Use
Compensation by sector is advisable when the installation is extensive and has sectors of high reactive energy consumption.

(iii) Individual compensation

principle

The bank is directly connected to the terminals of the load. Individual compensation should be used when the load power is considerable in relation to the transformer power. When it is possible, this compensation produces reactive energy at the place where it is consumed and in quantities adapted to the requirements. Additional compensation at the origin of the installation may also be necessary.

advantages
This type of compensation: - avoids costs for excessive consumption of reactive energy - increases the available active power of the transformer and the active power that can be carried in the feeder cables located upstream of the load 59 - reduces Joule losses (kWh) and voltage drops in feeder cables between level 3 and level 1.

Reduces the apparent power kVA demand Reduces the size of all cables as well as the cable losses

Fig 9.12 Individual compensation

remarks
Reactive current is no longer carried in the installation feeder cables.

Use
60 Individual compensation is preferable when the power of certain loads is considerable in relation to the transformer power. This type of compensation offers the most advantages but it is the most costly.

9.5.2 Capacitor banks in distribution systems

(a) What is the use of Shunt Capacitor compensation in Distribution systems?

Fig.13 (a) represents an a.c. generator supplying a load through a line of series impedance (R+jX) ohms. Fig9.13(b) shows the phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex power of (P+jQ) VA and Fig.9.13(c) shows the phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex power of (P+jO) VA i.e. with the load fully compensated. A thorough examination of these phasor diagrams will reveal the following facts. Current in the line, generator and intervening transformers ,if any, is higher by a

factor of

in the case of uncompensated load compared to compensated load.

This results in a power loss, which is higher by a factor of ( minimum power loss attainable in the system.

) 2 compared to the

1. The loading on generator, transformers, line etc is decided by the current flow. The higher current flow in the case of uncompensated load necessitated by the reactive demand results in a tie up of capacity in this equipment by a factor

of rating X

. i.e. compensating the load to UPF will release a capacity of (load VA ) in all these equipment.

2. The sending-end voltage to be maintained for a specified receiving-end voltage is higher in the case of uncompensated load. The line has bad regulation with uncompensated load. 3. The sending-end power factor is less in the case of an uncompensated one. This due to the higher reactive absorption taking place in the line reactance. 61 4. The excitation requirements on the generator is severe in the case of uncompensated load. Under this condition, the generator is required to maintain a higher terminal voltage with a greater current flowing in the

armature at a lower lagging power factor compared to the situation with the same load fully compensated. It is entirely possible that the required excitation is much beyond the maximum excitation current capacity of the machine and in that case further voltage drop at receiving-end will take place due to the inability of the generator to maintain the required sending-end voltage. It is also clear that the increased excitation requirement results in considerable increase in losses in the excitation system.

Fig9.13 (a) A.C. generator supplying a load

62 (b) The phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex power of (P +j Q) VA (c) The phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex power of (P +j O) VA i.e. with the load fully compensated It is abundantly clear from the above that compensating a lagging load by using shunt capacitors will result in i. ii. Lesser power loss everywhere upto the location of capacitor and hence a more efficient system Releasing of tied-up capacity in all the system equipments thereby enabling a postponement of the capital intensive capacity enhancement programmes to a later date. iii. iv. v. vi. Increased life of equipments due to optimum loading on them Lesser voltage drops in the system and better regulation Less strain on the excitation system of generators and lesser excitation losses. Increase in the ability of the generators to meet the system peak demand thanks to the released capacity and lesser power losses. Shunt capacitive compensation delivers maximum benefit when employed right across the load. And employing compensation in HT & LT distribution network is the closest one can get to the load in a power network. However, various considerations like ease of operation and control, economy achievable by lumping shunt compensation at EHV stations etc will tend to shift a portion of shunt compensation to EHV & HV substations. Power utilities in most countries employ about 60% capacitors on feeders, 30% capacitors on the substation buses and the remaining 10% on the transmission system. Application of capacitors on the LT side is not usually resorted to by the utilities. Just as a lagging system power factor is detrimental to the system on various counts, a leading system pf is also undesirable. It tends to result in over-voltages, higher losses, lesser capacity utilization, and reduced stability margin in the generators. The reduced

63 stability margin makes a leading power factor operation of the system much more undesirable than the lagging p.f operation. This fact has to be given due to consideration in designing shunt compensation in view of changing reactive load levels in a power network. Shunt compensation is successful in reducing voltage drop and power loss problems in the network under steady load conditions. But the voltage dips produced by DOL starting of large motors, motors driving sharply fluctuating or periodically varying loads, arc furnaces, welding units etc cannot be improved by shunt capacitors since it would require a rapidly varying compensation level. The voltage dips, especially in the case of a low short circuit capacity system can result in annoying lamp-flicker, dropping out of motor contactors due to U/V pick up, stalling of loaded motors etc and fixed or switched shunt capacitors are powerless against these voltage dips. But Thyristor controlled Static Var compensators with a fast response will be able to alleviate the voltage dip problem effectively.

2. What is the use of Series Capacitor Compensation in Distribution Systems?

Shunt compensation essentially reduces the current flow everywhere upto the point where capacitors are located and all other advantages follow from this fact. But series compensation acts directly on the series reactance of the line. It reduces the transfer reactance between supply point and the load and thereby reduces the voltage drop. Series capacitor can be thought of as a voltage regulator, which adds a voltage proportional to the load current and there by improves the load voltage. Series compensation is employed in EHV lines to 1) improve the power transfer capability 2) improve voltage regulation 3) improve the load sharing between parallel lines. Economic factors along with the possible occurrence of sub-synchronous resonance in the system will decide the extent of compensation employed. Series capacitors, with their inherent ability to add a voltage proportional to load current, will be the ideal solution for handling the voltage dip problem brought about by motor starting, arc furnaces, welders etc. And, usually the application of series

compensation in distribution system is limited to this due to the complex protection 64 required for the capacitors and the consequent high cost. Also, some problems like elfexcitation of motors during starting, ferro-resonance, steady hunting of synchronous motors etc discourages wide spread use of series compensation in distribution systems. (c) Shunt Capacitor Installation types: The capacitor installation types and types of control for switched capacitor are best understood by considering a long feeder supplying a concentrated load at feeder end. This is usually a valid approximation for some of the city feeders, which emanate from substations, located 4 to 8 Kms away from the heart of the city. Ref Figs 9.14(a) & 9.14(b).

Fig 9.14(a) long distribution feeder supplying a concentrated load

Fig 9.14(b) Along feeder which supplies heart for city from a s/s located away from the city. This feeder can be approximated by feeder 3 for compensation studies

Absolute minimum power loss in this case will result when the concentrated load is compensated to UPF by locating capacitors across the load or nearby on the feeder. 65 But the optimum value of compensation can be arrived at only by considering a cost benefit analysis.

The reactive demand of the load varies over a day and a typical reactive demand curve for a day is given in Fig 5. It is evident from Fig 5 that it will require a continuously variable capacitor to keep the compensation at economically optimum level throughout the day. However, this can only be approximated by switched capacitor banks. Usually one fixed capacitor and two or three switched units will be employed to match the compensation to the reactive demand of the load over a day. The value of fixed capacitor is decided by minimum reactive demand as shown in Fig 9.15. Automatic control of switching is required for capacitors located at the load end or on the feeder. Automatic switching is done usually by a time switch or voltage controlled switch as shown in Fig 9.15. The time switch is used to switch on the capacitor bank required to meet the day time reactive load and another capacitor bank switched on by a low voltage signal during evening peak along with the other two banks will maintain the required compensation during night peak hours.

9.5.3 Precautions considered during installations of capacitor banks

Consideration to be given to: Fire hazard Explosive hazard Ambient temperature Ventilation of heat Lightning arresters and grounding to be taken care.

66

Fig 9.15 reactivedemand daily curve as a typical feeder showing the capacitor compensation requirements (1)fixed capacitor (2)time switched capacitor (3) voltage switched capacitor.

9.5.4 Protection for capacitor banks

(a) Protection generally consists of -Fuse Protection

-System Protection by over current relays -Bank Protection by relays

67 (b) Protection of Large Capacitor Banks: Protection engineering for shunt capacitor banks requires knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of the capacitor unit and associated electrical equipment including individual capacitor unit, bank switching devices, fuses, location and type of voltage and current instrument transformers. A capacitor unit, Figure 1, is the building block of any SCB. The capacitor unit is made up of individual capacitor elements, arranged in parallel/series connected groups, within a steel enclosure. The internal discharge device is a resistor that reduces the unit residual voltage allowing switching the banks back after removing it from service. Capacitor units are available in a varietyof voltage ratings (240V to 25kV) and sizes (2.5kVAr to about 1000kVAr).The capacitor unit protection is based on the capacitor element f ailing in a shorted mode. A failure in the capacitor element dielectric causes the foils to weld together and short circuits the other capacitor elements connected in parallel in the same group, refer to Figure 1. The remaining series capacitor elements in the unit remain in service with a higher voltage across each of them and an increased capacitor can current. If a second element fails the process repeats itself resulting in an even higher voltage for the remaining elements. There are generally four types of the capacitor unit designs to consider. (1) Externally Fused Capacitors An individual fuse, externally mounted between the capacitor unit and the capacitor bank fuse bus, protects each capacitor unit. The capacitor unit can be designed for a relatively high voltage because the external fuse is capable of interrupting a high-voltage fault. However, the kilo var rating of the individual capacitor unit is usually smaller because a minimum number of parallel units are required to allow the bank to remain in service with a capacitor can out of service. A

SCB using fused capacitors is configured using one or more series groups of parallelconnected capacitor units per phase, as shown in Fig9.17. 68 (2) Internally Fused Capacitors Each capacitor element is fused inside the capacitor unit. A simplified fuse is a piece of wire sized to melt under the fault current, and encapsulated in a wrapper able to withstand the heat produced by the arc during the current interruption. Upon the capacitor failure, the fuse removes the affected element only. The other elements, connected in parallel in the same group, remain in service but with a slightly higher voltage across them. Fig 9.18 illustrates a typical capacitor bank utilizing internally used capacitor units. In general, banks employing internally fused capacitor units are configured with fewer capacitor units in parallel, and more series groups of units than are used in banks employing externally fused capacitor units. The capacitor units are built larger because the entire unit is not expected to fail. (3) Fuse less Capacitors Fuse less Capacitor Bank designs are typically the most prevalent designs in modern day. The capacitor units for fuse less capacitor banks are connected in series strings between phase and neutral, as shown in Fig 9.19. The higher the voltage for the bank, the more capacitor elements in series. The expected failure of the capacitor

Fig 9.16 Capacitor Unit. 69 unit element is a short circuit, where the remaining capacitor elements will absorb the additional voltage. For example, if there are 6 capacitor units in series and each unit has 8 element groups in series there is a total of 48 element groups in the string. If one capacitor element fails, this element is shorted and the voltage across the remaining elements is 48/47 of the previous value, or about 2% higher. The capacitor bank remains in service; however, successive failures of elements would aggravate the problem and eventually lead to the removal of the bank. The fuse less design is usually applied for applications at or above34.5kV where each string has more than 10 elements in series to ensure the remaining elements do not exceed 110% rating if an element in the string shorts. (4) Configurations of Shunt Capacitor Banks: Protection of shunt capacitor banks requires an understanding of the basics of capacitor bank design and capacitor unit connections. As a general rule, the minimum

number of units connected in parallel is such that isolation of one capacitor unit in a group should not cause a voltage unbalance sufficient to place more than 110% of rated voltage on the remaining capacitors of the group. Equally, the minimum number of series connected groups is that in which the complete bypass of the group does not subject the other capacitors

Fig9.17 Externally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit. 70 remaining in service to a permanent overvoltage of more than 110%. The value of 110% is the maximum continuous overvoltage capability of capacitor units as per IEEE Std 18-1992.The maximum number of capacitor units that may be placed in parallel per group is governed by a different consideration. When a capacitor bank unit fails, other capacitors in the same parallel group contain some amount of charge. This charge will drain off as a high frequency transient current that flows through the failed capacitor unit. The capacitor can fuse holder, when used, and the failed capacitor unit must withstand this discharge transient. The discharge transient from a large number of paralleled capacitors can be severe enough to rupture the failed capacitor unit or explode a fuse holder, which may damage adjacent units and even cause a major bus fault within the bank. To minimize the probability of failure of the explosion of the fuse holder, or rupture of the capacitor case, or both, the standards impose a limit to the total maximum energy stored in a parallel-connected group to4650 kVAR. In order not to violate this limit, more capacitor groups of a lower voltage rating connected in series (with fewer units in parallel per group) may be a suitable solution. However, this may reduce sensitivity of applied unbalance detection schemes. Splitting the bank

into two sections as a double wye may be the preferred solution, and may allow for better unbalance detection scheme. Two prevalent designs of SCBs are the externally fused bank and the fuse less bank. There are advantages to each design. Externally fused banks typically have a higher unbalance current when a unit fails which is used to operate a fused disconnect device. This design typically results in a simpler bank configuration and provides an easy method for field identification of a failed unit. A fused design also requires less sensitive unbalance protection since the fuse is the principal method used for isolating a can failure. However, this style of bank has a higher initial cost and usually higher maintenance costs. Since the fused element is exposed to the environment, the fuses become less reliable and require more maintenance to ensure correct operation. As a result, fuse less capacitor banks have become increasingly popular. Elimination of the fused connection results in a lower initial cost, reduced maintenance costs, smaller bank footprint, and fewer losses. Also, this bank design typically makes catastrophic can rupture less likely since the discharge energy of a failed element will be small. 71

Fig 9.18 Internally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit. However, the fuse less bank design has two main disadvantages that increase the emphasis on requiring sensitive relaying protection. One, the elimination of the external fuse means that visual indication of the failed capacitor has been lost. In addition, an element failure results in an overvoltage condition of the remaining

elements, stressing them. Without a fuse as a means of isolating the failed can, the protective relay must now be sensitive enough to detect a failed element and alarm before additional elements fail causing a higher overvoltage condition on the remaining units. Because of these two factors, it is especially important to utilize a sensitive protective relay which can correctly isolate a bank for a failed element. Also, the use of faulted phase identification assists field personnel in locating a failed capacitor can without having to test the entire bank. The optimum connection for a SCB depends on the best utilization of the available voltage ratings of capacitor units, fusing, and protective relaying. Virtually all HV and EHV banks are connected in one of the two wye configurations listed below [1,2]. Distribution capacitor banks, however, may be connected in wye or delta. Some banks may use an H configuration on each of the phases with a current transformer in the connecting branch to detect the unbalance.

72 (5)Grounded Wye-Connected Banks Grounded wye capacitor banks are composed of series and parallel-connected capacitor units per phase and provide a low impedance path to ground. This offers some protection from surge over voltages and transient over current conditions. When a capacitor bank becomes too large, making the parallel energy of a series group too high for the capacitor units or fuses(above 4650kVAr), the bank may be split into two wye sections. The characteristics of the grounded double wye are similar to a grounded single wye bank. The two neutrals should be directly connected with a single path to ground. The double wye design facilitates better protection methods. Even with inherent unbalances the two banks will respond similarly to system events, and therefore, methods based on comparing one split-phase versus the other are more sensitive and less prone to system events (phase current balance technique, for example).System events, and therefore, methods based on comparing one split-phase versus the other

are more sensitive and less prone to system events (phase current balance technique, for example).

Fig 9.19 Fuse less shunt capacitor bank and series string 73 (6)Ungrounded Wye-Connected Banks Ungrounded wye banks do not permit zero sequence currents, third harmonic currents, or large capacitor discharge currents during system ground faults (phase-tophase faults may still occur and will result in large discharge currents). Another advantage is that over voltages appearing at the CT secondaries are not as high as in the case of grounded banks. However, the neutral should be insulated for full line voltage because it is momentarily at phase potential when the bank is switched or when one capacitor unit fails in a bank configured with a single group of units. (7) Delta-Connected Banks

Delta-connected banks are generally used only at distribution voltages and are configured with a single series group of capacitors rated at line-to-line voltage. With only one series group of units n over voltage occurs across the remaining capacitor units from the isolation of a faulted capacitor unit. (8) H-Configuration Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase with a current transformer connected between the two legs to compare the current down each leg. As long as all capacitors are balanced, no current will flow through the current transformer. If a capacitor fuse operates, some current will flow through the current transformer. This bridge connection facilitates very sensitive protection. The H arrangement is used on large banks with many capacitor units in parallel. (9)Sensitive Capacitor Bank Protection Methods Voltage Differential With reference to Figure 5, this function is based on a voltage divider principle a healthy capacitor string has a constant and known division ratio between its full 74 tap (typically the bus voltage) and an auxiliary tap used by the protection. The principle could be used on both grounded (Fig 9.20 (a)) and ungrounded (Fig 9.20 (b)) banks. In the latter case the neutral point voltage (VX) must be measured by the relay, and used to derive the voltage across the string.

Fig 9.20 Voltage differential application to grounded (a) and ungrounded (b) banks.

The function uses the following operating signal:

Where kA is a division ratio for the A-phase of the bank. Identical relations apply to phases B and C. Note that equations (1) can be implemented using either phasors or magnitudes. During no-fault conditions and under small bank unbalances caused by internal bank failures, the two voltage swill be almost in phase, suggesting the phasors and magnitude versions would yield similar results. However, the function is set very sensitive and given possible angular errors of the used VTs, there will be differences in performance between the two possible versions. The performance depends on the type of security measures used to deal with errors of instrument transformers. More information is provided in one of the following sections. 75 Typically, the method is used on grounded banks and equation (a)is used. In theory, the algorithm could be applied on ungrounded banks using equation ( b), but it requires both the neutral voltage and the tap voltages to be measured. Such arrangements may not be practical (the tap voltages not measured on ungrounded banks). If the tap voltages are measured, one could apply multiple overlapping

protection zones to the ungrounded bank as long asthe applied relay(s) support the required number of inputs and associated protection functions. Specifically, equation (1b) can be used for voltage differential; and two neutral voltage unbalance protection elements can be used one balancing the bus voltages with the neutral voltage, and another balancing the tap voltages against the neutral voltage. Equations (1) apply to primary voltages, and as such they incorporate the voltage-dividing ratio of the capacitor, but ignore the ratios of applied instrument transformers. In secondary voltages, the operating voltage is:

Where the operating signal is in secondary volts of the bus VT, and the nVT1, nVT2 and nVTX stand for ratios of the bus, tap, and neutral voltage transformers, respectively. Normally the VT ratios are selected so that the secondary voltages for the bus and tap voltages are similar under nominal system voltage. This leads to the effective matching factor for the secondary voltages being close to unity: ka *(nVT1/ nVT2)=1 Voltage-based capacitor protection functions are set sensitive. Given the format of equations (1) both the bus and tap voltages shall be measured accurately in order to gain sensitivity of protection. As a result the VT ratios shall be selected so that the resultant secondary voltages fall in the region of maximum relay accuracy, and the 76 two VTs work within their maximum class accuracy under nominal system voltage. The latter is ensured for the bus voltage; selection of the VT for the tap voltage shall be done carefully to minimize VT and relay errors for the tap voltage. Relay setting

range for the ratio-matching factor is another condition that may limit selection of this VT ratio. The following characteristics apply to the voltage differential function [3]: The element shall support individual per-phase settings to cope with different unbalances between the phases (repairs and shorted units). The element is capable of indicating the affected phase, and potentially the number of faulted capacitor elements, to aid trouble shooting and repairs of the bank. The function shall apply appropriate security measures for sensitive but secure operation: appropriate restraint signal could be developed to accompany the operating signal (1).Setting range shall allow disabling the restraint if desired so. Several independent pickup thresholds shall be provided for alarming and tripping. The voltage matching coefficients (k) shall be individually table per phase. Both auto-setting and self-tuning applications of this method are possible. Provision could be made to calculate the matching factors k automatically under manual supervision of the user, either locally or remotely (auto-setting), or calculate the factor constantly in a slow adjusting loop (self-tuning).The process of finding the constant balancing a given phase protection is based on the following simple equation:

The voltage differential method can be used in a number of configurations as long as the relay allows wide range of ratio matching for the compared voltages: tap voltage can be compared with the bus voltage; two taps can be compared on the same bank; two taps can be compared between two parallel banks, etc.

9.5.5 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR USE OF CAPACITORS:

Increase in benefits for 1KVAR of additional compensation decrease rapidly as the system power factor reaches close to unity. This fact prompts an economic 77 analysis to arrive at the optimum compensation level. Different economic criteria can be used for this purpose. The annual financial benefit obtained by using capacitors can be compared against the annual equivalent of the total cost involved in the capacitor

installation. The decision also can be based on the number of years it will take to recover the cost involved in the Capacitor installation. A more sophisticated method would be able to calculate the present value of future benefits and compare it against the present cost of capacitor installation. When reactive power is provided only by generators, each system component (generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, switch gear and protective equipment etc) has to be increased in size accordingly. Capacitors reduce losses and loading in all these equipments, thereby effecting savings through powerless reduction and increase in generator, line and substation capacity for additional load. Depending on the initial power factor, capacitor installations can release at least 30%additionalcapacity in generators, lines and transformers. Also they can increase the distribution feeder load capability by about 30% in the case of feeders which were limited by voltage drop considerations earlier. Improvement in system voltage profile will usually result in increased power consumption thereby enhancing the revenue from energy sales. Thus, the following benefits are to be considered in an economic analysis of compensation requirements. a) Benefits due to released generation capacity. b) Benefits due to released transmission capacity. c) Benefits due to released distribution substation capacity. d) Benefits due to reduced energy loss. e) Benefits due to reduced voltage drop. f) Benefits due to released feeder capacity. g) Financial Benefits due to voltage improvement. Capacitors in distribution system will indeed release generation and transmission capacities. But when individual distribution feeder compensation is in question, the value of released capacities in generation and transmission system is likely to be too small to warrant inclusion in economic analysis. Moreover, due to the tightly interconnected nature of the system, the exact benefit due to capacity release in these areas is quite difficult to compute. Capacity release in generation and transmission system 78 is probably more relevant in compensation studies at transmission and subtransmission levels and hence left out from the economic analysis of capacitor application in distribution systems.

a.) BENEFITS DUE TO RELEASED DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION CAPACITY: The released distribution substation capacity due to installation of capacitors which deliver Qc MVARs of compensation at peak load conditions may be shown to be equal to

Where C = Cost of station & associated apparatus per MVA i = annual fixed charge rate applicable (b) Benefits due to reduced energy losses: Annual energy losses are reduced as a result of decreasing copper loss due to installation of capacitors. Information on type of capacitor installation, location of 79

installation nature of feeder loading etc. are needed to calculate this. The calculation can proceed as follows Let a current I1+j I2 flow through a resistance R. The power loss is (I12+ I22) R. The power loss due to reactive component is I22 R. Compensating the feeder will result in a change only in I2. Hence the new power loss will be (I22+(I2-Ic) 2) R where Ic is the compensating current. Hence the decrease in power loss due to compensating part of reactive current is (2 I2Ic-Ic2) R. Now, if I2 is varying (it will be varying according to reactive demand curve) the average decrease in power loss over a period of T hours will be equal to (2 I2Ic FR-Ic2) R where I2 stands for peak reactive current during T hours through the feeder section of resistance R, Ic is compensation current flowing through the same section for the same period and FR is reactive load factor for T hours in the same section. Thus total energy savings in this section of feeder for T hours will be 3(2I2IcFR-Ic2) RT. One day can be divided into many such periods depending on the number of fixed and switched capacitors and the sequence of operation of switched capacitors. Also, the feeder can be modeled by uniformly distributed load or discrete loading and total energy savings can be found out for each period over the entire period by mathematical integration or discrete summation. The daily and hence the annual energy savings for the entire feeder can be worked by an aggregation over the time periods. Let be this value if total energy savings per year. Annual benefits due to conserved X cost of energy.

energy will be

(c) Benefits due to released feeder capacity: In general feeder capacity is restricted by voltage regulation considerations rather than thermal limits. Shunt compensation improves voltage regulation and there by enhances feeder capacity. This additional feeder capacity can be calculated 80

as

where Qc is compensation (MVAR) employed, X and R is the P.F before Where C is the cost

are feeder reactance & resistance respectively and compensation. The annual benefits due to this will be

of the installed feeder per MVA and i is the annual fixed charge rate applicable. (d) Financial benefits due to voltage improvement. Energy consumption increases with improved voltage. Exact value of the increased consumption can be worked out from a knowledge of elasticity of loads of the concerned feeders with respect to voltage. Let it be to this will be cost of energy. . Annual revenue increase due

(1) Annual equivalent of total cost of the installed capacitor banks. This will be equal to where Qc is total capacitive MVAR to be installed, C

is cost of capacitors per MVAR and i is the annual fixed charge applicable. The total annual benefits should be compared against the annual equivalent of total cost of capacitors to arrive at optimum compensation levels. (2) Optimum Capacitor Allocation On Distribution FeedersThe benefits obtained from the release of feeder and substation capacities will depend only on total compensating MVAR available on the feeder during peak load hours. But benefits due to energy loss reduction will depend nearly on how this total MVAR is distributed on the feeder (i.e. the location, number and capacities of fixed and switched capacitor banks on the feeder), the daily reactive load curve at various sections of the feeder, the switching schedule of the switched capacitors etc. The energy savings calculations have been briefly touched upon in section. For a given total capacitive MVAR on the feeder during peak time there are many ways to divided it in to fixed and switched units and many possible locations where the banks can be 81

placed. Hence a study on the optimum number of banks and optimum location of these banks in order to obtain maximum energy savings for a given amount of total compensation is in order. But how can the feeder be modeled for this purpose? (a) The feeder models for optimum capacitor allocation. A practical 11 kV feeder is loaded in a non-uniform manner both with respect to the rating of distribution transformers and transformer to transformer distance. Hence, only a "discretely loaded feeder" model can give the exact solution to the above mentioned optimization problem. But, such a model can be solved only numerically with the help of a computer. Hence there is need for a simpler model. Analytical expression for the optimum solution can be attempted if closely located but non-uniformly distributed transformers can be aggregated into a small number of (say 2 or 3 or 4) discrete loads as shown in Fig 9.21 (a) &9.21 (b). This is possible in the case of city feeders emanating from a substation, which is somewhat distant from town center.

Fig 9.21(a)typical 11KV distributions (b) the above feeder with leads aggregated The feeder can at times be modeled as a feeder with a concentrated load at the tail end. This is possible for a feeder emanating from a distant substation to supply 82

power to distribution transformers located densely at the feeder end to supply the heart of the city. The most frequently used feeder model is a feeder with a uniformly distributed load with a possible concentrated load at the tail end. This model is appropriate for city feeders, which emanate from substations quite close to the city. Transformers are likely to be distributed right from the beginning of the feeder onwards, more or less at equal distance and the transformers are likely to be of more or less same rating. Moreover these transformers will be supplying more or less similar type of loads. The concentrated load at the feeder and may be an actual concentrated load or equivalent lumped load of the rest of the feeder which for some reason or other need not be modeled in detail. Another useful assumption is possible usually in the case of such feeders. The homogeneous nature of load on such a feeder makes it possible to assume that the load on a particular transformer at any time of the day is given by the following relation

This effectively means that the normalized daily active power and reactive power demand curves are of same shape in all feeder sections and same as the curves of the feeder load at substation. This assumption which is valid for most of the urban feeders simplifies the analysis considerably and makes a closed form solution for the capacitor allocation problem possible. (b) Optimum Allocation using uniformly distributed load model for the feederConsider a feeder with a uniformly distributed load and a concentrated load at the end as shown in fig 9.22 (a). The reactive current distribution in the feeder (for any time instant) is shown in fig 9.22 b). 83

Fig 9.22 (a) uniformly loaded feeder with lumped sum load at the end ` (b) Reactive current distributors is the feeder in 9.21(a)

The reactive current profile of the same feeder with a capacitor located at a distance x1 from station end is shown in fig 9.22 (b) by dotted lines. The total power loss reduction after adding the capacitor will be

Where 'r' is resistance per unit length, and 'l' is the length of the feeder. The per unit loss reduction is obtained by dividing this by the loss without compensation. (Only loss contributed by reactive currents is considered here since loss contributed by active current will not change on compensation.) After simplifying the equation

PLS in Pu =

Where

84

And

And

= per unit distance of capacitor location from station end.

This method can be extended for n capacitor banks of equal rating (it can be proved that when multiple fixed capacitors are used they have to be of equal rating to be economical) located at various locations on the feeder. In that case

PLS in Pu =

Where

xI=distance of ith capacitor from station end.

The optimum locations are found by equating the partial derivatives of PLS with respect to to zero and solving for . This yields

Substituting this in the expression for PLS, the maximum value of loss reduction with n capacitors of equal rating located at optimum locations can be obtained.

Maximizing

with respect to C yields the value of compensation, which yields

the absolute maximum value of loss reduction with n optimum valued capacitors located at optimum points.

85

Hence total compensation required = compensation. Special cases. Distributed load, no lumped sum load

x total reactive load at station end before

, single capacitor.

86

Conclusion from the analysis: For a feeder with uniformly distributed load most of the power loss due to reactive

loading can be eliminated by using a fixed shunt capacitor of (

* total feeder reactive

load) rating at ( *length of feeder) away from source. There is not much advantage to be derived from increasing the number of capacitor banks from one or two. (ii) a lumped load at tail end tends to shift the optimum location towards the tail end and does not have any influence on the optimum capacitor value. (c) Optimum allocation based On Maximum Energy Loss Reduction. No mention about the particular value of total reactive loading on the feeder was made in the above analysis. With a changing reactive level over the day, optimality with respect to power loss reduction can be maintained only by employing capacitor MVARS which also change continuously. But using fixed capacitors this is not possible. So, which value of reactive loading must be used to calculate the optimum allocation? It is obvious that more important than optimizing the power loss reduction is the optimizing of energy loss reduction.. It should equally be obvious that optimum compensation based on peak condition may result in a net increase in energy losses due to over compensation during off peak periods. It was earlier pointed out that loss reduction in a feeder segment carrying a reactive load current of I amps and a compensation current of Ic amps will be 3R(2 I Ic - Ic2 ) where R is the segment resistance. The average power loss reduction in T hours in this segment will hence be 3R(2 Iavg * Ic Ic2 ) where Iav is average reactive load current over T hrs and Iav= Ipeak * F where F is the reactive load factor over T hours. 87

The optimal allocation for maximum energy loss reduction may be carried out by taking reactive load factor into consideration. The results will be as shown in next page. The optimum location and optimum compensation level required for maximizing energy loss reduction will be considerably different compared to the values obtained from maximizing peak load power loss reduction for low values of reactive load factor, especially when the concentrated load at feeder end goes up in value.

Some rules for application of capacitor banks on distribution feeders. i. ii. iii. iv. The location of fixed shunt capacitors should be based on average reactive load. There is only one location for each size of capacitor bank that produces maximum loss reduction. One large capacitor bank can provide almost as much savings as two or more banks of equal size. When multiple locations are used for fixed capacitors, the banks must have same rating to be economical. 88

v.

The two- thirds rule for compensation level and location in the case of a uniformly loaded feeder is useful only when reactive load factor is high and a fixed capacitor is to be used.

Optimum location and size when switched capacitors are used along with fixed capacitors. Absolute maximum energy loss reduction can be obtained only if the capacitors are maintained at optimum values with the changing reactive levels over the day. Fixed capacitors, hence, will give only a lesser energy loss reduction. Closer tracking of reactive load curve of feeder is possible by employing switched capacitor banks (switched either by time switch or voltage switch). Clearly, employing switched banks will result in greater reduction in energy loss especially when reactive load factor is low. As explained before one fixed bank with two switched banks should be sufficient to track the reactive load curve. But how can the ratings and locations of these banks be fixed? It should be clear that the expressions based on uniform distribution will not be valid due to the discontinuity in reactive profile introduced by the fixed capacitor. Extensive computations reported in the literature has revealed that maximum power loss reduction in a feeder with uniformly or non uniformly distributed load or with discrete point loads is obtained when the capacitor bank is located at a point where its rating is equal to twice the reactive flow at that point before compensation. Hence, the method to arrive at ratings and locations of the three banks will be as follows. Divide the daily reactive load curve in to three regions-light load period, medium load period, and heavy load period. Also find peak load for all the periods and reactive load factors for all the periods.

89

The rating of the fixed capacitor will be ( period

peak reactive load in the light load

reactive load factor for this period.). This capacitor is to be located at a point

where the reactive flow during light load condition is half the rating of capacitor. Find the value of total capacitor required under medium load condition using the same rule as in (ii) i.e. assuming single bank compensation. Find the rating of the first switched capacitor by subtracting the value of fixed capacitor from the value obtained in (iii) Locate this switched capacitor at a point where the reactive load low after accounting for the fixed capacitor contribution is required to half the switched capacitor rating. Repeat (iii) for heavy load period and find the rating of second switched capacitor by subtracting the values of fixed and first switched capacitors Locate this switched capacitor at a point where the reactive load flow is after accounting for the contributions from fixed capacitor and first switched capacitor is equal to half the second switched capacitor rating. Needless to mention that optimum ratings can be hand calculated only if feeder load before compensation can be considered as a uniformly distributed one. (3) How to decide the optimum level of compensation

General method Simplified method Method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties Method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent power (kVA)

(a) General method: (i) Listing of reactive power demands at the design stage

This listing can be made in the same way (and at the same time) as that for

90 the power loading described in "General rules of electrical installation design". The levels of active and reactive power loading, at each level of the installation (generally at points of distribution and sub-distribution of circuits) can then be determined. (ii) Technical-economic optimization for an existing installation

The optimum rating of compensation capacitors for an existing installation can be determined from the following principal considerations:

Electricity bills prior to the installation of capacitors Future electricity bills anticipated following the installation of capacitors Costs of:

- Purchase of capacitors and control equipment (contactors, relaying, cabinets, etc.) transformer, Installation etc., following and the maintenance installation costs of capacitors Several simplified methods applied to typical tariffs (common in Europe) are shown in sub-clauses "Method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties" and "Method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent power (kVA)". - Cost of dielectric heating losses in the capacitors, versus reduced losses in cables,

(iii) Simplified method General principle An approximate calculation is generally adequate for most practical cases, and may be based on the assumption of a power factor of 0.8 (lagging) before compensation. In order to improve the power factor to a value sufficient to avoid tariff penalties (this depends on local tariff structures, but is assumed here to be 0.93) and to reduce losses, volt-drops, etc. in the installation. From the figure, it can be seen that, to raise the power factor of the installation from 0.8 to 0.93 will require 0.355 kvar per kW of load. The rating of a bank of capacitors at the bus bars of the main distribution board of the installation would be

Q (KVAR) = 0.355 x P (kW). 91 This simple approach allows a rapid determination of the compensation capacitors required, albeit in the global, partial or independent mode.

(iv) Method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties

In the case of certain (common) types of tariff, an examination of several bills covering the most heavily-loaded period of the year allows determination of the kvar level of compensation required to avoid kvarh (reactive-energy) charges. The pay-back period of a bank of power-factor-correction capacitors and associated equipment is generally about 18 months.

The following method allows calculation of the rating of a proposed capacitor bank, based on billing details, where the tariff structure corresponds with (or is similar to) the one described in "Reduction in the cost of electricity". The method determines the minimum compensation required to avoid these charges which are based on kvarh consumption.

The procedure is as follows:

Refer to the bills covering consumption for the 5 months of winter (in France

these are November to March inclusive). Note: in tropical climates the summer months may constitute the period of heaviest loading and highest peaks (owing to extensive air conditioning loads) so that a consequent variation of high-tariff periods is necessary in this case. The remainder of this example will assume Winter conditions in France.

Identify the line on the bills referring to reactive-energy consumed and

kvarh to be charged. Choose the bill which shows the highest charge for kvarh (after checking that this was not due to some exceptional situation).

For example: 15,966 kvarh in January. 92

Evaluate the total period of loaded operation of the installation for that month,

for instance: 220 hours (22 days x 10 hours). The hours which must be counted are those occurring during the heaviest load and the highest peak loads occurring on the power system. These are given in the tariff documents, and are (commonly) during a 16-hour period each day, either from 06.00 h to 22.00 h or from 07.00 h to 23.00 h according to the region. Outside these periods, no charge is made for kvarh consumption.

The necessary value of compensation in kvar = kvarh billed/number of hours

of operation(1) = Qc The rating of the installed capacitor bank is generally chosen to be slightly larger than that calculated. Certain manufacturers can provide slide rules especially designed to facilitate these kinds of calculation, according to particular tariffs. These devices and accompanying documentation advice on suitable equipment and control schemes, as well as drawing attention to constraints imposed by harmonic voltages on the power system. Such voltages require either over dimensioned capacitors (in terms of heatdissipation, voltage and current ratings) and/or harmonic-suppression inductors or filters. 1) In the billing period, during the hours for which reactive energy is charged for the case considered above:

factor of the load from 0.7 to 0.95 (0.691 x 85.4 = 59 kvar in the figure). The declared value of kVA will then be

i.e. an improvement of 30%.

93

Fig9.23: Reduction of declared maximum kVA by power-factor improvement

9.6 Reactive power compensation methods:

Generally speaking, a undesired power factor value caused by inductive load connected to the supplying network can be corrected (compensated) by means of loads having capacitive behavior. Practically, there are two methods of reactive power compensation in electric networks, which are depicted on the diagram below: S/No. Artificial 1 Electrical motors with appropriate power as well as replacing not fully 2 3 loaded motors with smaller ones. Preventing idle operation of electric motors and transformers. Switching off transformer welding machines during the brakes in 4 welding. Replacing induction motors with the synchronous ones. Capacitor Banks Electric motors Over excitation of synchronized asynchronous motors Natural

Table9.2 Reactive power compensation methods 94 For not complex electric grids where there is a small amount of inductive loads. Natural method of compensation might be good enough, especially when desired parameters of the grid are not excessive. In case of large power grids, mentioned method is not sufficient, so there is a need to improve the network parameters by means of artificial reactive power compensation method.

9.7 Types of Reactive Power Compensation and Control:

Series compensation Shunt compensation Traditional VAR Generators/Compensators.
Static VAR systems

Converter-based Compensator (STATCOM) Static synchronous series compensator. Variable shunt reactors And other voltage sourced converter devices

(a) Series compensation:

Description Series compensation is defined as insertion of reactive power elements into transmission lines and provides the following benefits:

Reduces line voltage drops Limits load-dependent voltage drops Influences load flow in parallel transmission lines Increases transfer capability Reduces transmission angle Increases system stability

For these tasks, Siemens offers various solutions that have already been proven in numerous applications. Applications are the Fixed Series Capacitor (FSC), the

95 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and the Thyristor - Protected Series Capacitor (TPSC). Details The task of series compensation is to reduce the transmission lines inductivity. This means, that the line length is "virtually" shortened. As a consequence, the transmission angle is reduced and thus the power transfer can be increased without reduction of the system stability.

Fig 9.24 Series compensation in a substation

Fig 9.25 Circuit diagrams and Phasor diagram of series compensation

96 In the table 9.3 the impact on the short-circuit level, the transmission phase angle and the voltage after load rejection are shown. Applications for each type of series compensation are included.

Table 9.3 the impact on the short-circuit level, the transmission phase angle and the voltage after load rejection Applications Series compensation makes use of capacitors, reactors or power electronic devices offering high flexibilty. Depending on the application three different types of Series Compensation are provided. The most common application is the Fixed Series Capacitor (FSC). Thyristor-Valve Controlled Systems (TCSC) and Thyristor-Valve Protected Systems (TPSC) may also be installed.

Fixed Series Capacitor (FSC)

The simplest and most cost-effective type of series compensation is provided by Fixed Series Capacitors (FSCs). FSC installations are protected against overvoltages using MOVs and self/forced triggered gaps. Due to its benefits like

97

Increase in transmission capacity and Reduction in transmission angle Fixed series compensation is a proven solution to optimize power transmission.

FSCs comprise the actual capacitor banks and parallel arresters (metal oxide varistors, MOVs), spark gaps, and a bypass switch. Surge arresters, spark gaps and bypass switch have a protecting function in a Fixed Series Capacitor bank installation. The bypass switch protects the spark gap which defends the arrester from excessive energy absorption. The surge arresters in turn protect the capacitor from overvoltages during and after transmission system failures. Three high-voltage switches serve to integrate the FSC into and isolate it from the transmission line (e.g., for maintenance purposes). A damping circuit is connected in series with the triggered spark gap and is not always stressed by the ac-line current. In parallel to the spark gap the bypass-breaker is located to provide current commutation for times when the current capability of the Spark gap or MOV is exceeded. During internal faults (faults occuring on the HV-line to which the capacitor bank is connected to) the spark gap and the bypass-breaker are allowed to operate and to protect capacitor and MOV from overload. In some cases a MOV only protection scheme is used (i.e. no spark gap) however this usually requries a much higher MOV energy which is more costly than a Spark Gap Solution. A typical single line diagram for a FSC is shown below.

98 Fig9.26 Fixed Series Capacitor (FSC)

Series-connected controllers: As shunt-connected controllers, series-connected FACTS controllers can also be divided into either impedance type or converter type. The former includes Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC), Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor-Switched Series Reactor, and Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactor. The latter, based on VSI, is usually in the form of a Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). The composition and operation of different types are similar to the operation of the shunt-connected peers. Figure shows the diagrams of various series-connected controllers.

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) Reactive power compensation by means of TCSCs can be adapted not only to brand-new installations but also be implemented in a wide range of existing systems. The TCSC provides, in addition to the conveniences of a conventional Fixed Series Compensation, some further benefits. It also controls the current and thus the load flow in parallel transmission lines, which simultaneously improves system stability. Further applications for TCSC include power oscillation damping and mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR), which is a crucial issue in case of large thermal generators. 99

Figure9.27 Series-connected FACTS controllers: (a) TCSR and TSSR; (b) TSSC; (c) SSSC

Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR) permits higher levels of compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator torsional vibrations or with other control or measuring systems are of concern. 100

Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 Hz) power oscillations often arises between areas in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are due to the dynamics of inter area power transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the aggregate power transfer over a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.

A typical single line diagram of a TCSC is shown in the figure below.

Fig9.28 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) 101

Thyristor Protected Series Capacitor (TPSC)

Fig 9.29 Thyristor Protected Series Capacitor (TPSC)

When direct-light-triggered thyristors are used, there is no need to install conventional spark gaps or surge arresters. Due to the very short cooling times of the light-triggered thyristor valves, thyristor protected series capacitors can be quickly returned to service after a failure, allowing the transmission lines to be utilized to their maximum capacity. TPSCs are the first choice whenever transmission lines must be returned to maximum carrying capacity as quickly as possible after a failure.

102

(b) Shunt compensation:

In shunt compensation, power system is connected in shunt with the FACTS. It works as a controllable current source. Shunt compensation is of two types: Shunt capacitive compensation. This method is used improve the power factor. Whenever an inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor lags because of lagging load current. To compensate, a shunt capacitor is connected which draws current leading the source voltage. The net result is improvement in power factor. Shunt inductive compensation This method is used either when charging the transmission line, or, when there is very low load at the receiving end. Due to very low or no load --very low current flows through the transmission line . Shunt capacitance in the transmission line causes voltage amplification (Ferranti Effect). The receiving end voltage may become double the sending end voltage (generally in case of very long transmission lines). To compensate, shunt inductors are connected across the transmission line.

(c) Traditional VAR Generators Compensators:

In general, VAR generators are classified depending on the technology used in their implementation and the way they are connected to the power system (shunt or series). Rotating and static generators were commonly used to compensate reactive power . in the last decade, a large number of different static var generators, using power electronic technologies have been proposed and developed .there are two approaches to the realization of power electronics based VRA compensators, the one that employs thysistor switched capacitors and reactors with tap changing transformers, and the other group that use s self commutated static converters. A brief description of the most commonly used shunt and series compensators is positioned below.

103 -Fixed or Mechanically switched capacitors:

Shunt capacitors in the year 1914. The leading current drawn by the shunt capacitors, compensates of shunt capacitors compensates the lagging current drawn by the load. The selection of shunt capacitors depends on many factors, the most important of which is he amount of lagging reactive power taken by the load. In the case of widely fluctuating loads, the reactive power also varies over a wide range. Thus, a fixed capacitor bank may often lead to either over compensation or under compensation. Variable VAR compensation is achieved using switched capacitors. Depending on the total VAR requirement, capacitor banks are switched into or switched out of the system. The capacitor banks are switched in to or switched out of the system. The smoothness of control is solely dependent on the number of capacitors switching units used. The switching is usually accomplished using relays and circuit breakers. However, these methods based on mechanical switches and relays have the disadvantage of being sluggish and unreliable. Also they generate high inrush currents, and require frequent maintenance.

Synchronous condensers:

Synchronous condensers have played a major role in voltage and rective power control for more than 50 years. Functionally, synchronous condenser is simply a synchronous machine connected to the power system. After the unit is synchronized, the field current is adjusted to either generate or absorb reactive power as required by the ac system. The machine can provide continuous reactive power control when used with the proper automatic exciter circuit. Synchronous condensers are rarely used at both distribution and transmission voltage levels to improve stability and to maintain voltages within desired limits under varying load conditions and the contingency situations. However, synchronous condensers are rarely used today because they require substantial foundations and a significant amount of starting and protective

equipment. They also contribute to the short circuit and they cannot be controlled fast to enough to compensate for rapid load changes. Moreover, their losses are much higher than those associated with static compensators, the cost is much higher

104 compared with the static compensators. Their advantage lies in their high temporary overload capability.

Static Var Compensator:

Description A SVC (Static Var Compensator) is a high voltage system that controls dynamically the network voltage at its coupling point. Its main task is to keep the network voltage constantly at a set reference value. Some other control features are:

voltage control reactive power control damping of power oscillations unbalance control

The design and layout of a SVC system is always tailored to the specific project requirements.

Fig 9.30 static compensator in a substation

105

Fig 9.31 circuit diagram of static compensator

The picture above shows the principle topology of a SVC coupled to the network via a high voltage transformer. On the secondary side there is an arrangement of usually 2 or more parallel branches. The following 3 principle branch types are available: TCR: Thyristor Controlled Reactor for linear injection of inductive reactive power TSC: Thyristor Switched Capacitor for stepwise injection of inductive reactive power Filter: Tuned filter capacitor for fixed capacitive reactive power and harmonic filtering Number and type of selected branches depend on the specific application and are project tailored. The most simple configuration is a TCR/Filter combination. The reactive power is changed by switching or controlling these reactive power elements connected to the secondary side of the transformer. Thyristor valves act as extremely fast switches. Each capacitor bank is switched ON and OFF by thyristor

valves (TSC). Reactors can be either switched (TSR) or controlled (TCR) by means of thyristor valves. The system ratings of SVCs are: Typical voltage levels: approx. 33 < kV < 800 106 Typical overall ratings: approx. 40 < MVAr < 800 SVC PLUS (VSC Technology) Details The SVC PLUS is an advanced STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator). By using the Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC) technology based on the Siemens Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) design (refer to Converter) it offers high economical and technical flexibility by its modular and containerized design. Compact and adaptable, an ideal solution when space is limited and costly. Due to the MMC technology, the degree of harmonic generation emission is quite small. High frequency noise is absorbed by small standardized high-frequency blocking filters, resulting in an SVC design which is practically independent from individual network impedances.

Fig 9.32 SVC plus It provides operational advantages like minimized maintenance and service requirements, network stabilization, excellent under voltage performance and high dynamic performance by a very fast response time. It reaches a very high level of 107 system availability, thanks to the redundancy of power modules. From 25 MVAr to 50 MVAr, all of the main equipment, including the IGBT converter, the control and protection system and the converter cooling system of the SVC PLUS, is installed in a containerized solution and factory pretested, ready for grid connection at site. For indoor installations, converter modules with 100 MVAr are available. Parallel operation of converter modules is also possible, resulting in higher ratings. The footprint of an SVC PLUS installation is smaller than a conventional SVC installation of the same rating, up to 50%.

Benefits
SVC PLUS offers a multitude of benefits:

Improved dynamic stability of transmission systems Increased power quality; reduction in risk of voltage collapse and blackout Highly efficient flicker reduction in industrial applications

Fig 9.33SVC plus

Low harmonic generation and low noise emissions, thanks to the use of MMC (Modular Multilevel Converter) technology Minimized engineering efforts due to standardized component design Fast, efficient, modular, and cost-effective solution 108

Fig 9.34 Reactive power vs system voltsge Applications

Power producers and system operators all over the world are faced with increasing demands for bulk power transmission, low cost power delivery, and high system security. At the same time, congestion and bottlenecks cause limitations in power transmission. SVC PLUS provides a solution to such problems whenever they occur. SVC PLUS can be customized to individual reactive power demands: Three standardized pre-engineered configurations covering SVC PLUS S (+/-25 MVAr), SVC PLUS M (+/-35 MVAr), or SVC PLUS L (+/-50 MVAr) are available as containerized solutions, and up to four of these units can be configured as a system operating in a fully parallel manner. Transformer loss solutions are available up to 36 kV. For higher system voltages, standard AC transformers are used. This modular concept makes SVC PLUS uniquely adaptive without compromising on performance, construction time, and cost-effectiveness. For indoor installations, converter modules with approximately 100 MVAr are available. In addition, hybrid solutions with mechanically switched capacitors (MSC) or reactors (MSR) are available, to expand the power range further. It can be either used for utility applications, grid access, mobility applications and industrial applications. 109

(d) Converter-based Compensator (STATCOM):

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is one of the key Converter-based Compensators which are usually based on the voltage source inverter (VSI) or current source inverter (CSI), as shown in Figure 9.35 (a). Unlike SVC, STATCOM controls the output current independently of the AC system voltage, while the DC side voltage is automatically maintained to serve as a voltage source. Mostly, STATCOM is designed based on the VSI.

Figure 9.35 STATCOM topologies: (a) STATCOM based on VSI and CSI (b) STATCOM with storage device Compared with SVC, the topology of a STATCOM is more complicated. The switching device of a VSI is usually a gate turn-off device paralleled by a reverse diode; this function endows the VSI advanced controllability. Various combinations of the switching devices and appropriate topology make it possible for a STATCOM to vary the AC output voltage in both magnitude and phase. Also, the combination of 110 STATCOM with a different storage device or power source (as shown in Figure 9.35 (b)) endows the STATCOM the ability to control the real power output. STATCOM has much better dynamic performance than conventional reactive power compensators like SVC. The gate turn-off ability shortens the dynamic response time from several utility period cycles to a portion of a period cycle. STATCOM is also much faster in improving the transient response than a SVC. This advantage also brings higher reliability and larger operating range. Figure 9.36 shows the V-I characteristics of STATCOM and SVC.

Figure 9.36 V-I characteristics of SVC and STATCOM: (a) SVC; (b) STATCOM

(e) Variable shunt reactors:

The flow of reactive power in electrical networks is a consequence of varying reactive power consumption and generation. As the load requirement is changing, the reactive current drawn from the system also changes. When reactive current flows, a voltage drop occurs and the system voltage will decrease with respect to the no-load value. Furthermore, the flow of reactive current will cause additional losses in the network. On systems, where the varying reactive power requirements due to changing consumption and/or generation cannot be tolerated, it is common practice to provide correction or compensation means in order to maintain operation of the power system within defined and accepted conditions. In networks, where consumption and generation are reasonably predictable and stable, fixed shunt capacitor banks or fixed 111 shunt reactors are used. However, reactive power compensation is then accomplished for a specific operating condition only. More flexibility can be achieved by providing for mechanically switching of those units. A special case of voltage regulation occurs when loads change very rapidly (e.g. in electric arc furnaces) - since such rapid voltage changes (flicker phenomena) can cause disturbances in lighting systems and in other power equipments. To improve the voltage quality in such cases, Static Var Compensator (SVC) installations are provided. An SVC, consisting of a thyristor

controlled reactor in parallel to a fixed capacitor bank, provides a fast controllable reactive load which responds very quickly to voltage changes. Application: If such a very fast and dynamic response is not mandatory, a continuously Variable Shunt Reactor (VSR) may be the optimum choice for providing the required function of reactive power compensation over a wide range of service conditions at minimum investment and operating costs. Functions which may be achieved by VSRs are: maintain steady-state voltage limit conditions keep the reactive power flow with in predefined limits maintain a desired power factor As part of the overall reactive compensation scheme, a continuously VSR may provide reactive power compensation and smooth steady-state voltage control in response to the daily load cycle and possible changes in power generation. Furthermore, the flexibility of VSRs offers the ability to adapt to system topology changes or new operational requirements in the future. Typical network condition which favor the application of VSRs are: Networks with distributed generation (e.g. solar, wind, combined heat and power plants, etc.) may not always provide full control over their electrical output. This may create problems of increased flow of reactive power due to the varying reactive power of both, generation as well as consumption. 112 Strongly varying loads powered through relatively long overhead lines or cables(e.g. power supply of islands or that of remotely located industrial plants). The application of a continuously VSR in shunt connection with the load will relieve the feed in line from reactive current and thereby mitigating the line losses and improving the voltage quality at the customer. With more than 3 decades of successful field experience, Trench is the recognized world leader in designing and manufacturing of power reactors for all

utility and industrial applications. Our unique design approach for VSRs is the appropriate answer for continuous adjustable reactive power compensation within minutes /hour time scale. The VSR obtains adjustability of its power output via variation of its inductance achieved by adjusting the air gaps of its magnetic circuit. This is realized by means of moveable plunger cores. Depending on the position of the twin cores, an air gap of variable length inside the winding is provided. The magnetic circuit consists essentially of cylindrical shaped twin plunger cores and several C-shaped yokes, that enclose the plunger cores as well as the winding. By rotating the centrally arranged spindle (via a motor drive unit) the cores are approached or separated hence the air gap between the cores may be adjusted from near zero to about the full length of the winding. This results in a wide adjustment range of the compensation power of the VSR. The action of varying the inductance may take about one minute, a time period which is approximately the operation time of transformer tap changers, the traditional means for maintaining a constant system voltage level.

(f) Static synchronous series compensator:

-This device work the same way as the STATCOM. It has a voltage source converter 113 serially connected to a transmission line through a transformer. It is necessary an energy source to provide a continuous voltage through a condenser and to compensate the losses of the VSC. - A SSSC is able to exchange active and reactive power with the transmission system. But if our only aim is to balance the reactive power , the energy source could be quite small. The injected voltage can be controlled in phase and magnitude if we have an energy source that is big enough for the purpose. With reactive power compensation

only the voltage is controllable, because the voltage vector forms 90degrees with the line intensity. In this case the serial injected voltage can delay or advanced the line current. This means that the SSSC can be uniformly controlled in any value, in the VSC working slot. -The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) uses a VSC interfaced in series to a transmission line, as shown in the Figure. -Again, the active power exchanged with the line has to be maintained at zero- hence, in steady state operation, SSSC is a functional equivalent of an infinitely variable series connected capacitor. The SSSC offers fast control and it is inherently neutral to sub-synchronous resonance.

Fig9.37 (1)basic configuration of SSSC (2) equivalent circuit of SSSc 114 -As mentioned, Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is placed in the group of series connected FACTS devices. As shown in Fig9.37 (1),SSSC consists of a voltage source inverter connected in series through a coupling transformer to the transmission line. A source of energy is required for providing and maintaining the DC voltage across the DC capacitor and compensation of SSSC losses. Fig9.37 (2)shows the model of SSSC which consists of a series connected voltage source in series with an impedance. This impedance represents the impedance of coupling transformer.

- The SSSC when operated with an appropriate DC supply (an energy source and/or sink, or a suitable energy storage) can inject a component of voltage in anti-phase with the voltage developed across the line resistance, to counteract the effect of the resistive voltage drop on the power transmission. The capability of the SSSC to exchange both active and reactive power makes it possible to compensate for the reactive and resistive voltage drops, maintaining a high effective X/R ratio independently of the degree of series compensation -Thus, a SSSC can work like a controllable serial condenser and a serial reactance. The main difference is that the voltage infected through a SSSC is not related to the line intensity and can be controlled independently. This important feature means that the SSSC can be used with excellent results with low loads as well as with high loads. -The transmission line with the inductive reactance XL delivering power form the sending-end voltage source to the receiving-end voltage source, having no compensation of any kind, is said to be in a steady-state. The voltage impressed by the effective reactance is the same with the voltage drop across the uncompensated line because the degree of series compensations is zero.

115

Figure 9.38 shows an example of a simple power transmission system with an SSSC operating both in inductive and capacitive modes, and related phasor diagrams.

-The line reactance is constant and by adding variable series(capacitive/inductive) reactance, the amount of compensation can be controlled. The degree of series compensation in this case is defined as:

Where XL is the line inductive reactance and Xq is the emulated series reactance. - In the inductive mode of operation, the line current decreases as the inductive reactance compensation level increases from 0% to 100%. In the capacitive mode of operation the line current increases with the capacitive reactance compensation level from 0% to 33%. It is worthy to note from the diagrams that SSSC not only can increase the transferable power but it can also decrease it, simply by reversing the polarity of the injected voltage. The reversed voltage is added directly to the line voltage drop as if the line impedance was increased.

-The effects of the compensating reactance on the normalized power flow in the transmission line are as follows: when the emulated reactance is inductive, the active 116 and reactive power flow decrease and the effective reactance increases as the reactance compensation increases in the negative direction, and when the emulated reactance is capacitive the active and reactive power flow increases and the effective reactance decreases as the reactance compensation increases in the positive direction. -We can also approve of the general use of a serial controllable condenser in the case of SSSC it controls the dynamic energy flow and improves the stability between the angle and the voltage. The fact that a SSSC can induce capacitive and inductive voltage increases the operation field of the device. During the stability slot the potential of damping electromechanical oscillations increases. -The SSSC version applied in distribution systems is the Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR) that basically consists on a three-phase converter connected transformer and with a load element (or source) in the DC side of the converter. A voltage to synchronize it with the line voltage can be infected (or in cuadrature with the current) of a variable amplitude and phase, and this allows the active and reactive power exchange between the line and the energy storage device, compensates holes in the network voltage and improves the unbalances between phases. -The Unified Voltage Controller UVC, is a cheap version of the DVR because it doesnt have the energy storage device, it is made to operate in network points with a high level of short circuit. -These devices (SSSC, DVR, UVC) correct the voltage when there is a fault in the network but also have a lot of advantages in normal use, when there are no disturbances, like:

-Due to the continuous voltage injection and in combination with a properly structured controller, it is possible to control the power factor of connected loads; -In the interconnected distribution network topologies, the additional voltage with its 117 controllable magnitude and phase, van be used to work on the power flows. -It can also help to cover the capacitive reactive power demand if cable networks, which is higher than in aerial lines, mainly during low load periods that cause in admissible load elevations; -It balances loads in interconnected distribution networks, providing a balanced system; -It reduces the harmonics caused because of the use of distributed electrical generation pants at a distribution network level, by active filtering by injecting voltage with the converter at the load side.

(g) Mechanical Switched Capacitor (MSC/MSCDN)

Fig 9.39 Mechanical Switched Capacitor (MSC/MSCDN)

118 Description
Mechanically switched devices are the most economical reactive power compensation devices. They are a simple and low-cost, but low-speed solution for voltage control and network stabilization under heavy load conditions. Their utilization has almost no effect on the short-circuit power but it supports the voltage at the point of connection. An advanced form of mechanically switched capacitor is the MSCDN (Mechanically Switched Capacitor with Damping Network) for avoidance of system resonances.

Details
The MSC/MSCDN incorporates only passive components such as capacitors and reactors and can be connected directly to the high voltage bus bar system or via a coupling transformer. MSC Mechanically Switched Capacitor However, the effectiveness of voltage stabilization depends on the distance from the fault location. The MSC does not create any harmonics, but may interact with system harmonics. MSCDN Mechanically Switched Capacitor with Damping Network As a more highly developed form of mechanically switched capacitor, the MSC with an additional damping circuit provides voltage support and in addition, it is insensitive to harmonics interactions. The MSC/MSCDN can be operated in a controlled mode or manually. The control system realizes, among other features, the following main control:

automatic switching of the capacitor banks according to the need of the network system 119

sufficient hysteresis is built into the control to avoid repetitive switching ("hunting") each capacitor bank can also be manually switched on and off remote (Dispatch Center) and local (Substation) mode of operation

The MSC/MSCDN offers various benefits for transmission systems, such as

Voltage control Reactive power control Improvement of AC network stability Prevention of voltage instability Simple and effective compensation method for the grid Compact design to fit in limited space Filter for system harmonics

Fig40 Equivalent circuit Mechanical Switched Capacitor (MSC/MSCDN)

120 9.8 Classification of compensating devices

Power capacitor based compensators Power electronics compensators and active filters Hybrid compensation systems (power capacitors and power electronics based) Synchronous machines

9.9 What kind of compensating devices will be used for a particular case?
The compensating devices used for a particular case must be decided based on the following factors and conditions that has to be considered bearing in mind the merits and demerits of the compensating devices. Rating of the mains, that is voltage, frequency, and it`s real value (measurement) Demand on inductive reactive power taking into account the aim of compensation Dynamics of load Presence of higher order harmonics of a current and voltage Short circuit parameters at the capacitor bank future location Ambient conditions Place of installation

9.10 Merits & Demerits of using compensating devices for compensation of reactive power:
The negative consequences of compensating device connected to the mains are as follows: Transient generation Higher order harmonics generation

 Long lasting voltage rise Gain of higher order harmonics 121 Voltage drops, outages and Overvoltage of short duration Other kind of distortions The positive consequences of compensating device connected to the mains are as follows: Limitation of reactive power Adjustment of a voltage at receivers (burden) terminals Higher order harmonic filtration Phase voltage symmetry. Limitation of voltage swing and flickering

9.11 Advantages of reactive energy compensation:

(a) Avoidance of excessive reactive energy consumption bills:
For large consumers, reactive energy is billed above a threshold for certain periods.
During the periods of limitation, reactive energy consumption exceeding tan j

0.4 is billed monthly at the current rates. The quantity of reactive energy billed Wb is equal to: Wb = Wr Wfr Wa tan (V, I) 0.4 Wr (kvarh) period of limitation Wa kWh: active energy consumed monthly during the period of limitation : reactive energy consumed monthly during the

Wfr = 0.4 W a : amount of reactive energy supplied free of charge Reactive energy compensation allows tan (V, I) 0.4 to be obtained and thus reactive energy costs to be avoided. 122

(b) Reduction of subscribed maximum apparent power in kVA:

For small consumers, the utility bills "a standing charge" which depends on the subscribed apparent power. Above this power the consumer pays tariff penalties. Reactive energy compensation allows the standing charge to be reduced by decreasing the subscribed apparent power. In France, the standing charge on apparent power is paid by customers having a subscribed power between 36 and 250 kVA.

(c) Reduction of losses in conductors at constant active power:

Losses in cables are proportional to the square of the current carried (loss = RI
2

) and they decrease as the cos(V, I) increases.Indeed, let us assume that a

conductor carries an apparent power S , where: S= VI P =S cos (V, I) Q =S sin (V, I) If there is compensation, at constant active power, so that an apparent power Sis obtained, where: S = V I ' P = P = S Cos (V, I) Q = S sin (V, I) Then we have: S*S= P*P + Q*Q

 =P* P + Q*Q =S' * S [(cos (V, I))* (cos (V, I))] + S*S [( sin(V, I))* ( sin(V, I))] 123

Hence

The losses are inversely proportional to

(d) Increase in active power carried at constant apparent current:

Installing capacitor banks downstream of a cable (or on a transformer secondary) having a load with a weak cos(V, I) , allows a higher active power to be carried for the same apparent current in the conductors (or transformer).Indeed, let us assume that a cable (or a transformer) carries an active power P , where: P =3Un I cos (V, I) If we compensate so that cos (V, I) is obtained, at constant apparent current (constant I), we will be able to carry an active power of: P=3Un I cos (V, I) Hence

For the same apparent current, the active power which can be carried is thus proportional to cos (V, I). 124

Reduction of voltage drop:

The relative voltage drop in a three-phase cable or transformer is expressed as follows:

R : conductor or transformer resistance X : cable or transformer reactance P : load active power Q : load reactive power Vn : nominal single-phase voltage Compensation at the terminals of the load reduces the value of Q and thus the voltage drop. The gain is considerable when X =R , i.e. for transformers X =3Rand cables with a large cross-sectional area ( 240mm2 copper, 350mm2 aluminium).

9.12 Relationship between the power of the capacitors and the improvement of Cos(V, I):
This is a question of determining the reactive power to be installed in order to obtain the required cos(V, I) . Let us assume that at an active power P and reactive power Q point of the network we wish to improve cos (V, I) in order to obtain cos (V, I), or change from tan (V, I) to tan (V, I). If we install reactive power Qc capacitors then we have: 125

Q=Q - QC From this we can deduce QC = P [ tan (V, I) - tan(V, I)]

Figure9.41 gives a graphic illustration of the variation of (V, I) as a function of Qc.

9.13 Determining compensation power in relation to the energy bill

The power to be installed depends on the reactive energy consumption and the utility tariff rating. We shall examine the case of France.

(a) Method based on the avoidance of reactive energy costs

126

The following method can be used to calculate the compensation power to be installed based on reactive energy bills. It determines the minimum compensation power which avoids reactive energy costs. The process is as follows: - from amongst the electricity bills for November to March inclusive (period when reactive energy is billed), choose the maximum amount of reactive energy during one month, e.g. 15 966 kvarh in January. - assess the operating time of the installation during this month, e.g. 10 h x 22 days = 220 h. Important: The only periods to be taken into account are those when reactive energy is billed. - The value of the reactive power Qc required is:

Qc= (k varh billed)/ (operating time)

For the example in question, we find that:

Qc= (15966kvarh)/ (220h)= 73 kvar

The value to be taken is the value just above the power calculated so that the standard powers are taken into account.

(b)Method based on the reduction of subscribed maximum apparent power (yellow tariff)
127

For subscribed power between 36 kVA and 250 kVA, the French electricity authority, EDF, bills a standing charge which depends on this power. Above it, the consumer pays tariff penalties. Compensating reactive energy thus enables the standing charge to be reduced by decreasing the apparent power. The reactive energy consumed by a customer subscribing to this tariff contract does not appear on the electricity bill. To determine the value of the reactive power to be installed, the cost of investing in capacitors must be compared with the gains on the standing charge paid to EDF. We can show that the optimum solution is generally obtained for a cos (V, I) close to 0.928; i.e. Tan (V, I) close to 0.4.Indeed, above this value, the installation of extra capacitors is not worth the investment (return time too long). Moreover, care must be taken not to overcompensate, as this causes the same effects as undercompensating, with the extra cost of the capacitors. The maximum power of the capacitors to be installed is thus equal to the reactive power consumed during the peak period less 0.4 times the corresponding active power. The peak is considered here to be the maximum apparent power allowed over a period of several minutes. The power of the capacitors to be installed is thus, as shown in previous paragraph

Qc = P (tan(V, I) 0.4) = S sin(V, I) 0,4 P

S: apparent power at the consumption peak P: active power at the consumption peak tan (V, I): average value recorded

9.14 Search for optimum compensation

After having calculated the global reactive power to be installed, the optimum places to install the capacitors and the type of capacitor bank (fixed or automatic) must be determined in order to obtain as short a return on investment as possible. First of all, it is necessary to determine the value of the reactive power and if possible the load curve for different places where the 128

capacitors may be installed. Using these curves, information about the minimum, average and maximum reactive power required at these different places is obtained. The compensation mode depends on the value of the minimum reactive power consumed by the installation compared with the global power to be installed.

(a) Case where the minimum reactive power consumed by the installation is greater than the planned compensation power
Compensation may be global as there is no risk of overcompensating during normal operation, which would cause abnormal rises in voltage. However, when the installation is stopped, the capacitors must be disconnected so that no steady-state over voltages are caused on the public distribution network, due to over compensation. Indeed, maintaining the capacitors in service, when the installation is stopped, would cause an overvoltage on the public distribution network: Un : duty voltage of the public distribution network Q : capacitor power Ssc : short-circuit power at the connection point of the capacitors. dU/Un = Q/Ssc

(b) Case where the minimum reactive power consumed by the installation is lower than the planned compensation power
When the reactive power consumed is minimum, there would be overcompensation with global compensation which would cause an abnormal rise in voltage. For example, experience has shown that overcompensation at the terminals of a transformer must not exceed 15 % of its nominal power. To avoid overcompensation, it is possible to: 129

- install an automatically-controlled stepped capacitor bank which enables the load curve to be respected - install, at the origin of the installation, compensation equal to the minimum power consumed and locally compensate loads or sectors consuming a large amount of reactive power, as long as capacitor switching is controlled by the load or sector. - in the case of an installation containing several MV/LV transformers, transfer part of the compensation of a transformer to another transformer.

(c) Selection criteria

Compensation may be: - carried out in MV and/or in LV; it is more economical to install medium voltage capacitors for power greater than roughly 800 kvar. - Global, by sector, individual. - carried out by fixed bank or automatically-controlled stepped capacitor bank; in the case where the stepped bank is selected, it may be preferable to install sections of different powers in order to obtain better adjustment. For example, with sections of 800, 400, 200and 100 kvar, it is possible to obtain all in steps of 100 kvar. To determine the optimum solution, the following criteria must be taken into account: - Avoidance of reactive energy costs or reduction of subscribed power - Reduction of Joule losses in conductors and in transformers - Regular voltage at any point of the installation - Cost of investment, installation and maintenance of every solution. powers from 0 to 1 500 kvar

130

10. CASE STUDY

(1)Energy delivered from 132kv/33kv power transformer at 220kv/132kv/33kv substation shapurnagar:

The final and initial readings of MWH, MVARH, MVAH, are taken in 24hrs for two power transformers of capacity 80MVA, 50MVA, 50MVA. The readings are as follows: At 3p.m on 31-5-2011(initial) Power Transformer (MVA) 80 50 366717 381663 368917 384501 26481 28778 MWH MVAH MVARH

Table10.1 Initial readings of MWH, MVARH, MVAH of Power Transformer (80MVA, 50MVA, 50MVA).

At 3p.m on 1-6-2011(final) Power Transformer (MVA) 80 50 367036 381959 369239 384798 26504 28809 MWH MVAH MVARH

Table 10.2 Initial readings of MWH, MVARH, MVAH of Power Transformer (80MVA, 50MVA, 50MVA).

131

Calculations:
The net power consumption in 24 hrs =MWH f MWH i The net reactive power in 24hrs=MVARH f MVARH i The net apparent power in 24hrs=MVAH f MVAH i Cos (V, I) = (MWH f MWH i ) / ( MVAH f MVAH i) The net power consumption in 24hrs for 80MVA power transformer=319 MWH The net power consumption in 24 hrs for 50MVA power transformer= 296 MWH The net reactive power in 24hrs for 80MVA=23 MVARH The net reactive power in 24hrs for 50MVA=31 MVARH The net apparent power in 24hrs for 80MVA=322 MVAH The net apparent power in 24 hrs for 50MVA=297 MVAH Cos (V, I) for 80MVA= 0.99068 Cos (V, I) for 50MVA= 0.99663 As that the power factor for 80MVA and 50MVA power transformers are greater than 0.99, there fore the capacitor banks need not be switched on to compensate the reactive power. .

132

11. CONCLUSION
In conclusion the reactive power is an important factor which affects the power quality throughout the power system. So for improving the power quality the different compensating devices like power capacitors, synchronous condensers etc., plays a major role. So, the above study explains the different methods reactive power compensation techniques and their respective advantages and disadvantages. It also explains how the transmission and distribution stations protect and allocate capacitor banks on their respective networks. From the above concepts we can say that the power factor correction is an important factor for the industrial consumers because of their inductive loads which results in reactive power losses and in turn effects the transmission efficiency.

133

SPECIFICATIONS OF RESPECTIVE EQUIPMENTS

(a) SPECIFICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS (80 MVA, 50 MVA) TRANSFORMER AT SHAPUR SUBSTATION: . Transformer (80 MVA) Double copper wound transformer Type of cooling:- ONAN / ONAF (Oil Natural Air Natural / Oil Natural Air Force) Rating- (60000 /80000) KVA Rated voltage: -HV -LV 132KV 33KV

Full load current: -HV v -LV v 262.43/349.9 1049.72/1399.64

Basic insulation level IMP/P.F.: -HV -HVN -LV KV KV KV 550/230 95/38 170/170

GTD temperature rise: -Oil -WDG *C 50 *C 55

Maximum ambient temperature rise Frequency 50 Hz

*C

50

Impedance Voltage: At Tap Tap Tap No.1 No.5 No.25 12.21% 11.84% 10.24%

Transformer(50 MVA) Type of cooling:- ONAN / ONAF (Oil Natural Air Natural / Oil Natural Air Force) Insulation levels: P.F./ Impulse HV: 230KV (RMS) / 550 KVP LV: 230KV (RMS) / 170 KVP HV(N): 230KV (RMS) / 195KVP KVA 37500 / 50000

Volts at no load: HV: 132000 V LV: 35000 V Amperes: HV: LV: Frequency= 50 Hz Phases HV / LV 3/3 164 / 218.7 656.1 / 874.8

C.T. Specifications: LV WT1 CT: 874.8/1.4A, 15VA, CL: S, S3, S4 HV WT1 CT: 291.6/1.4A, 15VA, CL: S, S1, S2

(b) DESIGN & CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF CAPACITOR

Cooper Power Systems Type EX-D all-film capacitors feature the latest Cooper Power Systems design innovationsextended foil/solder less connections1 and laser-cut foil. They are designed, manufactured, and tested to meet the requirements of all applicable ANSI/IEEE, NEMA, and IEC standards. In addition they are designed to exceed the requirements of these standards in terms of continuous rms and peak overvoltage with stand capabilities, and in tank rupture characteristics. These capacitors are especially suited to the rigors of industrial power systems for: - Power factor improvement - Harmonic filter applications - Reduction of losses - Reducing voltage drop EX-D capacitors can be installed singly or in factory-assembled switched or un switched banks in: - Pole mounted racks -Open air substation banks (for outdoor or indoor application) - Metal enclosures. The Type EX-D capacitor provides these exclusive benefits: -125% continuous rms overvoltage capability -135% peak overvoltage capability - Greater safety through improved tank rupture characteristics - 15,000 Amp fault current handling capability - 100 kA transient current withstand capability 140 - Ambient operation through +55 (+131F)

- Low dielectric losses (0.07) watts/KVAR @ 60 Hz) - Superior electrical performance and reliability - Environmentally acceptable Edisolt XT dielectric fluid.

EX-D Single phase all film Capacitor CAPACITOR APPLICATlON: Capacitor application requires an evaluation of the power system to determine: - The KVAR needs -The most effective location -The necessary protection. In general, capacitors are installed: - At the substation, to supply the system var needs most effectively - At or near the load center, to obtain the optimum var supply and voltage correction - At the end of the line, to achieve maximum voltage correction.

RATINGS: Cooper Power Systems Type EX-D capacitors are rated in continuous KVAR, voltage and frequency for operating within the -40 to +55Cambient temperature range. Designed to produce not less than rated KVAR at rated voltage and frequency, they are subjected to all applicable NEMA and ANSI/IEEE standard dielectric tests. Single phase 50-through 400-kVAR capacitors are available. Capacitor rated voltage is the voltage that can be applied terminal to terminal; for example, a 2400-voltcapacitor can be delta-connected on a 2400-volt system or wye-connected on a 2400/ 4160-volt system. In each case, the voltage applied to the capacitor terminals is 2400 volts. Because a capacitors KVAR output varies as the square of the ratio of applied voltage to rated voltage, application at the proper voltage is essential for optimum operating performance and long service life. The maximum recommended working voltage of an EX-D capacitor is 125% of rated voltage. Cooper Power Systems capacitors include a safety factor that permits them to toleratewithout damage momentary over voltages caused by switching or load changes. The capacitor units cataloged in this section are designed for operation at a rated frequency of 60Hz. KVAR output varies directly as the ratio of applied frequency to rated frequency. Capacitors designed to operate at 50 Hz or other frequencies are also available upon request. Table 1 lists the ratings and catalog numbers for standard Type EX-D single- and double-bushing capacitors. Other unit KVAR sizes, voltage ratings and BIL ratings are available CONSTRUCTION FEATURES: Construction features of Cooper Power Systems power capacitors include: - Stainless-steel tank with light-gray finish for resistance to corrosive atmospheres -Light-gray, wet-process-porcelain bushings; glazed for high strength and durability and hermetically sealed to the capacitor tank -Stainless-steel mounting brackets with industry-standard 15.62-in. mounting centers for unit interchangeability; underside of each bracket is unpainted for positive grounding

- Parallel-groove terminals that accommodate copper or aluminum conductors from No. 8 solid to No.1 stranded

- Internal discharge resistors that reduce terminal voltage to 50 volts or less within five minutes after the capacitor has been disconnected

- Stainless-steel nameplate containing required NEMA and ANSI/IEEE data - Blue non-PCB decal.

Ratings
Voltage (volts) BIL(KV)

400-Kvar Capacitor
DoubleBushing Single Bushing

21940

125

CEP334M2

Capacitor bank with internal discharge resistor Frequency =50 Hz KVAR -400 Voltage 29140V KV-BIL=125 Type = EXIL CAT NO.: CEP96139A1 CONTAINS: 2.43 GALS EDISOL XT FWIP having no detectable PCBs manufacture (c) Series Reactor: Series reactor: Manufacturer Quality power electrical equipments pvt.ltd KVAR- 4.8 System voltage -33 KV Rated current -126A Frequency = 50 Hz Temperature rise =105*C (less than 1PPM) at the time of

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reactive Power Compensation of Transmission Lines (By: Yongan Deng, MASc student at Concordia University). Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks By Bogdan Kasztenny, Joe Schaefer and Ed Clark Florida Power & Light Company MASTER THESIS Reactive Power Compensation Author: Jakub Kepka Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide