CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS 1.

1 Understanding Physics PHYSICS

Mechanical Energy

Study of the natural phenomena and the properties of matter.

Heat Energy Light Energy Wave Energy

Solid Liquid Gas

Matter states

Energy

forms
Electrical Energy

Nuclear Energy Chemical Energy

Properties of Matter

Relationship with energy

Relationship with matter

Properties of Energy

in the fields

Heat

Wave

Electronics

Properties of matter

Light

Electricity & Electromagnetism

Atomic Physics & Nuclear

1.2

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Base quantity 1 A physical quantity is any quantitythat can be meas .. uredbya scientific instrument. 2 Examples of scientific instruments :san topwatch, mmeetrte e r,arulmm balter ce ,th erm o e e etc. 3 A base quantity is a physical quantity which cannot be defined in terms of other physical quantities. 4 Study the following picture and list the physical quantities that can be measured. The list of physical quantities : Height, 1. . mass, 2. . size, 3. . age, 4. . temperature, 5. . current 6. . Power, 7. . Thermal energy 8. .

List of 5 basic physical quantities and their units. Base quantity Length Mass Time Current Temperature Symbol l m t I T S.I. Unit meter kilogram second Ampere Kelvin Symbol for S.I. Unit m kg s A K

Two quantities that have also identified as basic quantity. There are : i) Light intensity..unit candela .. Amount of substance mol ii) . unit ..

Standard Form 1 2 3 Standard form = A x 10 , 1 A < 10 and n = integer no. simplify the expression of very large and small numbers Standard form is used to ... Some physical quantities have extremely small magnitudes. Write the following quantities in standard form : 6.37 x 10 m a. Radius of the earth = 6 370 000 m =. -27 1.673 x 10 kg b. Mass of an electron = 0.000000000000000000000000000000 911 kg =... -4 3.0 x 10 m c. Size of a particle = 0.000 03 m = 7.2 x 10 m b. Diameter of an atom = 0.000 000 072 m = ... -7 5.5 x 10 c. Wavelength of light = 0.000 000 55 m = .. Prefixes represent a large physical quantity or extremely small quantity in S.I ... 1. Prefixes are usually used to units. before the unit as a multiplying factor. 2. It will be written 3. The list of prefixes :
10
12

-8

Eg : 1 Tm = 1 x 10 . 3.6 x 10 A How to change the unit ; Eg : 1. Mega to nano = 1.33 x 10 = 1.33 x 10

6-(-9) 15 -3 12

Tera (T) Giga (G) Mega (M) kilo (k) Hekto (ha) Deka (da) desi (d) centi (s) mili (m) micro ( ) nano (n) pico (p)

10 10 10

3 102 1

10 10

0 10 10-2

-1

nA

10

-3

nA

10 10 10

-6

-9

1.23 Tm to unit m unit 1.23 Tm = 1.23 x 10 m = 1.23 x 10

12 (-6) 18

-12

= 1.23 x 10 m 3. piko to Mega 5456 pA to MA unit 5456 pA = 5.456 x 10 = 5.456 x 10

3 + (-12) -9

pA

= 5.456 x 10 pA
-9 (6)

MA

= 5.456 x 10

-15

MA

4. Some physical quantities have extremely large magnitudes. These extremely large and small values can be written in standard form or using standard prefixes. Write the quantities in standard prefixes: 9 .1 1x a. Frequency of radio wave = 91 000 000 Hz = . 1 10 M H z 1 2. 8 M m = 1 .28 x 10 b. Diameter of the earth = 12 800 000 m = M m 38 3 M m = 2 c. Distance between the moon and the earth = 383 000 000 m = 3 .8 3 x 1 0 Mm 12 6.0 x d. Mass of the earth = 6 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg = 10 Derived quantities 1 A derived quantity is a p.hysical quantity whichcombin esseveral basic quantities through multiplication, division or both 2 Determine the derived unit for the following derived quantities. Derived quantity area volume density velocity momentum Formula
area = length x width volume = length x width x height

Derived unit
mxm=m
2 3

Name of derived unit

mxmxm=m kg m
3

density =

mass volume

= kg m

velocity = displacement time

momentum = mass x velocity

m = ms s kg m s
-1 1

ms Acceleration change= in velocity accelerati on time

force = mass x acceleration

= m s -1 s
1

s = ms
2

Force pressure weight work

kg m s
-2

-2

Newton (N)
2

pressure=

weight = mass x gravitational acceleration work = force x displacement

force area

kg m s / m kg ms Nm
-2

kg m s -2 (Nm )

-1 -2

Newton (N) Joule (J)

power
kinetic energy

power =

wor k

Js

-1

Watt (W)
-2

K.E =

1 2 mass velocity 2

Kg ms

Joule (J)

Derived quantity
potential energy charge voltage resistance

Formula
P.E = mass x gravitational acceleration x height

Derived unit Kg ms-2

Ampere second (As)

Name of derived unit

Joule (J)

charge = current x time work volt age = charge

Coulomb (C) Volt (v) Ohm ()

J C-1 vA
-1

voltage resistance = current

Note that the physical quantities such as width, thickness, height, distance, displacement, perimeter, radius and diameter are equivalent to length. 1.3 1 2 3 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES Quantity which has only magnitude or size Scalar quantities are Mass, Length, Speed, volume Examples : Quantity which has magnitude or size and direction. Vector quantities are... Velocity, Force, Displacement, Acceleration Examples : Study the following description of events carefully and then decide which events require magnitude, direction or both to specify them. Description of events 1. The temperature in the room is 25 C 2. The location of Ayer Hitam is 60 km to the north-west of Johor Bahru 3. The power of the electric bulb is 80 W 4. A car is travelling at 80 km h from Johor Bahru to Kuala Lumpur 1.4 MEASUREMENTS
-1 0

Magnitude

Direction

Using Appropriate Instruments to Measure 1 There are various types ofmeasuring instrument withd ifferent measuringcapabilities.. 2 measure a particular quantity. We must know how to choose the appropriate instrument to ..

Examples of instrument and its measuring ability. Measuring instrument Measuring tape Meter rule Vernier caliper Micrometer screw gauge
Range of measurement Smallest scale division

Up to a few meters 1m 10 cm less than 2 cm (20 mm)

0.1 cm 0.1 cm (0.01 m) 0.01 cm 0.001 cm (0.01 mm)

Sample of measuring instruments : is use to measure electric current 4.1 Ammeter : .. incorret reading correct 1 2 3 1 2 3 0 4 reading
0 4

pointer mirror

pointer

mirror

Pointers image is behind the pointer Pointers image can be seen is use to determine the volume of liquid. 4.2 Measuring cylinder : .................... wrong position of eye Right position of eye (eye are in a line perpendicular to the plane of the scale) wrong position of eye
water

4.3 Ruler :

is u se to d ete rm in e

the l en

gth

wrong 10 11 12 right 13 wrong 14 15 Reading = cm

2.5 cm

4.4 Vernier calliper A venier calliper is used to measure : a. smallobjectb. depthofa ho

le.
c. d. . A vernier calliper gives readings to an accuracy of .... cm.

external diameter of a cylinder or pipe

internal diameter of a pipe or tube 0.01cm

inside jaws Vernier scale cm 1 0 outside jaws

4 Main scale

Main scale in cm

Length of vernier scale = cm Vernier scale is divided into 10 divisions Length of the divisions = . cm

1 .0

0 0 5 10

0.01

Vernier scale

The differenct between the main scale and vernier scale is = 0.01 cm. cm
1

Main scale

= 0.2

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

cm.
Vernier scale = 0.06

cm..
Final reading = ..

Find the division of vernier scale which is coincides with any part of the main scale

0.26 cm

The diagram below shows a vernier calliper with reading.

0 1

10

0.15 Vernier calliper reading = . cm

4.5 Micrometer screw gauge. A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure : o bje cts th at ar e s m all in si ze a. b. diameterofa wire . c. diameterofsmall spheres such asball b earings One complete turn of the thimble (50 division) moves the spindle by 0.50 mm. Division of thimble = 0.5 .. 50 = 0.01 mm.. A accuracy of micrometer screw gauge =

4.5 mm 0.01 mm..

Sleeve scale : 0 . 2 2 m m Thimble scale : . 4.62 mm Total reading : ..

Example : Sleeve scale : 2.0 mm Thimble scale : 2 mm . 2. 22 m m Total reading : ... 4.6 Some others measuring instruments : 0.2

Analogue stopwatch digital stopwatch

thermometer miliammeter ..

M e asu ri ng ta pe . su rin g cy l inder .. appropriate instruments.

m ea

be aker

Hands-on activity 1.1 on page 1 of the practical book to learn more about choosing Exercise: Vernier Callipers And Micrometer Screw Gauge 1. Write down the readings shown by the following 7 8

10

(b)

P 0

Q 10

Answer: 4.27 cm..

(c)

Answer: 6.28 cm..

0 0 5 1 1

Answer: 0.02 cm..

10

2. (a) The following diagram shows the scale of a vernier calliper when the jaws are closed.
0 1

10

Zero error = 0.02 cm (b). The following diagram shows the scale of the same vernier calliper when there are 40 pieces of cardboard between the jaws.
5 6

10

Reading shown

= 5.64.cm

Corrected reading = 5.62..cm

3. Write

down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges. (a) (b)
0 5 40
0 5 10 35

35

30

Answer: 6.87 cm

Answer:12.32 cm..

(c)
0

(d)
25 20 0 5 20 15

Answer:4.71 cm

Answer:9.17 cm

4. (a) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

0 0 45

Zero error = - 0.02.. mm

Zero error = +0.03.. mm

(b) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

0 20

5 0

15

Zero error = +0.03mm

Reading shown

= 6.67..mm

Corrected reading = 6.64..mm 5. Write down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges. (a) (b)
0 5 40
0 5 10 35

35

30

Answer: 6.88 mm (c)

0

Answer: ..12.32 mm (d)

0 5 20 15

25 20

Answer:4.71 mm

Answer:

9.17 mm

Accuracy and consistency in measurements. T he ab ili ty of an in str um en t t o m e asu re 1. Accuracy : n ea res t t o t he ac tua l val ue y to 2. Consistency : The abilitent of an th instrument r measu reconsist lywi littleorno elative deviation among readings. 3. Sensitivity : Theabilityofaninstrument todetect as mall change in thequantity measured.

target

consistent but inaccurate consistent and accurate inaccurate and not consistent ..

Accuratebut notcons.i.stentinaccuratebut c onsi.s.tent inaccurate butnot consistent Hands-on activity 1.2 on page 2 of the practical book to determine the sensitivity of some measuring instruments.
Errors in measurements

target

1. All measurements are values of approximation only. 2. In other word, it is a matter of howclose themeasurement is t o theactual value. 3. This is because errorexistinall measurements. 4. Two main types of errors: Systematic errors 4.1 Occurs due to : weakness of theinstrument a) a b) thedifference betweenreaction time of thebrain and the action. c) zero erroriswhenthe po

interis not at zerowhen not inuse. Examples : a) Range of themeasuring i nstrumentabsolute error .

b) Reaction time of thebrain. c) Initial readingisno zeroerror t at thezeroscale

Absolute error : Refertothe smallest reading that canbe mea sured by aninstrument. . If, the smallest reading = 0.1 cm . Then, Absolute error = 0.1 / 2 = 0.05 cm where the pointer is not at zero when not in used Zero error : ...
0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm 0 1 cm

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Zero error =

+0.03 cm Positive zero error

Zero error =

- 0.04 cm Negative zero error error

Correct reading = observed reading zero

Horizontal reference

2 divisions below horizontal reference

Horizontal reference

3 divisions above horizontal reference

Zero error of screw meter gauge Positive zero error Zero error = - 0.02 mm 4.2Rando .. merror Occurs due to a) carelessness in maki ngthe measurement. Positive zero error Zero error = +0.03

b) parallexerror , incorrect positioning of theeye whentakingthe readings. c) sudden change of ambientfactorssuchas Example : temperature or aircirculation. a) Readings are close to the actual value but they are not consistent. Can be minimized by consistently repeating the measurement at different places in an identical manner. Parallax error : It occurs because the position of the eye is not perpendicular to the scale of the instrument wrong

Example :

right position of the eye (no error) wrong

1.5

SCIENCETIFIC INVESTIGATION Steps 1 Making observation Drawing inferences

Explanation

Gather all available information about the object or phenomenon to be studied. Using the five senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. A conclusion from an observation or phenomena using information that already exist.

Variables are factors or physical quantities which change in the course of a scientific investigation. There are three variables : i. Manipulated variables - physical quantity which change according to the aim Identifying and of the experiment. controlling variables ii. Responding variables - physical quantity which is the result of the changed by manipulated variable. iii. Fixed variables physical quantities which are kept constant during the experiment.

Formulating a hypothesis

Statement of relationship between the manipulated variable and the responding variable those we would expect. Hypothesis can either be true or false.

Conducting experiments

i. Conduct an experiment includes the compilation and interpretation of data. ii. Making a conclusion regarding the validity of the hypothesis.

Plan and report an experiment Situation : A few children are playing on a different length of swing in a playground. It is found that the time of oscillation for each swing is different. Steps
1 2 3

Example : refer to the situation above The period of the oscillation depends on the length of the pendulum. When the length of the pendulum increases, the period of the oscillation increases. Investigate the relationship between length and period of a simple pendulum.

Inference Hypothesis Aim

Variables

Manipulated variable : the length of the pendulum. Responding variable : Period Fixed variable : the mass of the pendulum and the displacement. Retort stand with clamp, 100 cm of thread, bob, meter rule, 2 blocks of clamp wood, protractor and stop watch.

List of apparatus and materials

Arrangement of the apparatus

Retort stand

protractor

bob

Procedures

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure above. 2. Measure the length of the pendulum,l = 60.0 cm by using a meter rule. 3. Give the pendulum bob a small displacement 300.Time of 10 oscillations is measured by using a stop watch. 4. Repeat the timing for another 10 oscillations. Calculate the average time. Period = t10 oscillations 10 5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 using l = 50.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 30.0 cm and 20.0 cm Length,l / Leng cm 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 Time for 10 oscillations / s 2 1 Average 15.8 15.0 13.1 11.9 9.9 15.7 15.0 13.1 11.9 9.9 15.8 15.0 13.1 11.9 9.9 Period/ s (T = t10/10) 1.58 1.50 1.31 1.19 0.99

Tabulate the data

Analyse the data

T/s 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Graf of period, T vs pendulums length, l

10

20

30

40

50

60 l / cm

10

Discussion

11

Conclusion

Precautions : 1. Oscillation time is measured when the pendulum attained a steady state. 2. Time for 10 oscillations is repeated twice to increase accuracy. 3. Discussion (refer to given questions) The period increases when the length of the pendulum increases. Hypothesis accepted.

Reinforcement Chapter 1 Part A :Objective Question 1. Which of the following is a base SI quantity? A Weight B Energy C Velocity D Mass 2. Which of the following is a derived quantity? A Length B Mass C Temperature D Voltage 3. Which of the following is not a basic unit? A Newton C ampere B kilogram D second

4. Which of the following quantities cannot be derived? A Electric current B Power C Momentum D Force 5. Which of the following quantities is not derived from the basic physical quantity of length? A Electric charge B Density C Velocity D Volume

6. Initial velocity u, final velocity v, time t and another physical quantity k is related by the equation v - u = kt. The unit for k is -1 -1 A ms B m s -2 2 -2 C ms D m s 7. Which of the following has the smallest magnitude? A megametre B centimetre C kilometre D mikrometre 8. 4 328 000 000 mm in standard form is A 4.328 x 10 m B 4.328 x 10 m 6 9 C 4.328 x 10 m D 4.328 x 10 m 9. Which of the following measurements is the longest? -5 -4 A 1.2 x 10 cm B 120 x 10 dm -11 C 0.12 mm D 1.2 x 10 km 10. The diameter of a particle is 250 m. What is its diameter in cm? -2 -4 A 2.5 x 10 B 2.5 x 10 -6 -8 C 2.5 x 10 D 2.5 x 10 11. Which of the following prefixes is arranged in ascending order? A mili, senti, mikro, desi B mikro, mili, senti, desi C mili, mikro, desi, senti D desi, mikro, mili, senti 12. Velocity, density, force and energy are A basic quantities B scalar quantities C derived quantities D vector quantities 13. Which of the following shows the correct conversion of units? 3 -6 3 A 24 mm =2.4 x 10 m 3 -7 3 B 300 mm =3.0 x 10 m 3 -2 3 C 800 mm =8.0 x 10 m 3 -4 3 D 1 000 mm =1.0 x 10 m 14. Which of the following measurements is the shortest ? 3 A 3.45 x 10 m 4 B 3.45 x 10 cm
-9 -6

C 3.45 x 10 mm 12 D 3.45 x 10 m 15. The Hitz FM channel broadcasts radio waves at a frequency of 92.8 MHz in the north region. What is the frequency of the radio wave in Hz? 4 5 A 9.28 x 10 B 9.28 x 10 7 10 C 9.28 x 10 D 9.28 x 10 16. An object moves along a straight line for time, t. The length of the line, s is 1 2 given by the equation s = gt . The 2 SI unit of g is 2 2 -2 A m s B ms -1 -2 C s D s m

Part B : Structure Question 1. A car moves with an average speed of 75 km h from town P to town Q in 2 hours as shown in Figure 1. By using this information, you may calculate the distance between the two towns. P Q
-1

Figure 1 (a) (i) Based on the statements given, state two basic quantities and their respective SI units. Distance: mand time : s (ii) State a derived quantity and its SI unit. -1 Speed m s (b) Convert the value
= 0.2 x 10 m 2 = 2.0 x 10 m
3

1 m to standard form. -3 5 x 10

(c) Complete Table 1 by writing the value of each given prefix.

10 10 10 10

-9 -6

6 9

Table 1 (d) Power is defined as the rate of change of work done. Derive the unit for power in terms of its basic units. 2 Force work kgms m 2 -3 Power = Unit = displacement = kg m s = s time time (e) Calculate the volume of a wooden block with dimension of 7 cm, 5 cm breadth and 12 3 cm height in m and convert its value in standard form.
Volume = (7 x 10 ) (5 x 10 ) (12 x 10 ) -6 = 420 x 10 -4 3 = 4.20 x 10 m
-2 -2 -2

2. Figure 2 shows an ammeter of 03 A range.

Figure 2 (a) (i) Name component X. Mirr or... (ii) What is the function of X? Toavoid parallax err or . (b) Table 2 shows three current readings obtained by three students.

Table 2 (i) Did all the students use the ammeter in Figure2? .. No . (ii) Explain your answer in (b)(i). rd 3 readings obtained by student 2 and 3 are out of the meter range. 3. Figure 3 shows the meniscus of water in a measuring cylinder K, L, and M are three eye positions while measuring the volume of the water. (a) (i) Which of the eye positions is correct while taking the reading of the volume of water? L .

Figure 3 (b) The water in the measuring cylinder is 3 replaced with 30 cm of mercury. (i) In Figure 4, draw the meniscus of the mercury in the measuring cylinder. Figure 4 (ii) Explain why the shape of the meniscus of mercury is as drawn in (b)(i). The cohesive force is larger than the adhesive force