Hinterberger, Houtkooper, & Kotchoubey

EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK CONTROL ON SLOW CORTICAL POTENTIALS AND RANDOM EVENTS

Thilo Hinterberger1, Joop M. Houtkooper2, & Boris Kotchoubey1 1 Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Tbingen 2 Center for Psychobiology and Behavioral Medicine, University of Giessen
ABSTRACT
As known for more than two decades, humans can learn to achieve self-control over their brain activity such as the polarity of slow cortical potential (SCP) shifts referred to as positivity or negativity. This learning process is supported by the visual feedback of the SCP in a time-locked trial structure. On the other hand, it has been repeatedly shown that humans are able to regulate the random distribution of events, produced by an electronic random event generator (REG) as a psychokinetic effect. This procedure also entails feedback of the distribution of binary random events to the subject; however, contrary to the feedback of SCP, there is no known physical connection from the subject to REG. In both cases, the to-be-controlled function should be changed in one of two alternative directions (bi-directional control) by use of two different cognitive strategies or states of consciousness. In the present experiment the effect of a self-chosen strategy was examined for the regulation of a feedback signal in a pseudorandomized predefined direction both on the SCP and the REG. Therefore, the system, called Thought Translation Device (TTD) provided feedback of the SCP or the REG. This modality was changed every block of 300-400 trials of 4.5 to 5s duration each. The task requirement was assigned pseudorandomly. A correctly produced SCP or REG shift was rewarded with a smily face. The simultaneous recording of the Electroencephalogram (EEG) and the REG signal allowed investigating psychophysiological correlates of psychokinetic effects. This study focused on the differentiation between the two tasks of the REG or SCP signal when feeding back one of them. Four subjects performed in total 3500 trials with SCP feedback and 3500 trials with feedback of the REG. The average feedback value of all trials was analyzed and tested for being different from a baseline value taken before the start of the feedback in each trial using a t-test. The previous findings that human subjects can self-regulate their SCP within the first sessions were replicated. Highly significant SCP control was achieved only by the highly motivated subjects (S 2+S 3) who attended in more than one day. S 2 attained a constant high correct response rate of 70 to 80 % during the second and third training day. It was also shown that a temporary false feedback given by the REG did not necessarily disturb the acquisition of SCP self-control. Task-specific lateralization of the SCP (which was not fed back) was not significant. The highly motivated subjects achieved higher t-values in the REG control than S 1 and S 4. When considering both feedback modes together, a significant correlation between pre-defined task requirement and the deviation from chance expectancy produced by the REG (p=0.02) was produced. This can be interpreted as a psychokinetic effect. The correlation between task and REG result produced by the system when running the same number of trials was far from significance. Feedback of SCP seemed not to disturb the positive correlation between task and REG. Despite these similarities between the behavior of the REG and the SCPs, the differentiation of the REG signal did not significantly correlate with SCP amplitudes or SCP lateralization.

INTRODUCTION Slow cortical potentials and their meaning

Slow cortical potentials (SCPs) are potential shifts of the cerebral cortex, which are settled in the frequency range below 1-2 Hz and can persist over several seconds. The SCPs can be measured using the electroencephalography (EEG) or by means of the magnetoencephalography (slow cortical magnetic fields). The amplitudes of the SCP shifts usually vary within a range of 10 to 100 V RMS and reach a maximum at vertex (electrode position Cz of the international 10/20-system). The fact that the SCPs are not very localized refers to a common activity of expanded neuronal areas. SCPs emerge as synchronous discharge of afferent excitation of the apical dendrites of cortical neurons. These dendrites are located in the upper The Parapsychological Association Convention 2004 39

Control of slow cortical potentials and random event generator cortex layer. A negative potential shift (negativity) indicates a lowering of the excitatory threshold and is related to the mobilization of resources for behavioral and cognitive tasks. Positive potential shifts (positivity) can be measured during the execution of cognitive tasks (consumption of resources) or in cognitively inactive states (Birbaumer et al. 1990, Rockstroh et al. 1989). Lutzenberger et al. (1982), for example, showed that subjects could solve arithmetic problems faster after producing cortical negativity. Likewise, response times were shortened if the task was presented during cortical negativity (Rockstroh et al. 1982). The positivity can also result from postsynaptic excitation in deeper cortical layers. Thus firing of the pyramidal cells during cerebral performance can lead to a positivity on the scalp. To sum, negativity represents the mobilization or readiness, positivity represents ongoing cognitive and neural performance or inhibition of neuronal activity. The relationship between cortical negativity and readiness is best seen in an S1/S2 paradigm which produces the so-called contingent negative variation (CNV): A warning stimulus S1 is presented to a subject and followed by an important imperative stimulus S2. Then a cortical negativity appears 300 to 500 ms after S1, which prepares the subject to perform a task after S2 (Walter et al., 1964; Rockstroh et al. 1989, pp. 99). In real life the CNV emerges, for instance,. at a traffic light when expecting the green light and preparing for driving; a positivity can be recorded, however, while the brain is already busy with processing of the stimulus. Although humans are usually not aware of these potential shifts, they can learn to change the amplitudes of the SCP voluntarily into electrically negative or positive direction. This can be achieved by feedback of SCP amplitude changes and positive reinforcement for changes in the correct direction (operant conditioning) (Birbaumer et al. 1981; 1984; 1988; 1992). After having learnt to control the SCPs, humans can also acquire the ability to consciously perceive them (Kotchoubey et al., 2002). SCP self-control has also been applied to communication by means of a direct interface between brain and computer in completely paralyzed individuals (Birbaumer et al., 1999). These authors have developed a Thought Translation Device (TTD) in which self-regulation of slow cortical potentials is used to generate a binary signal. This signal can further be employed to choose letters and words on a computer menu. The TTD has already enabled several completely paralyzed patients diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis to communicate solely with their brain potentials (Perelmouter et al. 1999; Hinterberger et al., 2001).

Intention and random event generators

In the last 30 years, studies have been carried out, where the correlations between pre-stated intentions and the output distribution of different kinds of binary random event generators (REGs) have been investigated. A meta-analysis of these studies yielded a highly significant result (Radin & Nelson, 1989). An example of a consistent effort are the studies of Jahn et al. (1997), demonstrating comparable deviations of the mean results from chance expectation in the order of 10-4 bits per bit processed. Although the absolute effect sizes are quite small, these authors showed that the composite effect of a 12-year study exceeded 7 standard deviations, which suggests a very high significance level. The effect does not depend on the distance between subject and the REG device. Even when subjects exerted their efforts at different times from collecting the REG data, the effect sizes were similar. It seems that solely the information about the coherence between an human intention and a (classical) physically independent process is linking these together. The effect vanished when fully deterministic random processes were used, such as the random number generator of a PC, where an algorithm calculates pseudo-randomized numbers. REGs which showed anomalous features were using the thermal noise or quantum noise of electronic components (resistors or diodes) or other physical random processes which are determined by micro-states (e.g. the throwing of dice). This approach led to speculations about the role of consciousness in quantum physics, specifically about the possible influence of an intent observer of a random physical system (Walker, 1979; Houtkooper, 1983; Josephson & Pallikari-Viras, 1991). Although progress towards plausibility has been made (Houtkooper, 2002), a generally accepted explanation for these effects is lacking. An approach to clarify the interactions between intention and its effect on remote physical processes is to investigate the correlations between the anomalous effects of the REG and the physiological correlates of 40 Proceedings of Presented Papers

Hinterberger, Houtkooper, & Kotchoubey intention. Such a correlate is produced in every physiological variable which can be self controlled, because self control is an act of intention. Such a variable is the slow cortical potential shifts which can be obtained during the SCP-self control training. For this reason, the self-control of SCPs has been chosen to be compared with the intentional control of REG output in this study.

TTD and REG:

The TTD is a neurophysiological feedback system that can feed back not only different kinds of EEG but any kind of signal such as an REG signal. The TTD program was modified to read in the signals of the REG and handle it simultaneously with the EEG signal processing. Thus the REG signal could be fed back to the subject and its self-control could be trained, if possible. The intention was to collect physiological variables which significantly correlate with REG control, and thereby to clarify the issue of physiological processes possibly mediating psychokinetic (PK) effects. An advanced application of such physiological correlates could (reversely) raise the question of whether it is possible to facilitate PK effects by feeding back and training those variables. This study provides information concerning the following questions: 1. Is there a correlation between the required intention and the result of the REG (the PK effect)? 2. Can this PK-effect be improved by the feedback of the REG result? 3. Is there also a significant PK-effect in case of feeding back the SCP? 4. How does the attempt to control the REG correlate with the EEG (especially the SCP) of the subject?

METHODS Feedback and SCP self control

The feedback of slow cortical potentials is provided in a setup shown in Figure 1. The EEG-signal was conducted by means of Ag/AgCl electrodes placed at the vertex of the head and amplified in the EEG amplifier that was connected to the TTD via an A/D converter. The impedances of the electrodes were below 5 kOhms. One central electrode (Cz; international 10/20-system) served as the active electrode for the feedback. The potential at Cz was referred to the mastoids at position A1 and A2. Since it has been shown that also lateralized SCP self control can be learned (Kotchoubey et al., 1996a) the signals at the positions C3 and C4, i.e. over the left and right motor cortex were recorded too. The EEG was sampled with 256 S/s and recorded with a frequency range from 0.01 Hz to 40 Hz. The low cut-off frequency of 0.01 Hz was important since very slow EEG components were fed back; therefore a time constant of more than 10 s was required. To control and correct artifacts caused by vertical eye movements and blinks, two additional electrodes above and below one eye were attached (vertical electro-oculogram, vEOG). The feedback-signal was calculated on-line using the mean of the channels Cz-A1 and Cz-A2 corrected with the vEOG. The algorithm for the artifact correction is described in Kotchoubey et al. (1996b; 1997). Artifacts larger than 1 mV and EEG fluctuations larger than 200 V led to the cancellation of a current trial (invalid data). The SCP feedback-signal was generated from low-pass filtering of the artifact-corrected EEG using a sliding averaging window of 500 ms. Thus frequencies above 2 Hz were filtered out, leading to a smooth movement of the feedback cursor which was updated 16 times per second. This cursor was symbolized by a yellow circle (ball) whose vertical position reflected the actual SCP value. Cortical positivity moved the cursor downwards whereas cortical negativity lead to an upward movement. The screen also showed the randomly alternating task requirements (negativity versus positivity) by two rectangles (goals), displayed at the upper or lower edge of the screen. The illumination of a goal indicated the direction to which the cursor should be moved. Successes were reinforced with a smiley face. The operator was sitting in another room where he could control the experiment (for details see Hinterberger (1999)).

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Control of slow cortical potentials and random event generator

Figure 1: Experimental setup: An eight channel EEG-amplifier is connected to a personal computer with the TTD-software. The random event generator is connected to the serial port. Both data types can be fed back to the subject as the movement of a yellow cursor on a second monitor. The required intention is either to move the ball upwards or downwards.

Feedback of random event generator signals

The REG produced a sequence of binary numbers. The proportion of ones and zeros was equally distributed and was supposed to be psychokinetically influenced. The binary-coded data were transmitted into the PC with a data transmission rate of 9600 Baud. Thus approx. 3850 ones and approx. 3850 zeros were generated per second and transferred. In the present experiment, the difference between the number of ones and zeros in a certain time interval served as the REG signal amplitude. Because the TTD was already successfully used as SCP training and feedback software, only small modifications were necessary to use it for REG feedback. The REG data were read and handled as a separate EEG channel in the software. There was no electronic interference between the analogue REG signal and the EEG signal, because the REG data were read in as an already digitized signal through the serial port whereas the EEG was digitized by an A/D-board in the computer. This zero correlation between the two signals is of great importance since previous data (Hinterberger, 1999) indicate that task related differences in SCP may be very large, whereas task related differences in the REG signal, even if significant, are expected to be very small. Therefore, even a weak correlation between the two channels might lead to REG signal changes that would be erroneously interpreted as a PK effect. A digital switching mechanism inside the REG guaranteed that possible influences of slow waves on the analogue noise of the REG cannot disturb the digital random distribution. To make the feedback of the REG signal similar to the feedback of SCPs, the same paradigm and the same calculation method was applied to the difference between ones and zeros as to the EEG. The screen for the feedback signal also was kept identical. The vertical ball movement reflected the difference between ones [1] and zeros [0] within the time interval of the last 500 ms. To achieve an upward movement more ones than zeros had to be produced, and a downward movement required more zeros than ones. Each feedback value Fi(t), calculated from the last tFB=500 ms consisted of 3850 random bits: (1)

Fi (t ) =

tn = t t FB

([1] [0])

tn

= Fi

The feedback was also updated each 1/16 s, leading per trial of 4.5 s duration to 72 feedback values. These are indicated with the time indices i=1..72. Regardless of the signal used for feedback (SCP or REG), a data file was created containing both signals for off-line analysis. Thus SCP shifts and other EEG components could be investigated while the subject was trying to control the REG and vice versa.

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Hinterberger, Houtkooper, & Kotchoubey

The feedback paradigm

The feedback training of SCP and REG signals was conducted in a sequence of individual trials with no intertrial intervals. 100 trials constituted a run after which a short resting period was permitted. A trial lasted 4.5 to 5 seconds and consisted of two time intervals: 1. a preparatory interval of 2 s duration. The subject received the information about the following task by illumination of the upper or lower rectangle on the screen. At the end of the preparatory interval, the current signal level was set as baseline level, which corresponded to the vertical center position of the ball as starting position for the following feedback. This interval was followed by 2. the feedback interval of a duration between 2.5 to 3 seconds. Here the subject received feedback over the SCP or the REG and had to move the ball towards the rectangle that was still illuminated during this interval, too. The movement of the ball was a linear function of the feedback value Fi. E.g., if the upper goal was lit, the ball should be moved upwards during the 2.5 to 3 s feedback time. This was achieved by producing cortical negativity in the case of SCP feedback or by producing more ones than zeros in the case of REG feedback. The reverse was true for the lower goal. If the average of all ball positions was in the correct half of the screen, the subject received a positive reinforcement by a smiling face ('smiley '), which was presented during the final 500 ms of the trial after the feedback.

Experimental design
The two criteria for selection of subjects were the ability to concentrate during the experiment and the belief in parapsychological phenomena. Therefore, subjects were selected who had experience in transcendental meditation (TM) for many years. Four subjects (two female and two male) ranging in age from 40 to 60 years took part at the study. The subjects were seated in a comfortable chair in a small isolated, electromagnetically shielded room. Each subject participated in the experiment on at least one training day comprising 1000 trials. The subjects were instructed that there were two kinds of feedback signals (i.e. A or B). They were informed when there was a switch between signals A and B, but they had no knowledge about the nature of these signals (i.e., that the REG signal served as A and the SCP signal, as B). Beforehand, they only were informed that this was a parapsychological experiment.
Table 1: Each of the four subjects attended the study in one to three days, depending on his/her own motivation. One training day comprised about 1000 feedback trials of either the REG or the SCP. The modality was altered twice resulting in three trial blocks per day.

training day

S 1 (m)
feedback signal, trials

S 2 (m)
feedback signal, trials

S 3 (f)
feedback signal, trials

S 4 (f)
feedback signal, trials

1st day

2nd day

3rd day

REG, 300 trials SCP, 400 trials REG, 300 trials -

REG, 300 trials SCP, 400 trials REG, 300 trials SCP, 300 trials REG, 400 trials SCP, 300 trials REG, 300 trials SCP, 400 trials REG, 300 trials

SCP, 300 trials REG, 400 trials SCP, 300 trials REG, 300 trials SCP, 500 trials REG, 300 trials -

SCP, 300 trials REG, 300 trials SCP, 200 trials -

Table 1 illustrates the experimental schedule leading to almost 7000 trials over all. With this setup the following questions and interactions can be explored: 1. Analysis of the task specific SCP-shifts: a) Can subjects learn to self-control their SCP? b) Is this learning process critically dependent on the SCP feedback? The Parapsychological Association Convention 2004 43

Control of slow cortical potentials and random event generator 2. Analysis of the task specific REG results: a) Can subjects significantly influence the REG result in the desired direction? b) If yes, does this effect depend on REG feedback?

Analysis of task specific SCP shifts:

To analyze task specific SCP-shifts, all trials were averaged in the time domain, separately for the positivity task and the negativity task, leading to two average EEG waveforms for a trial. The ability to selfcontrol the SCP can be seen in the amplitude difference between the two tasks during the feedback interval. This difference, called SCP differentiation (see figure 3), was calculated as difference between the mean amplitude during the second half of the feedback interval. A t-test was applied to calculate the significance of this differentiation (see below, Eq. 5). Another measure for the ability of SCP self-control is the correct response rate. It is the percentage of correctly classified cursor movement responses. During on-line training the classification algorithm calculated a response for each trial as the integral of all cursor positions during the feedback. A correct response was counted when the sign of this integral matched with the task requirement (positivity or negativity). An off-line classification using a discriminant analysis (Hinterberger, 1999) instead of a simple integral can lead to higher correct response rates but needs information of previous runs. However, this method supplies more precise information about the ability to produce two different signals and thus was used off-line. As there was a strong correlation between off-line correct response rate and SCP differentiation (r=0.92), the SCP-differentiation can be regarded as a satisfying measure for performance.

Analysis of task specific REG results:

As already mentioned, each feedback value Fi was the difference between approx. 1925 ones and 1925 zeros. The standard deviation i for Fi can then be estimated for equally distributed values as (2)

i = 2*

[1]i + [0]i 2 62 . 2

The assumption with these formulas is that the number of ones is binomially distributed with p=1/2. For our analysis the standard deviation was calculated using the actual REG numbers. The uncertainty g,i for the mean Gi over Ng trials with Ng=N(1)+N(0) is (3)

g ,i = i

2 N g for Gi = Fi .
Ng
(1)

can be estimated by (4)

i =

(F
N (1)

Gi(1) ) 2 + ( Fi ( 0) Gi( 0 ) ) 2
N (0) (1)

(N

1) + ( N ( 0 ) 1)

The means Gi(1) resp. Gi(0) of the Fi(1) resp. Fi(1) over N(1) resp. N(0) trials were calculated separately for each task. The significance of REG control was assessed by means of a t-test (Bortz, 1999). (5)

ti =

Gi(1) Gi( 0 ) 1 1 i (1) + ( 0 ) N N

where Gi(1) and Gi(0) - the means for the tasks to produce more ones than zeros or more zeros than ones, respectively; i the corresponding standard deviation; N(1) and N(0) the number of trials of each task, in

which the corresponding i and Gi were calculated.

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Hinterberger, Houtkooper, & Kotchoubey

RESULTS Analysis of task specific SCP shifts:

Subjects S 1 and S 4 were not very motivated and took part in the first training day only. With the SCP feedback, S 1 could achieve an average SCP differentiation of 2 V resulting in a maximum correct response rate of about 60 %, which is significantly better than 50 % expected by chance (t=4.0, N=400, p<0.001). The correct response rate for SCP during REG feedback did not differ from chance. S 4 learned to self-control her SCP with SCP feedback and attained 60 and 67 % of correct responses (t= 5.92, p<0.001) in the 1st and 2nd block, respectively (see Figure 2). S 2 was highly motivated and achieved remarkable self-control of SCP. SCP shifts and the correct response rates were highly significant (p<0.001) in every block. Also the feedback of the REG signal had no negative influence on the SCP self-regulation. The subject produced SCP differentiations of more than 20 V and achieved 70 to 80 % correct responses except for the first training block, in which the REG and not the SCP was presented as feedback signal. Figure 3 shows no considerable difference between the waveforms obtained during SCP feedback and REG feedback. In trials with required positivity, S 2 produced a negative potential shift during the preparatory interval which caused a positivity relative to that negative baseline level in the feedback interval. S 3 also attained significant control of her SCP-shifts (t=6.1 and 6.7 in the first and second SCP block; both p<0.001). However, she changed her strategy during REG feedback leading to a highly significant SCP differentiation (all REG blocks: t=-7.1, p<0.001) in the wrong direction. After repeated REG feedback, with SCP feedback in the runs 14-16, she could not obtain SCP control any longer (s. Figure 3). These runs were also contaminated with eye movement artifacts.

20 15 10

F e edb ac k s ign al: RE G S CP

t
5 0 -5
1-3

S1
9 -11 13-1 5 1 -4 5 -8 9-12 4 -8

S 2
16-1 9 20 -2 2 23 -2 5 26 -29 30 -32 1-3

S 3
1 9-2 2 8 -10 1 1-13 1 4-18 4 -7

S 4
1 -3 4-7 8-9

R un N o.

Figure 2: Significance (t-values) of the deviation from chance for SCP differentiation during SCP feedback (shaded bars) and REG feedback (filled bars). Blocks of 300 to 500 trials, conducted under equal conditions, were averaged for each of the four subjects separately and analyzed. Positive t-values stand for correct differentiation, negative t-values indicate discrimination in the wrong direction (e.g., larger negative SCP shifts when positive shifts were required).

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Control of slow cortical potentials and random event generator

R EG feedbac k
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 0 ,0 0, 5 1,0 1,5 2 ,0 2 ,5 3, 0

task requ irem ent up dow n

A m plitu de [V]

3,5

4 ,0

4 ,5

-20 -10 0 10 20 30

SC P feedba ck

0 ,0

0, 5

1,0

1,5

2 ,0

2 ,5

3, 0

3,5

4,0

4 ,5

T im e [s]

Figure 3: Averaged (over all trials) SCP waveforms of subject 2, separately for two task requirements, during REG feedback (top) and SCP feedback (bottom). The shaded area indicates the baseline period.

Lateralization: Although the feedback of left-right SCP-differences was not presented, in some blocks subjects showed significant lateralized SCP shifts (see Figure 4). Mostly, when a downward movement of the cursor (cortical positivity during the SCP feedback) was required, this positivity was larger over the right hemisphere as compared with the left hemisphere during the feedback interval. In addition, subject S 2 produced a significant right hemispherical negativity during the required upward cursor movement during the first training day,. This effect vanished in the following training days. The correlation between the differentiation of the central SCPs and the lateralised SCPs was not significant (r=0.15, p=0.22, N=66).

S 1
4

S 2

S 3

S 4

Sig nifica nce [t]

2 0 -2 -4
1 6-1 9 2 0-2 2 9 -11 9- 12 13 -15 23-2 5 26- 29 30- 32 1 -3 5 -8 1- 4 5- 8 1- 3

fe e db a ck s ig n al RE G SC P a t C z

1 1-1 3

8 -10

14- 18

19- 22

4- 7

1- 3

4- 6

R un N o.

Figure 4: SCP lateralization measured at electrode positions C4-C3 during feedback of SCP and the REG. Positive values indicate that the left hemisphere is more positive while the cursor should be moved upwards, whereas negative values indicate a left positivity while the cursor should be moved downwards.

Task specific REG results:

Figure 5 shows the t-values of the deviation of the achieved REG results from chance, which would be an equal number of ones and zeros. The REG changes were analyzed like the SCP changes reported above and were taken as the difference between the currently measured REG signal and the baseline level (i.e. the mean of the 500 ms before the FB-interval starts). 46 Proceedings of Presented Papers

8- 9

-6

Hinterberger, Houtkooper, & Kotchoubey Subject S 1 started with REG feedback and did not attain a significant influence on the REG (t=0.62, p=0.27, Ng=1007; one tailed t-test). Also S 4 showed no significant REG results (t=-0.66, p=0.75, Ng=507). In contrast, S 2 achieved a high correlation between task requirement and REG result in the first block with REG feedback (t=2.4, p<0.01). The following block with SCP feedback yielded a sizeable negative result (t=-2.0, p=0.98). A highly significant result (t=3.05, p<0.01) was then attained in the 6th block with SCP feedback. Although 7 of 9 blocks yielded positive t-values, S 2's data across all trials did not reach the .05 significance level (t=1.48, p=0.07, Ng=2021). We test one-tailed in the direction of intention. Other ways of looking at the data are the REG data with REG feedback: 9 out of 11 'blocks' score in the positive direction; the sign test gives p = .09. The two negative deviations occur with the two subjects who achieved less SCP self-control and who were less motivated to continue. The overall 16 positive out of 20 blocks has a p = .006 according to the sign test (Siegel, 1956). Subject S 3 achieved positive t-values in all six training blocks with an overall significant result of t=1.72 (p=0.04, Ng=2115). Across subjects, blocks with REG feedback did not lead to a significant result t=1.20, p=0.12) but blocks with SCP feedback did (t=1.69, p=0.046). Overall, positive t-values were obtained in 16 of 20 blocks, resulting in a significant overall t=2.09 (N=6951, p=0.018). The mean correct response rate did not differ significantly from chance. This significant correlation between REG feedback signal (which is calculated as the difference between the REG signal during the feedback interval referenced to the baseline) and the task requirement could be mainly attributed to the REG behavior during the baseline (tbaseline(6950)=1.82, p=0.03) while the REG result during the feedback interval did not significantly contribute to this effect. The differentiation of the REG was found to correlate neither with SCP amplitudes (across runs r=-0.063, p=0.62, N=66), nor with the SCP lateralization (r=-0.044, p=0.73, N=66). To exclude that the system itself produces systematic correlations between the task (determined by the software random number generator of the PC) and the REG result 7000 trials were collected without a subject watching the feedback. The overall t(7000)=.17 (p=.43) was far from significance.

3 2 1

Fee db ac k s ign al: RE G S CP

t
0 -1 -2
1-3

S1
1 3-1 5 9 -11 1 -4 5 -8 9-12 4 -8

S2
16-1 9 20 -2 2 23 -2 5 26 -29 30 -32 1-3 4-7

S 3
1 9-2 2 8 -10 1 1-13 1 4-18

S 4
1 -3 4-7 8-9

R un No .

Figure 5: Significance (t-values) of the deviation from chance of the REG result while feedback of SCP (filled bars) and of the REG result (shaded bars) was presented. Blocks of 300 to 500 trials, conducted under equal conditions, were averaged for each of the four subjects separately and analyzed.

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Control of slow cortical potentials and random event generator

DISCUSSION
The ability of humans to learn to self-control their SCPs is already well known (Birbaumer, 1984; Rockstroh et al., 1989). Surprisingly, however, three of four subjects participating in the present experiment achieved this self-control already in the first runs. Moreover, the data of S 2 show that this acquired ability is not necessarily disturbed or impaired when a random signal (such as the REG) is presented as the feedback. This stability indicates that the strategy may be more important than the feedback signal. Such an interpretation is in line with the self-control theory of Lacroix (1981) who suggested that during operant conditioning of bodily functions, subjects frequently (at least on the first stages of training) select a strategy from their already existent cognitive-behavioral repertoire and keep this strategy as long as it does not result in a clear failure. In the present data, such strategy (particularly employed by S 2) was the development of a negative SCP shift during the baseline interval to support subsequent positivity. During the baseline, waiting for the stimulus indicating the onset of the feedback interval served as a condition in which a negativity (i.e., the contingent negative variation (CNV), see Walter et al., 1964) could easily be produced (see also Brunia, 1993). This stability of self-regulating strategy can also be a particular trait of S 2, because in S 3, in contrast, the presentation of the REG signal as feedback did deteriorate the already acquired SCP control. The present data do not allow to specify factors which might determine the outcome of this conflict. Again in line with the data of the literature (Radin & Nelson, 1989), a very small but significant (p<.02) effect of task requirement on the REG result, indicates that the technique employed in the present study allows to control an electronic REG in the desired way. When reformulating the hypothesis to test for an interaction between task (which was connected to a certain cognitive strategy) and REG result in any direction, the two-tailed t-test still remains significant (p=.04). Despite the stability of this PK effect, there is no generally accepted explanation for it to date. Tentatively, however, we might suggest that such putative factors as precognition or extra-sensory perception could not play a role here because the task was not chosen by the subject but generated by the algorithm long before the start of the experiment. Factually, a significant covariation was found between the task generated by the software random number generator and the REG. However, an explanation for such a correlation is hardly thinkable. A non-significant correlation between task and the REG feedback signal was found when the same number of trials were run without a human interaction. Notably, the significant influence on the REG in the desired direction was obtained when SCP feedback was presented, but not when REG feedback was presented. This result may appear surprising but it is, again, in agreement with the literature data demonstrating considerable effects of motivation and self-confidence on PK effects (Stanford, 1977). During SCP training, subjects successfully produced the required shifts of the cortical potential and were consistently rewarded for their performance. They were not aware of the principal difference between the two kinds of self-control, that is, that in one case there was a physical connection between their brain and the controlled cursor on the screen, and in the other case there was no. Rather, they just knew that they were involved in two different, but equally challenging, self-regulation tasks. They also experienced themselves being quite successful in one of these tasks. This success may have encouraged subjects thereby resulting in a higher PK effect. This motivational explanation remains speculative at present. In future PK experiments using a larger sample of subjects the motivation should be directly controlled by means of a psychological instrument. Several parapsychological studies reported, further, that PK effects are the largest at the very beginning of an experiment and then decrease across trials (e.g., Irwin, 1994). This appears to hold true for our subjects S 1 and S 2 who started with REG feedback and attained good results in those first runs that they could not repeat in further runs. In contrast, S 3 and S 4 who started with SCP feedback, achieved better results in SCP runs later in the course of training. It appears, furthermore, that while the PK effect decreased across blocks with REG feedback, it increased in blocks with SCP feedback, which is also compatible with the motivational explanation given above. 48 Proceedings of Presented Papers

Hinterberger, Houtkooper, & Kotchoubey An alternative to this motivational explanation may be, of course, some specific effect of SCP changes, based on the fact that these changes at the central electrode are related to regulation of excitability of large cortical regions as mentioned in the introduction. From the point of view of SCP training, REG feedback can be referred to as 'false feedback'. Particularly, the small size of the PK effect makes the task very frustrating, thus the subjects can resignate and their resignation can generalize to the easier SCP regulation task. A better result might be obtained with mixed feedback, which would contain partly SCP and partly REG trials to support some level of success and to avoid frustration. Alternating pure SCP with mixed feedback (announcing it as a more difficult task) or mixed feedback alone might therefore be explored. In further studies, the presently used TTD can be extended to a generalized program to feed back various physiological parameters correlated to PK-effects. Thereby self-regulation of all these parameters can be trained to check their influence on the PK-effect. Such a training program might then enable people to develop their PK abilities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank our assistant Slavica von Hartlieb for help in the measurements. We also thank the Institut fr Grenzgebiete der Psychologie und Psychohygiene, Freiburg i.Br., Germany for the financial support.
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Address for correspondence: Thilo Hinterberger, Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, Eberhard-Karls-University Tbingen, Gartenstr. 29, D-72074 Tbingen. E-mail: thilo.hinterberger@uni-tuebingen.de

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