SEMINAR REPORT ON BRAINGATE SYSTEM

Submitted By:

Name---> PARTHA PRATIM BEURA

Regd. No. : 0601215258

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING EASTERN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Prachi Vihar, Anantapur, Phulanakhara,Bhubaneswar-1

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DEPARTMENT OF electronics & communication ENGG.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this is the bona fide record of the seminar work entitled

BRAINGATE SYSTEM
Which has been successfully carried out by

PARTHA PRATIM BEURA,

the student of
EASTERN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY And

PHULNAKHARA A DEGREE ENGG. COLLEGE, BHUBANESWAR, Towards the partial fulfillment of bachelors degree in ECE from BIJU PATTNAIK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY in the Academic year 2006-2010.

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Er.J.N.MOHANTY .S.K.SARANGI HEAD OF DEPT. SEMINAR GUIDE

Er .SANGITA SWAIN SEMINAR IN CHARGE

ER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is obviously a very delightful feeling for me to build an indigenous real venture by using practical electronic components , through my seminar work .This facilitates me to express my heartful gratitude to all who have really helped and encouraged me in the completion of this seminar.

I owe my obligation to Er. J.N.MOHANTY, H.O.D of Electronics & Communication Engineering and Er. S.K.SARANGI Seminar guide, Er. SANGITA SWAIN seminar in charge for providing me their suggestions, motivation and invaluable guidance through out the completion of the seminar work.

I am very thankful to the staff of the library for the help and co-operation extended during my study and search for materials in the precincts of the library.
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Last but not the least, I am very thankful to my parents and to all my friends for their constant source of encouragement and motivation to prepare the seminar successfully.

PARTHA PRATIM BEURA(El & TC)

Regd No :(0601215258)

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ABSTRACT ON SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR

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Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) is a form of radar in which multiple

radar images are processed to yield higher-resolution images than would be possible by conventional means. Either a single antenna mounted on a moving platform is used to illuminate a target scene or many low-directivity small stationary antennae are scattered over an area near the target area. The many echo waveforms received at the different antenna positions are post-processed to resolve the target. Environmental monitoring, earth-resource mapping, and military systems require broad-area imaging at high resolutions. Many times the imagery must be acquired in inclement weather or during night as well as day. In all such cases SAR turns out to be very useful and efficient. Environmental monitoring, earth-resource mapping, and military systems require broad-area imaging at high resolutions. Many times the imagery must be acquired in inclement weather or during night as well as day. In all such cases SAR turns out to be very useful and efficient
SAR has seen wide applications in remote sensing and mapping

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Table of Contents
SUBJECT
1. What is a RADAR ? 2. Principle of RADAR 3. How does RADAR system works 4. Synthetic Aperture RADAR & utility 5. How does Synthetic Aperture RADAR works 6. why called Synthetic Aperture RADAR 7. Sources of SAR data 8. Enhanced SAR system. 9. Polerimetry 10.Interferometery 11.Application of SAR 12.Advantages of SAR 13.Limitations 14.Conclusion 15.Reference

PAGE-NO.
6 7 9 10 11 14 15 16 16 17 18 21 21 22 23

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WHAT IS RADAR
RADAR stands for Radio Detection And Ranging. It is a method of locating distant targets by sending bursts of electromagnetic radiation and measuring their reflections.
Fully operational RADAR systems were first seen during the time of world war

-II when Robert Watson and his team devised a system of radar stations and backup information-processing centers. . The radar antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called echo or return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver. A duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the high-power pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the receiver.
Radar has long been used for military and non-military purposes in a wide variety of applications such as imaging, guidance, remote sensing and global positioning In the transmitter of radar Instead of a fixed frequency pulse, the transmitted

pulse is modulated by a specific phase or frequency pattern during a wider pulse interval. The receiver uses a pulse-matched filter to pass reflected pulses that match the pattern of the outgoing pulse and reject noise and other signals.The wide transmitter pulse is effectively compressed to a narrow pulse at the output of the correlator The angular determination of the target is determined by the directivity of the antenna. Directivity is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the transmitted energy in a particular direction. An antenna with high directivity is also called a directive antenna. By measuring the direction in which the antenna is pointing when the echo is received, both the azimuth and elevation angles from the radar to the object or target can be determined. The accuracy of angular
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measurement is determined by the directivity, which is a function of the size of the antenna.

PRINCIPLE OF RADAR
All the activities that use RADAR make use of the following two concepts. ECHO DOPPLER EFFECT ECHO Echo is something you experience all the time. Ifyou shout into a well or a canyon, the echo comesback a moment later. The echo occurs because some of the sound waves in your shout reflect off of a surface (either the water at the bottom of the well or the canyon wall on the far side) and travel back to your ears. The length of time between the moment you shout and the moment that you hear the echo is determined by the distance between you and the surface that creates the echo. When you shout into a well, the sound of your shout travels down the well and is reflected (echoes) off the surface of the water at the bottom of the well. If you measure the time it takes for the echo to return and if you know sepeedof sound, you can calculate the depth of the well fairly

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accurately.

DOOPLER SHIFT

If the object is approaching the radar unit, the frequency of the returned signal is greater than the frequency of the transmitted signal; if the object is receding from the radar unit, the returned frequency is less; and if the object is not moving relative to the radar unit, the return signal will have the same frequency as the transmitted signal.

Doppler shift: The person behind the car hears a lower tone than the driver because the car is moving away. The person in front of the car

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hears a higher tone than the driver because the car is approaching towords him.

Left: Antennas at Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (part of NASA's Deep Space Network) help provide radio communications for NASA's interplanetary spacecraft. Right: Surface search radar and air search radar are mounted on the foremast of a guided missile destroyer

HOW DOES A RADAR SYSTEM WORKS?

By now we have understood that ECHO determines how far is the object from The RADAR system and DOPPLER SHIFT tells us how fast is the object moving away from it. The RADAR makes use of these two concepts to accomplish its task. To start with the radar set turns on its transmitter and shoots out a short, high-intensity burst of high-frequency radio waves. The burst might last a microsecond. The radar set then turns off its transmitter, turns on its receiver and listens for an echo . The radar set measures the time it takes for the echo to arrive, as well as the Doppler shift of the echo. Radio waves travel at the speed of light, roughly 1,000 feet per microsecond

So if the radar set has a good high-speed clock, it can measure the distance of the airplane very accurately. Using special signal

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processing equipment, the radar set can also measure the Doppler shift very accurately and determine the speed of the airplane.

SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR & UTILITY

Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) is a form of radar in which multiple radar

images are processed to yield higher-resolution images . These are mainly used by space shuttles and orbiting satellites to create detailed topographic maps of the surface of planets and moons . Environmental monitoring, earth-resource mapping, and military systems require broad-area imaging at high resolutions. Many times the imagery must be acquired in inclement weather or during night as well as day. In all such cases SAR turns out to be very useful and efficient. . Either a single antenna mounted on a moving platform (such as an airplane or spacecraft) is used to illuminate a target scene or many low-directivity small stationary antennae are scattered over an area near the target area. Synthetic aperture radar complements photographic and other optical imaging capabilities because of the minimum constraints on time-of-day and atmospheric conditions and because of the unique responses of terrain and cultural targets to radar frequencies.
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 These are mainly used by space shuttles and orbiting satellites to create detailed topographic maps of the surface of planets and moons . Environmental monitoring, earth-resource mapping, and military systems require broad-area imaging at high resolutions. Many times the imagery must be acquired in inclement weather or during night as well as day. In all such cases SAR turns out to be very useful and efficient.
In SAR microwave signals (300 MHz to 30 GHz) are used because it can

pass through clouds and permits unobstructed observation. polarizations

(waves polarized in a single vertical or horizontal plane). 1500 high- power pulses per second are transmitted toward the target or imaging area, with each pulse having a pulse duration (pulse width) of typically 10-50 microseconds (us). The pulse normally covers a small band of frequencies, centered on the frequency selected for the radar. Typical bandwidths for an imaging radar are in the range 10 to 200 MHz SAR being a coherent system requires both the magnitude and the phase of

the echo samples to be preserved, which implies that the system pulse-topulse phase must be stable as the essential information lies not in the magnitude but the phase of the received data..

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Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) uses pulse compression to obtain high range resolution and synthesizes a large antenna width to obtain high azimuthal resolution. The unit vector in the azimuth direction lies in the plane in which the image is focused and is perpendicular to the projection of the range unit vector u into that plane. This aperture synthesis is achieved by coherently integrating the returned signal pulse-to-pulse as the radar moves along its path.

How does Synthetic Aperture Radar work?

Consider an airborne SAR imaging perpendicular to the aircraft velocity as shown in the figure below. The synthetic aperture RADAR gives 2-D images of the target objects. The two dimensions are RANGE
AZIMUTH

RANGE
The range is just a distance.Range (or cross track) is a measure of the "lineof-sight" distance from the radar to the target. Range measurement and resolution are achieved in synthetic aperture radar in the same manner as most other radars: Range is determined by precisely measuring the time from transmission of a pulse to receiving the echo from a target and, in the simplest SAR, range resolution is determined by the transmitted pulse width, i.e. narrow pulses yield fine range resolution. range = ctime/2 where c=velocity of microwave signals=3*10^8 m/sec

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Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging Concept

AZIMUTH
It is the other dimension It is a measurement which is perpendicular to that of

the range azimuth (or along track) and is perpendicular to range. It is the ability of SAR to produce relatively fine azimuth resolution that differentiates it from other radars. To obtain fine azimuth resolution, a physically large antenna is needed to focus the transmitted and received energy into a sharp beam. The sharpness of the beam defines the azimuth resolution. Similarly,
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optical systems, such as telescopes, require large apertures (mirrors or lenses which are analogous to the radar antenna) to obtain fine imaging resolution. Achieving fine azimuth resolution may also be described from a doppler processing viewpoint. A target's position along the flight path determines the doppler frequency of its echoes: Targets ahead of the aircraft produce a positive doppler offset; targets behind the aircraft produce a negative offset. As the aircraft flies a distance (the synthetic aperture), echoes are resolved into a number of doppler frequencies. The target's doppler frequency determines its azimuth position.
The length of the radar antenna determines the resolution in the azimuth the longer the antenna, the finer the resolution in this dimension. Azimuthal resolution is often called bearing or directional resolution. It is a radars ability to display side-by-side targets correctly. Azimuthal resolution is controlled by beam width as only targets separated by more than one beamwidth can be displayed separately. Range resolution is the radars ability to display in- line targets separately. Range resolution affects targets along the beam, oriented behind one another. .

WHY CALLED SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR?

To obtain fine azimuth resolution, a physically large antenna is needed to focus the transmitted and received energy into a sharp beam .But SAR uses a mobile platform and hence to have antennas with large aperture is not possible. Thus the air-borne RADAR covers this distance by flying in order to collect data. This distance which the aircraft flies to synthesize the aperture is called synthetic aperture. .

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Because the radar is moving relative to the ground, the returned echoes are Doppler-shifted (negatively as the radar approaches a target; positively as it moves away). Comparing the Doppler-shifted frequencies to a reference frequency allows many returned signals to be "focused" on a single point,

What are the sources of SAR data?

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How does a typical SAR application works?

In a typical SAR application a single radar antenna is attached to the side of an aircraft. This antenna keeps on sending out narrow pulses and receives them. The amplitude and phase of the signal returning from a given piece of ground are recorded. These pulses are combined as if they had all been made simultaneously from a very large antenna; this process creates a synthetic aperture much larger than the length of the antenna.

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NASA's AirSAR instrument is attached to the side of a DC-8

ENHANCED SAR SYSTEMS

The basic design of a synthetic aperture radar system can be enhanced in various ways to collect more information. Most of these methods use the same basic principle of combining many pulses to form a synthetic aperture, but they may involve additional antennas or significant additional processing. One of such implementation is polerimetry

POLERIMETRY
Radar waves have a polarization. Different materials reflect radar waves with different intensities, but anisotropic materials such as grass often reflect different polarizations with different intensities. Some materials will also convert one polarization into another. By emitting a mixture of polarizations and using receiving antennae with a specific polarization, several different images can be collected from the same series of pulses. Frequently three such images are used as the three color channels in a synthesized image. This is what has been done in the picture at left. Interpretation of the resulting colors requires significant testing of known materials.

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SAR image of Death Valley colored using polarimetry

INTERFEROMETRY
A technique that uses the measured differences in the phase of the return signal between two satellite passes to detect slight changes on the Earth's surface. The combination of two radar measurements of the same point on the ground, taken at the same time, but from slightly different angles, to produce stereo images. Interferometric data applications use the phase change between acquisitions from the same orbital track. In principle, a minimum of one pair of data sets is necessary. Data application includes coherence maps, digital elevation models and mapping of small (centimeter-range) Earth movements. Mapping height changes provides information on earthquake damage, volcanic activity, landslides, and glacier movement.

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Erosion mapping of the Amargosa Valley, USA. Dark areas correspond to low erosion, bright areas to high erosion occurring between March 5 and May 14, 1993.

Main difference between RADAR and SAR

In RADAR system we have a fixed platform whereas in case of SAR we have a mobile platform. We use large antennas in case of RADAR but we use small effective antennas with synthetic aperture in case of SAR. SAR mainly have use in mapping something which is different from that of RADAR. - 20 -

 The azimuth resolution produced by SAR is relatively fine as compared to RADAR

Application of sar
Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Targeting. Many applications for synthetic aperture radar are for reconnaissance, surveillance, and targeting. These applications are driven by the military's need for all-weather, day-and-night imaging sensors. SAR can provide sufficiently high resolution to distinguish terrain features and to recognize and identify selected man made targets. . Interferometry (3-D SAR). Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IFSAR) data can be acquired using two antennas on one aircraft or by flying two slightly offset passes of an aircraft with a single antenna. Interferometric SAR can be used to generate very accurate surface profile maps of the terrain. Sandia has developed new mathematical techniques for relating the radar reflection from the terrain surface to the time delay between radar signals received at the two antenna locations. The techniques are directed at removing ambiguities in estimates of surface heights and are referred to as 2-D least squares phase unwrapping.

Navigation and Guidance. Synthetic aperture radar provides the capability for all-weather, autonomous navigation and guidance. By forming SAR reflectivity images of the terrain and then "correlating" the SAR image with a stored reference (obtained from optical photography or a previous SAR image), a navigation update can be obtained. Position accuracies of less than a SAR resolution cell can be obtained. SAR may also be used to guidance applications by pointing or "squinting" the antenna beam in
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the direction of motion of the airborne platform. In this manner, the SAR may image a target and guide a munition with high precision. Foliage and Ground Penetration. Synthetic aperture radars offer the capability for penetrating materials which are optically opaque, and thus not visible by optical or IR techniques. Low-frequency SARs may be used under certain conditions to penetrate foliage and even soil. This provides the capability for imaging targets normally hidden by trees, brush, and other ground cover. To obtain adequate foliage and soil penetration, SARs must operate at relatively low frequencies (10's of MHz to 1 GHz). Recent studies have shown that SAR may provide a limited capability for imaging selected underground targets, such as utility lines, arms caches, bunkers, mines, etc. Depth of penetration varies with soil conditions (moisture content, conductivity, etc.) and target size, but individual measurements have shown the capability for detecting 55-gallon drums and power lines at depths of several meters. In dry sand, penetration depths of 10's of meters are possible. Moving Target Indication. The motion of a ground-based moving target such as a car, truck, or military vehicle, causes the radar signature of the moving target to shift outside of the normal ground return of a radar image. Sandia has developed techniques to automatically detect ground-based moving targets and to extract other target information such as location, speed, size, and Radar Cross Section (RCS) from these target signatures.

Change Detection. A technique known as coherent change detection offers the capability for detecting changes between imaging passes.To detect whether or not a change has occurred, two images are taken of the same scene, but at different times. These images are
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then geometrically registered so that the same target pixels in each image align. After the images are registered, they are cross correlated pixel by pixel. Where a change has not occurred between the imaging passes, the pixels remain correlated, whereas if a change has occurred, the pixels are uncorrelated. Of course, targets that are not fixed or rigid, such as trees blowing in the wind, will naturally decorrelate and show as having "changed." While this technique is useful for detecting change, it does not measure direction or the magnitude of change. Environmental Monitoring. Synthetic aperture radar is used for a wide variety of environmental applications, such as monitoring crop characteristics, deforestation, ice flows, and oil spills. (Example: SAR image of a naturally occurring oil seepage) Oil spills can often be detected in SAR imagery because the oil changes the backscatter characteristics of the ocean. Radar backscatter from the ocean results primarily from capillary waves through what is known as Bragg scattering (constructive interference from the capillary waves being close to the same wavelength as the SAR). The presence of oil dampens the capillary waves, thereby decreasing the radar backscatter. Thus, oil slicks appear dark in SAR images relative to oil-free areas.

Advantages of SAR Use day and night " Active sensor Sees through clouds (mostly) - 23 -

Good for physical feature detection Resolution

Limitation Its a costly process as it requires high end signal processing equipments to process the data.It requires a moving platform. like a plane, spacecraft or a satellite. Extensive computation at the air-borne radar leads to delays.

CONCLUSION
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We come to see that Synthetic Aperture Radar scores over the conventional radar on a number of parameters. The synthetic aperture radar succeeds in generating a much larger aperture with a better resolution using smaller antennas as compared to the conventional radar techniques. Its use as to generate interferometric images is very vital to detect the faults and other seismic activities. Though it requires high level and speed signal processing techniques but this can be overcome due to rapid research in signal processing. Thus we may conclude that Synthetic Aperture Radar would play a major role in detecting and locating objects with much advance resolutions in future.

REFERENCE
www.sandia.gov/RADAR/sar.html - 25 -

 www.profc.udec.cl/~gabriel/tutoriales/rsnote/cp4/cp4-3.htm www.infosar.co.uk/docs/node7.html www.spacetec.no/ProductsAndServices/SAR www.faqs.org/faqs/sci/Satellite-Imagery-FAQ/part2/section-3.html www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/ifsare.htm - 8k

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