Introduction

A solar cell is a device that directly converts the energy in light into electrical energy through the process of photovoltaic and is the most promising of all alternative resources known to date. Solar cells
are inexhaustible in power generation with no fuel except sunlight for nearly 30 years of lifetime guarantee. Solar cells are basically large area pn junction photo diode. Basing on the junction structure, solar cells are categorized into two types (a) homogeneous junction Si, Ge or GaAs solar cells (b) heterogeneous junction solar cells are based on II-VI compounds like CdS/CdTe, CdS/CIGS Homogeneous solar cells may be either single crystal or poly crystalline material. The wafers are suitably doped to get n or p type materials. A suitable ohmic contact from the top of the solar cell is formed. For the n-type, aluminum is one of the suitable materials and for p-type silver is the apt one.

Solar cells are basically semiconductor junctions under illumination. Light generates electronhole pairs on both sides of the junction, in the n-type emitter and in the p-type base. The generated electrons and holes then diffuse to the junction and are swept away by the electric field, thus producing electric current across the device. The electric currents of the electrons and holes reinforce each other since these particles carry opposite charges. The p-n junction therefore separates the carriers with opposite charge, and transforms the generation current between the bands into an electric current across the p-n junction

The current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell are measured at different light intensities, the distance between the light source and the solar cell being varied. The dependence of no-load voltage and shortcircuit current on temperature are determined. As additional tasks, the series resistance and ideality factor (of the diode) is figured out.

Objectives of the experiment: 1. To determine the light intensity with the thermopile at various distances from the light source. 2. To measure the short-circuit current and open-circuit (no-load) voltage at various distances from the light source. 3. To estimate the dependence of open-circuit (Voc) voltage, and short-circuit current (Isc) on temperature. 4. To plot the current-voltage characteristics (I-V) at different light intensities. 5. To plot the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics under different operating conditions: cooling the equipment with a blower, no cooling, shining the light through a glass plate. 6. To figure out the Series Resistance of the solar cell.
General Summary of The Lab Experiment Work Experiment Setup

Equipment:

Equipment Solar battery, 4 cells, 2.5x5 cm Thermopile, molltype Universal measuring amplifier Rheostat, 330 Ohm, 1.0 A Lamp socket E27, mains conn. Filament lamp, 220 V/120 W, w. ref l. Meter scale, demo, l = 1000 mm Tripod base Right angle clamp Universal clamp G-clamp Digital multimeter Connecting cord, l = 500 mm, red Connecting cord, l = 500 mm, blue
Task 1

Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 2

 The light intensity was measured with the thermopile and digital multimeter with the equipment at 6 different distances 100cm until 50cm from the light source.  The inlet aperture marks the position of the thermopile.  The distance between the lamp and the thermopile was at least 50cm, since the angular aperture of the thermopile is only 20 degree. (dia. 2.5 cm)  The light intensity was varied by varying the distance between the light source and the solar cell.  The intensity was determined with the thermopile assuming that all the light entered the aperture reaches the measuring surface.  Data was collected and the graph was plotted. Task 2:  The diffused light as well as the direct light from the lamp was measured by the solar cell.  The diffused light chiefly arises as a result of reflection from the bench top due to the lamp slim light cone of approximate 30 degree was then suppressed by covering the bench with a black cloth.  The relationship between the light intensity and the short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage at various distances away from the light source was obtained using the measured values in task 1  The light intensity (J), short-circuit current (Isc) and open-circuit voltage (Voc) data was collected and a graph was prepared.

Task 3
 The open circuit voltage (Voc) and the short-circuit current (Isc) of the solar cell depends on temperature.  The temperature effect is demonstrated by blowing hot air (no air, medium hot, high hot air and screening with glass plate: 4 categories) over the solar cell.  A glass plate which absorbs light in the infrared region is used to reduce a rise in temperature of the solar battery.  The temperature is measured by putting the thermocouple tip along any side of the panel and inserts the socket to the multimeter. The cell is handled with care as its thin p-layer can easily be damaged. Voc and Isc is measured individually and tabulate the data. Task 4 & 5

 The circuit setup for I-V measurement is referred to the figure below.  The voltage with the potentiometer (also called voltage divider) was changed and the current to get the I-V is recorded.  The I-V characteristics for various light intensities and temperatures from the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter was then repeated.  The differences are in the distance and the temperature variation by external factors (like hot blowers)

Fig. : Circuit for measuring the current-voltage characteristic Task 6  The solar cell and the measurement apparatus as shown in figure below were connected to measure the series resistance.This experiment is carried out under dark condition.  The voltage was supplied to the cell from the power supply until the reading on the digital ammeter equals or close to the short-circuit current Isc measured in previous experiment.  The applied voltage, Va, was recorded.  A higher voltage was used for the open-circuit voltage test (Voc) to obtain the current value equals to Isc.  This is because of the additional voltage drop across the series resistance (Rs).  This resistance was determined by the difference between those two voltages.

Va Voc = Rs x Isc Va  Voc Therefore, Rs = Isc

A
+ Solar

Cell

_ -

Fig : Series Resistance measurement setup Cautions 1. The black cloths can never be put over the lamp. 2. The thermocouple tip was put on any side of the solar panel. Double check the connections before powering on. 3. The apparatus cannot be handled roughly. Result:

Task 1:

Sensitivity given is 0.16 mV/mW, so 1W = 0.16V Light Intensity, J: MeasuredVoltage Area of the thermopile (Wm-2 ) 0.16V

Radius, r =

0.025 2 = 0.0125m

Area of the thermopile = x r2 2 = x 0.0125 = 0.000491 m2 Distance between lamp and thermopile, d (m) 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 Discussion The further the distance between the thermopile and the lamp, the lower the voltage was obtained. This is due to the solar cells receive fewer electrons so the power obtained is reducing as the distance kept increasing. Task 2: Using the light intensity values from the previous task. Distance between lamp and solar cell, d (m) 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 Voltage, Voc (mV) 2.12 2.08 2.05 1.98 1.98 1.96 Current, Isc (mA) 82.0 62.7 49.7 40.9 34.2 29.6 Light Intensity, J (Wm-2) 246.9 193.4 179.5 174.4 159.1 131.1 Measured Voltage, V (v) 0.0194 0.0152 0.0141 0.0137 0.0125 0.0103 Light Intensity, J (Wm-2) 246.9 193.4 179.5 174.4 159.1 131.1

Discussion Open circuited voltage The open-circuit voltage increases when the light intensity increases. This is because when the distance between the lamp and the solar cell increases, the light intensity decreases, thus the voltage obtained also decreases towards the end. Short circuited current The short-circuit current, is proportional to the light intensity as it increases also when the light intensity increases which means solar cells need higher light intensity to generate higher current in short-circuit condition. Task 3 Temperature (celcius) 36 39 41 50 60 Discussion A blower was used to affect the changes in temperature. The current and voltage are both decreasing during the increase in temperature which could be caused by less light intensity. Task 4 & 5 d = 1.0m Voltage (V) 1.81 1.76 1.17 0.21 d = 0.6m Voltage (V) 1.96 1.95 1.92 0.36 Current (mA) 5.6 7.9 15.1 49.8 Current (mA) 8.1 13.6 29.2 29.4 Current, Isc (mA) 74.3 63.4 52.0 52.0 50.7 Voltage, Voc (mV) 2.06 2.01 2.00 1.95 1.91

d = 0.5m Voltage (V) 2.02 2.01 1.99 1.88 0.56 Discussion As the distances increases, the I-V characteristics plots at different light intensity, light intensity also decreases which is similar to the graph obtained. Task 6 Va = 1.88 V Voc = 0.055 V Isc = 44.2mA Rs = Va  Voc Isc 1.88  0.055 44.2 Current (mA) 5.8 8.9 17.8 44.2 77.9

= 412.05 Discussion: Task 6 is to measure the series resistance. Rs can be found using the formula Conclusion: From the experiment, it is concluded that the solar cell converts the light to electrical energy.. The increasing and decreasing distances between the lamp and the thermopile prove that the light intensity is inversely proportional with the distances. The current and voltage generated is proportional with the light intensity. List of References http://www.soton.ac.uk/~solar/intro/tech6.htm http://www.windwaerts.de/en/topics/solar-energy/operating-principle-of-a-solar-cell.html http://www.projectsjugaad.com/globalwarming/Working-principle-of-solar-cells.html Va  Voc Isc