Windows Interface Facts

You should be familiar with the following components of the Windows interface: Component Purpose The desktop contains icons that access programs, files, applications, and file systems. The desktop is what is seen when all programs and open folders are minimized. Earlier versions of Windows installed many icons on the desktop; later versions moved many of these icons to the Start Menu, although installing an application often adds an icon to the desktop. The Start Menu is the easiest way to access the most useful things on your computer. y y Start Menu y y The list of programs in the Start Menu are divided by a separator line into two sections: "pinned" (default) programs and the most frequently used programs. The Start Menu also contains default icons that provide quick access to important features and folders such as My Computer, My Documents, Help and Support, Search, Printers and Faxes, Run, and Control Panel. The Start Menu can be customized for each user. The appearance of the Start Menu is different with each Windows version. With the exception of Windows 7, you can use a "classic" style for the Start Menu to match the appearance of previous versions.

Desktop

The Taskbar is the bar that is typically displayed at the bottom of a Windows Interface (although its position can be changed). The Taskbar: y Taskbar y Contains icons that represent each program or application that is currently running. Can be configured to display different types of toolbars. For instance, Quick Launch is a toolbar that contains shortcuts to designated programs.

In Windows 7, you can also pin programs to the Taskbar. You launch a pinned program by clicking the icon on the Taskbar. The System Tray is a part of the Taskbar, usually located to the right of the Taskbar. The System Tray: y y Displays the time and date. Displays icons that represent the applications and processes that are running behind the scenes on your computer such as audio volume, security programs, and connectivity to the Internet or a workgroup.

System Tray

In Windows Vista/7, the System Tray is referred to as the Notification Area. Windows Explorer My Computer Windows Explorer provides a graphical user interface for viewing and managing the file system. My Computer (simply Computer in Windows Vista/7) is essentially Windows Explorer with a different name. Both provide an interface for viewing the contents of your computer including the file system, printers, and the network. The Control Panel contains various utilities that change how a computer looks and behaves. Use the Control Panel to configure settings for hardware devices, manage printers and networks, configure personal settings, and manage the system. The Sidebar provides a way to display information to which you desire quick and easy

Control Panel Sidebar

access. It is made up of small programs called gadgets that you can add or remove from the Sidebar. y y y y y The sidebar is only available with Vista. Gadgets can display virtually anything, including weather forecasts, notes, time, news headlines, and stock quotes. Windows comes with default gadgets, but you can download additional gadgets. You can undock gadgets from the Sidebar and place them on the desktop. When you close the Sidebar, the undocked gadgets remain. With Windows 7, the Sidebar has been removed, with all gadgets being freely placed on the desktop.

Windows Aero is a set of features that improves the visual appearance of Windows. Features of Aero include: y y y y y Glass effects on window borders that make borders semi-transparent (translucent). You can view objects behind windows through the window borders. Window animations when windows are opened or closed. Taskbar thumbnails show the contents of an open window when you move the mouse over items on the taskbar. Windows Flip shows thumbnails of running programs when you use the Alt + Tab keys to switch between running programs. Windows Flip 3D is activated with the + Tab key and shows an expanded 3D view of running programs.

Aero

Aero features new to Windows 7 are: y The Show Desktop button (on the right side of the Taskbar) hides all open windows. Hovering over the button makes the content of all open windows disappear (called Peek). Snap is a new feature that maximizes a window as you drag its border to the edge of the screen. Snapping multiple windows on the screen tiles them side-byside. Shake lets you hide all but the current window. Click the top window border and shake the mouse to hide or unhide all other open windows.

Windows Aero is available only in Vista and Windows 7, but is not available in the Home Basic versions. In addition, features depend on the graphics card in the system. For example, you might not be able to use Windows Flip 3D if the graphics card does not have the necessary features. Windows Vista and Windows 7 include improved search features to help you find documents on your computer. y Search y Windows includes a new indexing service that catalogs objects and files on your computer to improve the speed of searches on your computer. The search is typically fast because it is not searching the complete hard drive but instead is looking through the index. Instant Search provides a box for typing keywords and phrases. As you type, matching results are displayed. Instant Search boxes are available on the Start Menu and in other applications such as Internet Explorer, Photo Gallery, and Media Player. Custom properties allows you to add tags or descriptions to files as attributes

that can be easily searched or indexed. Search Folders lets you save a search as a folder. When you open the folder again, the search is performed and the results are displayed.

User Account Control (UAC) is a feature introduced in Windows Vista that helps minimize the dangers of unwanted actions or unintended software installations. y y User Account Control (UAC) UAC differentiates between standard user privileges and administrative privileges. Icons next to some tasks identifies tasks that require administrative privileges. In addition, performing other tasks, such as installing applications or hardware devices, require administrative privileges. If standard user privileges are not sufficient to perform a task, the system requests privilege elevation. o If you are logged on as a standard user, you are prompted to supply the username and password for an administrator user. o If you are logged on as an administrator, you are prompted for permission before the action is performed.

Safety Measures
Personal safety should be your top priority when working with computer components. y y y y y y y y y Exercise great care when working with electricity. Before handling a system component, make sure that it is powered off and that the main power cord is unplugged from the wall socket. Ensure that the grounding pin on a PC power plug is intact. Avoid opening the power supply which houses a capacitor (stores a large charge of electricity). Because newer power supplies constantly pull power from the socket, unplug the system before working on internal components. Anti-static wrist straps not only protect components, but can reduce the chance of accidental electrical shock. Properly ground yourself before working with components. Do not use a grounding strap when working with monitors, power supplies, laptop LCD panels, or other high-voltage components. After turning off a computer, allow components to cool sufficiently before servicing to prevent burns. Make sure the room and the building is properly set up to ensure your safety. o Keep work areas and floors clear of clutter to help prevent accidents. o Do not route cables across the floor in pathways. This can lead to tripping accidents, and could also result in worn cables. o Make sure fire extinguishers and fire suppression methods (such as sprinklers) are properly implemented and maintained. o Provide adequate ventilation to remove toxic fumes. o Replace worn or frayed power cords. Be careful when lifting heavy objects. o Bend your knees and keep your back straight, using your legs to lift objects. o If your job requires frequently lifting, wear a back brace for added protection. o Use carts and other tools when moving heavy objects for any significant distance. o If necessary, ask for help when lifting or moving heavier objects.

y y y

Maintain and periodically review the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). The MSDS describes safe handling procedures for dangerous materials. Promptly report any potentially hazardous situations. Your top priority in responding to any incident is to ensure the safety of others. In the event of a hazardous situation, clear people from the area or remove the danger before attempting other actions such as preventing or repairing damage to components.

Keep in mind the following specific issues that can also be hazardous: y Use caution when servicing CRT monitors. They can store 20,000 to 30,000 volts of electricity, even when unplugged. Be sure to discharge capacitors or turn the equipment over to qualified personnel for servicing. Similarly, exercise caution when working with the DC converter in a laptop display. Do not use a regular multimeter or other electrical testing equipment to measure charge inside a monitor. Never clean the monitor's glass with a liquid solvent while the monitor is powered on. Never break or open the CRT tube in a monitor. This could cause contact, through touch or inhalation, with toxic substances, such as lead, phosphorous, cadmium, barium and mercury. Components such as the CPU heat sink and fan, the printing head of a dot matrix printer, or components inside a laser printer can be hot. Some studies suggest that laser printers emit tiny particles which could be dangerous when inhaled. As a precaution, do not locate laser printers immediately next to desks, and keep the area ventilated. The power inverter (power supply) converts AC current to DC current. The power supply can retain an electrical charge, even when not plugged in. Replace faulty power supplies instead of trying to repair them. Avoid handling leaky batteries. The leaking electrolytes can be harmful if they get into your eyes. Never look into the end of a fiber optic networking cable. Laser light can damage your eyes.

y y y y y

y y

SD Facts
Static electricity is the accumulation of an electric charge (produced by friction) on a non-grounded object. The static charge on the surface of a non-grounded object can jump when it contacts the surface of any grounded object. This electric discharge is known as electrostatic discharge (ESD). ESD can be very destructive to a computer. The threat of ESD begins when the fragile components (including the processor, hard drives, memory, motherboard, and expansion cards) inside the computer are exposed. Damage can occur simply by placing a fingertip too close to a component inside an open computer case. ESD charges can travel through wires and into components, where the wires can explode or fuse together, causing the components to fail. ESD can cause immediate failure of components, or could gradually degrade components, causing only intermittent problems. Implement the following measures to protect against ESD. y y y y y Keep the relative humidity between 40-70% and temperature between 72-77 degrees. Avoid dry air in the computer repair location. Use antistatic mats under the PC and on the floor. Discharge yourself before touching any computer component. When touching anything inside the computer, wear an antistatic wrist strap that is attached with an alligator clip to the metal PC chassis. Ground both yourself and the computer to the same ground. This provides a single path for the flow of electrical potential.

y y y y y

Use static resistant materials to handle computer components. Never touch the metal connectors on a circuit board. Keep computer repair location free of materials that accumulate electric charges (for example, plastic or Styrofoam). Store sensitive components in static-shielded bags (also called anti-static bags; they are usually tinted gray). Static resistant bags are not near as effective (usually tinted pink or blue). If a wrist strap is unavailable, keep your body in constant contact with the metal frame when working inside the computer.

Note: Unplug the system before working on internal components. Do not rely on the power cord for an electrical

Environmental Facts
It is important to ensure that equipment and hazardous chemicals are disposed of properly. y y Consult the manufacturer's documentation for recommended solutions for equipment disposal. Consult the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for information on physical data, toxicity, health effects, first aid, storage, disposal, and spill procedures for disposal of hazardous chemicals. You can download these safety data sheets from the manufacturer's Web site, or check with a representative of that company.

The following table offers suggestions for disposing of used equipment: Component or Material Alkaline batteries Notebook battery packs Button batteries Monitor Power supply PC system Laser printer toner Ink-jet printer cartridges

Disposal Method Recycle if possible, otherwise dispose of in the regular trash. Considered hazardous waste. Return to manufacturer, recycle, or contact local authorities for disposal procedures. Contact local authorities. CRTs contain many toxic and caustic substances that are illegal to incinerate and must be encased in cement before being buried. Also, discharge before disposal (CRTs can contain high voltages.). Contact local authorities. Discharge before disposal (contains high voltages). Contact local authorities. Recycle if possible: the typical PC contains $5 to $25 worth of precious metals. Return to manufacturer for recycling (to clean up spills, use a toner vacuum or a scoop and a damp cloth; never use a regular vacuum). Consult with local authorities for recycling possibilities.

Cleaning solutions Consult the MSDS, a licensed disposal organization, or local authorities for handling and solvents and authorized disposal procedures.

Professionalism
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y What specific things can you do to improve your people skills?

y y y y y

What actions and comments contribute to common stereotypes about PC technicians? How does professionalism affect customer satisfaction? How does respect affect your actions towards customers? Why should you avoid jargon and acronyms when dealing with customers? What should you do if you get a phone call while at a customer site?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 6.2 Given a scenario, demonstrate the appropriate use of communication skills and professionalism in the workplace o Use proper language - avoid jargon, acronyms, slang o Maintain a positive attitude o Listen and do not interrupt a customer o Be culturally sensitive o Be on time  If late contact the customer o Avoid distractions  Personal calls  Talking to co-workers while interacting with customers  Personal interruptions o Dealing with a difficult customer or situation  Avoid arguing with customers and/or being defensive  Do not minimize customers' problems  Avoid being judgmental  Clarify customer statements  Ask open-ended questions to narrow the scope of the problem  Restate the issue or question to verify understanding o Set and meet expectations / timeline and communicate status with the customer  Offer different repair / replacement options if applicable  Provide proper documentation on the services provided  Follow up with customer / user at a later date to verify satisfaction o Deal appropriately with customers confidential materials  Located on computer, desktop, printer, etc.

Professionalism Facts
It is important to always act in a professional manner when working as a PC technician. Unfortunately, PC technicians are often considered to have poor people skills. To remedy this stigma, there are multiple things that PC technicians should do to optimize their customer's experience. Often, first impressions set the tone for the overall customer experience. If your first contacts with the customer are positive, you will be more likely able to maintain that positive relationship throughout the customer experience. Keep in mind the following: y y y y Be on time. If you are going to be late, contact the customer, apologize for the inconvenience, and give a realistic timeframe for your arrival. Dress appropriately based on your company's policies. Greet the customer, introduce yourself, and ask permission before entering. Review the purpose of the support call. If necessary, explain the process you will use to identify and resolve the problem. Set realistic expectations for finishing your work, being careful not to over promise.

Good communication skills are essential when communicating with customers and colleagues. This includes being tactful and using discretion. Some things to remember about communication skills are:

y y y y y y

Use clear, concise, and direct statements. Allow the customer to complete statements--avoid interrupting. Clarify customer statements--restate what they have said and ask pertinent questions. Avoid using jargon, abbreviations, and acronyms. When you do use technical terms, take the time to explain them in simple language. Actively listen to customers. Use professional and courteous language at all times. Avoid making jokes or commenting on issues unrelated to the purpose of your visit.

Another important aspect of acting in a professional manner is to treat your customers with respect. This includes always providing confidentiality, using caution when entering a customer's workspace or working on their computer, and never treating a customer in a demeaning manner. Some other important things to remember about dealing with your customers in a respectful manner are: y y y y Maintain a positive attitude and tone of voice. Avoid arguing with customers or becoming defensive. Realize the importance of your task--do not minimize customers problems. Avoid being judgmental, insulting, or calling the customer names. When dealing with upset customers, try to maintain a calm voice, clearly explain your position, and do as much as is within your power to resolve the issue. Avoid distractions or interruptions when talking with customers or completing work at the customer location. o Avoid taking personal phone calls. o Ask for permission before taking business-related calls. If necessary, excuse yourself from the area before dealing with unrelated matters. Avoid accusing the customer, even if the problem might be directly related to their incorrect actions. Do no browse files on computers that are not necessary for the repair. Do not move or take personal items from the area or look in areas unrelated to the repair.

y y

As you identify the problem and possible solutions, keep in mind the following: y y y y Get authorization to proceed before making any unexpected repairs or fixing items that were not part of the original problem, especially if the extra repairs result in an additional charge. If possible, clearly explain any repair options, as well as the advantages and disadvantages as well as the cost. After you have fixed the problem, try it out (or let the customer try it out) to make sure that other problems don't exist. After the repairs are finished, provide the customer with a detailed description of the work performed along with any manuals or documentation related to new hardware. Ask the customer if they would like to keep the failed components. If necessary, take the time to briefly explain any new software or hardware that was installed. If applicable, offer additional services or training that might be beneficial to the customer. If the problem is related to user error or is caused by actions taken by the customer, tactfully explain the problem without accusing or judging the customer. Before leaving, make sure the customer is satisfied that the problem has been resolved. For best customer service and based on your company policy, follow up with the customer at a later time to verify that the problem remains fixed.

y y y y

You should attempt to resolve all customer problems yourself as long as the task falls within your scope of responsibility. If a request is outside of your ability or your responsibility, help the customer get in contact with the appropriate people (such as another technician who handles those requests or a manager who has the authorization to respond to a problem or a request).

PC Maintenance Facts
One of the most important things you can do to keep computer systems running is to create the proper environment. Consideration Description For computer components, design HVAC systems with the following in mind: y y Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) y y Keep temperature between 70 and 74 degrees to prevent components from overheating. Keep humidity between 40 and 70 percent to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD). Make sure server rooms have separate ducting or systems from the rest of the building for better control. Use positive pressure systems. Positive pressure systems protect the air quality in the facility by causing air to be forced out through doors, windows, and other openings. Negative pressure systems draw air in, potentially bringing in airborne particles such as dust or smoke. Positive pressure systems are more energy effective. For areas with heavy smoke or dust, add filters to air intake systems to filter out airborne particulates.

Interference is a signal that corrupts or destroys regular signals. Interference affects signals used by two devices to communicate on a network. Listed below are two types of interference that affect computer networks. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) is interference that affects wired networking signals. y y EMI is caused by motors, heavy machinery, and fluorescent lights. Use shielded twisted pair cable to protect signals sent on Ethernet twisted pair cabling. If necessary, use fiber optic cables to eliminate the effects of interference.

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

Interference Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is interference on the radio channel used by wireless networking devices. y Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) RFI can be caused by nearby wireless devices using the same channel, cordless phones, or microwave ovens. Wireless networks that use the 2.4 GHz frequency range (801.11b and 802.11g) are susceptible to RFI. RFI can be reduced by using a wireless networking standard that operates in the 5.75 GHz range, or by using a different channel for wireless devices.

y y

Magnetic fields

Magnetic fields located close to a computer can cause undesired effects or even data loss.

y y y

Floppy drives, hard drives, and tape storage devices use magnetic charges on a disk or tape for storing data. While hard disks are shielded and protected from all but the strongest magnets, be careful with floppy disks and tapes. Getting a magnet too close to these components could erase data. Magnets near a CRT monitor can distort the images on the screen. CRT monitors, speakers, motors, and generators contain magnets (keep sensitive components away from these devices). Solid state storage devices (such as RAM or flash drives) are not affected by magnetic fields.

One of the best things you can do to keep your system running efficiently is to keep it clean. Be aware of the following facts about cleaning your computer: y Common computer cleaning supplies include: o Lint free cloth o Compressed air or air compressor o Small anti-static vacuum o Denatured or isopropyl alcohol Regular, periodic cleaning gives you the chance to inspect all components. Look for worn or failed components. On electrical components, dark areas might indicate a burned out component. Prior to cleaning computer components, power down and unplug components and let them sit for at least 30 minutes to cool. Use caution with liquid-based cleansers. Use small amounts and always apply cleaning solutions to cloths and cleaning instruments, never directly to component surfaces. Dust buildup inside a computer acts as an insulator for internal components, trapping heat and preventing adequate cooling of components. Use: o Compressed air to blow dust off o A non-static vacuum to remove dust o A natural bristle paintbrush to wipe components off Use a small amount of denatured alcohol on a cotton swab to clean electrical connectors (such as those on expansion cards). When cleaning a CRT monitor screen, spray some glass cleaner on a clean cloth (not on the monitor). For LCD screens, use a lint-free dry cloth or a small amount of isopropyl alcohol (do not use window cleaner or ammonium-based cleaners or paper towels). You can also use special monitor-cleaning solutions or pre-packaged wipes with monitor-safe solution. For a mouse with a roller ball, clean the ball and the roller contacts on a regular basis. For keyboards, use a vacuum or compressed air. For keys that stick use a lint-free cloth and/or cleaning swabs, lightly dampened, to gently wipe each key. To clean a printer, use a damp or dry cloth. o On inkjet printers, use the printer's cleaning function to clean the print heads. o For laser printers, use an anti-static vacuum to remove excess toner. Note: A regular vacuum will build up an electrostatic charge from the toner. On removable media devices, use: o A proprietary cleaning kit, to manually clean the interior of a floppy disc drive. o A cleaning utility program, to automatically clean the interior of a floppy disc drive. o A DDS-approved cleaning tape, to automatically clean the heads of a tape drive. o Compressed air to blow dust and debris off of CD-ROM and DVD disc surfaces, out of drive bays, and off of drive heads. o Soft lint-free cloths, dry, to wipe smudges off of CD-ROM and DVD disc media surfaces.

y y y y

y y

y y y

Be aware of the following additional tips for maintaining your computer: y When receiving a new computer or component that has been shipped, let it sit for at least 6 hours (24 hours if it arrives in outside freezing conditions) before applying power. The rapid change in temperature can cause damage to components or can result in condensation within the computer. Perform regular backups. Backups protect your data if a hard disk fails. You can use covers and cases to protect some equipment (such as printers) from dust and liquid spills. Be sure to remove covers before use and replace after use. Keep cables organized. Route cables to prevent them from being kinked or stepped on. For best results, use cable ties to bind and

y y y

Troubleshooting Process Facts

Good troubleshooting is a process that combines knowledge, experience, and intuition. As you practice service and support in a work environment, you will add to your experience and develop intuition that will help you to quickly solve a variety of problems. Regardless of your current troubleshooting abilities, you will benefit from following a systematic approach to problem solving. The following process has proven effective in a variety of situations: 1. Identify the problem. Resist the urge to start fixing things at this point. o Ask the user to describe the problem, check for error messages, or recreate the problem. o Establish what has changed. Most often, problems are caused by new hardware or software or changes to the configuration. If necessary, carefully ask users to discover what might have changed that could have caused the problem. 2. Before making changes to the system, back up user and system data (or make sure a recent backup exists). While some changes can be made without affecting user data, you should back up data to protect against unintentional data loss caused by making changes. 3. Identify possible causes and identify a theory of a probable cause. Check for simple, obvious, and common problems first. For example, check power cords, connectors, and common user errors. 4. Test your theory to verify the cause of the problem. o If your theory is not correct, examine other possible causes (return to the previous step). o At this point, if the problem is caused by simple things such as an unplugged system, you can safely take actions to resolve the problem. o If the cause is not a simple one, identify the necessary steps to correct the problem. o If you cannot identify the cause of the problem, or if the problem is beyond your ability or responsibility to fix, escalate the problem. Escalation means turning the problem over to someone more capable of handling the problem. When escalating the problem, be sure to detail the actions you took and the information you have discovered up to this point. 5. Create an action plan, addressing the most likely problem and account for side effects of the proposed plan. For example, will the fix result in significant system downtime? Is the resolution best left for other times of the day? Is there a temporary solution that should be implemented immediately? When side effects have been weighed against the fix and all concerns have been addressed, fix the problem. 6. Test the result. o Ensure that the problem is fully resolved and that implementation did not cause any new problems. o If necessary, take additional actions to prevent the problem from happening again. 7. After the problem is fixed, ensure the customer's satisfaction and explain what you did to fix the problem. If possible, have the user perform the task to make sure that they understand and accept that the problem has been resolved. 8. Document the solution and process. In the future, you can check your documentation to see what has changed or to help you remember the solution to common problems.

Remember that troubleshooting is a process of both deduction and induction. Experience will show you when deviating from this process can save both time and effort. Keep in mind the following tips when troubleshooting systems: y Often the hardest part of troubleshooting is to reproduce the problem. You might need to ask the end user questions to identify exactly how the problem occurred, or you might need to watch them perform the task again to reproduce the problem. If a hardware device or a software program causes a specific error, check the manufacturer's Web site for additional help in troubleshooting the error. To help diagnose issues, you can run special software tools supplied by the hardware manufacturer. In addition to a basic toolkit, you can keep a few spare parts on hand that you know to be in working order. If you suspect that a component has failed, replace it with the known good spare. If that solves the problem, replace the faulty component. Intermittent problems are particularly difficult to troubleshoot. Check for environmental conditions such as kinked cables or overheated components. If you have problems identifying a hardware error, you can simplify the system by removing all but necessary components (processor, memory, and hard disk). Add devices one at a time and restart the system. If an error occurs, remove the newly added device and troubleshoot that device. Another strategy would be to remove a single device and restart the system, seeing if removing that device corrects the problem. Some problems might be caused by software errors, not hardware failures. You might need to begin by updating the drivers or unloading software.

y y y

y y

Motherboard Facts
A motherboard, also called system board, logic board, or mainboard, is a circuit board that either houses or is connected to all of the components operating in the computer. Choosing the correct motherboard requires attention regarding which features and configurations are available. Ensure that the board chosen is compatible with the system CPU and that there are enough compatible expansion and memory slots, keeping in mind future upgrading requirements. A typical motherboard includes the following components: Component Processor interface Function / Characteristics Current motherboards have a socket that accepts the processor. Pins in the processor drop into the motherboard processor socket. The motherboard socket must match the socket type and design used by the processor (in other words, when choosing a motherboard, make sure it matches the processor you will use). Some motherboards support multiple processors and will have a socket for each processor.

The motherboard contains slots for different types of memory. Memory modules must Memory modules be compatible with the type supported by the motherboard, the total memory capacity, and the processor and chipset support. Expansion slots allow you to add features to your computer by inserting expansion cards into the available slots. There are a number of different standard expansion slots including: y y Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

Expansion slots

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

Onboard components

Many motherboards include onboard devices (such as network cards, audio cards, video cards, or USB and Firewire connections). Selecting a motherboard with onboard devices is typically cheaper than buying separate expansion cards for each feature. However, the quality of these onboard devices might not be as high as the quality you could get from devices through expansion cards. A faceplate fits over the motherboard's ports to secure them and protect the motherboard from dust and debris. There are standard connectors for onboard I/O components that don t require expansion cards. These connectors typically include the following:

Faceplate connectors

y y y y y y

PS/2 mouse and keyboard ports USB ports Serial ports (COM 1, 2, 3, and 4) Parallel ports (LPT 1 and 2) Mic in, line in, line out connectors MIDI/Game port

There are a number of connectors for components such as power supply, fans, and Onboard internal LED lights. In addition, many motherboards provide additional ports, such as USB or connectors Infrared, by attaching adapter cards to the motherboard connectors (also called headers). These connectors are often labeled on the surface of the motherboard. BIOS chip CMOS battery The BIOS chip is firmware (hardware hard-coded with software) attached to the motherboard and is essential in booting the computer. The CMOS battery supplies power to the CMOS to retain system settings used by the BIOS during system boot. The chipset is a group of chips that facilitate communication between the processor, memory components, and peripheral devices. The chipset controls the bus speed and also power management features. Chipsets are usually attached to the motherboard and are non-upgradeable. Most modern chipsets consist of the following: y The northbridge chip provides control for main and cache memory, the front side bus, and the AGP and PCIe graphics. The northbridge is closest to the CPU. The northbridge dictates the CPU and memory type supported by the motherboard. On some motherboards, the northbridge chip includes an integrated graphic processor. The northbridge often has a heat sink and sometimes a fan, especially if it includes built-in video. The southbridge chip provides the real time clock, controls power management, and provides the controllers for the PCI bus and USB devices. There are two other important chipsets on a motherboard: the keyboard controller and the I/O controller.

Chipset

y y

Recent developments for the chipset include: y y Combining north- and southbridge functions into a single chipset. Moving the memory controller from the northbridge to the CPU itself to improve memory access by the CPU.

Jumpers

Jumpers are electrical connection points that can be set to control devices and

functions attached to the motherboard. Some functions controlled by jumpers are: y y y y Clearing the CMOS password Clearing the CMOS settings Setting the CPU bus speed on the motherboard Enabling or disabling onboard components

Many functions previously performed by jumpers can now be configured in the CMOS or are configured automatically. When selecting and working with motherboards, a good place for information is the motherboard documentation. Most motherboard documentation includes a diagram of the motherboard that identifies the components listed above and details any jumper settings. If you are missing the motherboard documentation, check the manufacturer's Web site.

Documentation

Note: When selecting a motherboard, make sure the motherboard and system case use the same form factor.

Expansion Bus Types

Expansion slots provide a connection for a number of devices and functions. To add features to your computer, you can typically add a peripheral card to an existing bus slot. The following table lists common expansion buses in a PC system: Slot Characteristics PCI supports a 32- or 64-bit I/O bus providing compatibility with both 486 and Pentium machines. y Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) y y This bus is processor independent (the CPU and the PCI bus can process concurrently). PCI is plug-and-play, meaning that newly installed devices can be detected and configured automatically. PCI buses are most commonly used for devices such as sound cards, modems, network cards, and storage device controllers.

PCI slots are typically white. Mini-PCI Small form factor computers, such as laptops or micro-ATX systems, might include a mini-PCI slot. Mini-PCI devices are small cards with either 100- or 124-pins. A typical use for a mini-PCI slot is to add internal cards (such as wireless cards) to laptops. PCI Express (PCIe) is a next generation I/O bus architecture. Rather than a shared bus, each PCIe slot links to a switch which prioritizes and routes data through a point-to-point dedicated connection and provides a serial full-duplex method of transmission. y Basic PCIe provides one lane for transmission (x1), at a transfer rate of 2.5 Gbps. It can also provide multiple transmission lanes (x2, x4, x8, x16, x32). In addition to greatly increased speed, PCIe offers higher quality service.

Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe)

PCIe is backwards compatible and allows legacy PCI technology to be run in the same system (i.e. you can have both PCIe and PCI buses in the same system). PCIe buses are most commonly used for video cards in modern computer systems, although nearly any other device can be designed for a PCIe slot.

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) Audio/Modem Riser (AMR) Communications Network Riser (CNR)

AGP is similar to PCI, but designed specifically for graphics support. Motherboards that provide AGP support have a single AGP slot. AGP is commonly used for video cards in modern computer systems, but is being replaced by PCIe. AGP slots are typically brown. A riser card is not a bus, but rather a card that attaches to the motherboard and allows inserting additional cards (called daughter cards). AMR slots typically provide sound or modem functions. CNR is a riser card slot (not a bus) that allows for inserting networking, wireless communication, sound, or modem functions.

CPU Facts
When selecting a CPU, be aware that you will need to match the motherboard and the CPU. Either select a CPU supported by the motherboard, or select a motherboard that will support the processor you have chosen. The following table lists several considerations for choosing a processor: Feature Description Intel and AMD are the two producers of processors used in modern PCs. y Manufacturer y y Both Intel and AMD processors work in PC systems and support Windows software. Intel has a larger market share, while AMD processors generally cost less. Processor performance and special features vary between models and manufacturers.

A 32-bit processor can process 32-bits of information at a time; a 64-bit processor can process 64-bits of information. Over the last several years, processors have been moving from 32-bit processors to 64-bit processors. y The biggest advantage of 64-bit processors over 32-bit processors is in the amount of memory they can use. 32-bit processors have a limit of 4GB. 64-bit processors have a theoretical limit of 16.8 TB, although operating system and current hardware limitations impose a much lower practical limit. The operating system and applications must be written for 64-bits to take full advantage of 64-bit processing. The processor instruction set identifies all instructions (operations) that a processor can perform. o 32-bit processors use the IA-32 instruction set (also referred to as x86). o Itanium processors from Intel use the IA-64 instruction set. o AMD64 and Intel 64 processors use the x86-64 instruction set (also referred to as x64). 32-bit applications can run on 64-bit processors using the following methods:

32-bit or 64-bit

y y

Itanium processors use a software layer to translate between IA-32 and IA-64. o x64 processors execute both 32-bit and 64-bit instructions in the hardware. Applications typically perform better on 64-bit systems. o 64-bit applications typically perform better than 32-bit applications. o In some cases, 32-bit applications might perform better on 64-bit systems. o

Processors operate using an internal clock that is the same as, or is a multiple of, the motherboard bus speed. The speed is represented in MHz and is also referred to as the frequency. Speed y y y You can purchase processors of the same type but with different speed ratings. When selecting a processor, make sure the motherboard supports the processor speed by reading the motherboard documentation first. Most motherboards automatically detect the processor speed. If not, you might need to use jumpers or edit the CMOS to configure the processor speed.

A multiple core processor has multiple processors within a single processor package. y y Multi-core y y Dual-core, triple-core, and quad-core processors are typical in desktop systems. Multi-core systems enable the operating system to run multiple applications simultaneously. Without multiple processors, applications appear to run at the same time, but must wait their turn for processing time from the single processor. Some applications can be written to execute on multiple processors at the same time. Older motherboards had two (or more) processor sockets to provide a multiple processor solution. Newer multi-core processors use a single motherboard socket to support multiple processors.

Cache is memory that the processor can access directly without using the system RAM. There are three types of processor cache: y Level 1 (L1) cache is integrated on the processor die itself and stores instructions for the processor. On multi-core systems, each processor typically has its own L1 cache. Some processors might have two L1 caches, one for instructions and one for data. Level 2 (L2) cache is additional cache used for both instructions and data. Depending on the processor, L2 cache might be shared between two or more cores, or exclusive to a single core. Level 3 (L3) cache is additional cache beyond the level 2 cache. For multi-core systems, L3 cache is shared between all cores.

y Cache

Be aware of the following regarding processor cache: y y y The size of the cache increases as you move from L1 to L3, with L1 cache being the smallest. As a general rule, a processor with more cache performs better than a processor with less cache (all other things being equal). Originally, only L1 cache was on the processor die, with L2 cache being on the

motherboard between the CPU and the RAM. As processor technology has advanced, L2 cache moved to the processor die, with L3 cache being on the motherboard. Today, all three cache levels are located on the processor. The process size refers to the manufacturing process used to etch transistors onto the silicon wafer that will become the CPU. A smaller process size means smaller transistors, which translates into a smaller CPU die with more transistors and less power consumption. Process size is expressed in microns (such as .25 microns) or nanometers (90 nm which equals .09 microns). Hyper-threading is a feature of some Intel processors that allows a single processor to run threads (instructions) in parallel, as opposed to processing threads linearly. Hyperthreading enables a processor to execute two threads at the same time. For example, on a quad-core Intel system that supports hyper-threading, the processor can execute 8 threads at a time (2 on each core). Hyper-threading is not the same as multithreading. Multithreading is a feature of an application that allows it to sent multiple threads at the same time. Applications are typically written to support multithreading to take advantage of multiple cores (executing threads on two or more processors at the same time) or hyper-threading features. Throttling is the process of modifying the operating characteristics of a processor based on current conditions. y y Throttling y Throttling is often used in mobile processors to change the operating frequency to minimize power consumption and heat output. Throttling can also be used in low memory conditions to slow down the processing of I/O memory requests, processing one sequence at a time in the order the request was received. Related to throttling, processors or the operating system can shut down unused cores in multi-core systems to conserve energy.

Process size

Hyperthreading

Some Intel processors include a Turbo Boost feature. Turbo Boost, the opposite of throttling, allows the processor to dynamically run above its rated speed to improve performance. Mobile processors Mobile CPUs are used in notebook computers where portability and mobility are a concern. Special versions of processors are built to minimize power consumption and the amount of heat generated. Virtualization allows a single physical machine (known as the host operating system) to run multiple virtual machines (known as the guest operating systems). The virtual machines appear to be self-contained and separate physical systems. y y Virtualization y y Virtualization is performed by adding a layer between the physical system and the operating system. This layer acts as the hardware to the guest system. Early virtualization was performed using software only. Newer virtualization uses special instructions supported by the processor to improve performance. VMware is the most popular virtualization solution. Microsoft has several virtualization products including Virtual PC, Virtual Server, and Hyper-V. If you are planning on implementing a virtual solution, check to see whether hardware support in the CPU is required. Hardware support is provided by processors with the following features: o Intel's Virtualization Technology (VT) o AMD's AMD Virtualization (AMD-V)

Integrated memory controller

In a traditional processor design, the processor is connected to the front side bus and the Northbridge chip. The processor communicates with other system components through the front side bus. Smaller manufacturing size has reduced the overall size of a processor, leaving more room on the processor die for additional cores or cache. To improve performance, some processors include the memory controller on the processor die rather than in the Northbridge chip, resulting in faster memory access by the processor. Processors require some form of heat dissipation system to function properly. Without a heat dissipation system, a processor will overheat and burn out in less than a minute. Most modern CPUs require a heat sink and a fan. Between the CPU and the heat sink, thermal paste or a thermal pad helps in the transfer of heat from the CPU to the cooling unit.

Cooling

CPU Performance Facts

For a long time, processor clock speed was used as a measure of processor performance. This is not necessarily true for newer processors for the following reasons: y y y If two processors are of the same type, higher speed typically means higher performance. With processors of different types, speeds might not be comparable. It is important to make sure your mother board can support the speed of your processor. Many processors use a performance rating instead of speed with a higher number indicating a better-performing processor. However, performance ratings are typically only applicable between models of the same manufacturer. In some cases, buying a processor with double the cache can nearly double the performance. Dual core processors offer better performance, but typically not double. Software must be specially written to take best advantage of the dual core processors. Special instruction sets supported by a processor can increase performance. For example, hyperthreading support on Intel processors can boost performance for specific types of operations. Performance can also be increased by modifying other system components such as adding more RAM, using a faster disk, or improving cooling and ventilation. Overclocking is a feature that causes the processor to operate at a higher speed. Overclocking is typically performed by those who want to get the maximum performance from their systems. Some important things to know about overclocking are: o Overclocking can cause system instability, component damage, and can void your warranty. o Motherboard bus, processor, and memory settings should be adjusted to match. o Overclocking may require more voltage. o Overclocking often increases heat output. For this reason, it may be necessary to upgrade your cooling devices.

y y y

y y

Memory
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y How does RAM differ from ROM? What is the difference between SRAM and DRAM? What are two advantages of using DDR3 memory over DDR2 memory? What are two places where the memory controller might be located in modern PC systems? Why is consulting the motherboard documentation so important when purchasing memory? Which indicates a higher operating frequency, PC-2700 or DDR-400?

y y

You have DDR2 memory with a CAS latency of 6 and DDR3 memory with a CAS latency of 7. What can you tell about the relative speed of the two memory modules? What is the difference between ECC and registered memory?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.2 Explain motherboard components, types and features o Memory slots  RIMM  DIMM  SODIMM  SIMM 1.6 Compare and contrast memory types, characteristics and their purpose o Types  DRAM  SRAM  SDRAM  DDR / DDR2 / DDR3  RAMBUS o Parity vs. Non-parity o ECC vs. non-ECC o Single sided vs. double sided o Single channel vs. dual channel o Speed  PC100  PC133  PC2700  PC3200  DDR3-1600  DDR2-667

RAM Facts
Random Access Memory (RAM) can be classified as one of two types: Type Description Dynamic RAM stores data using a single transistor for every bit of data (a 0 or a 1). To maintain the state of the transistor, dynamic RAM must continually supply power to the transistor; when the power is turned off, the data is lost. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) y y y y DRAM is simple to implement. DRAM can have a very high density (i.e. high storage capacity). Because of the simplicity, DRAM is relatively inexpensive. DRAM is used in the main system memory on a computer.

Static RAM stores data using four transistors for every bit of data. Static RAM does not require constant power to maintain the contents of memory. Static RAM (SRAM) y y y SRAM is more complex and less dense (i.e. lower storage capacity) than DRAM. SRAM is faster and requires less power than DRAM. Regular SRAM still requires periodic power to maintain the state of memory, but the rate of refresh is less than with DRAM. Non-volatile SRAM (nvSRAM) is able to

maintain memory contents when the power is turned off. SRAM is typically used in cache memory, such as CPU cache, hard disk cache, and cache in networking devices.

All system memory used in personal computers is dynamic RAM. Individual DRAM chips are packaged onto a board that contains circuitry for reading and writing to the memory. You should be aware of the following standards for RAM: Standard Description SDRAM is synchronized with the system bus clock, allowing it to receive instructions in a continuous flow. New instructions can be received, even before the first instruction has finished executing. y SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM) SDRAM accepts one command and one data set per clock cycle. For this reason, SDRAM is sometimes called single data rate synchronous DRAM (SDR SDRAM). SDRAM can read or write 64-bits at a time, matching the width of the system bus. (The set of data transmitted together is called a word.) A 64-bit word is stored across 8 DRAM chips, with each chip receiving 8-bits of data. SDRAM operates at 3.3 volts (original SDRAM operated at 5 volts) at bus frequencies between 33-166 MHz.

y y y

DDR is a variation of the original SDRAM. y DDR (Double-Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM) y y y All variations of DDR are synchronized with the system clock and accept 64-bit words. DDR accepts a single command and two consecutive data sets per bus clock cycle (double the data within the same time period). Operating at the same frequency, DDR has twice the bandwidth of SDRAM. DDR operates at 2.5 volts at bus frequencies between 100-200 MHz.

DDR2 doubles the data transfer rate of DDR, for four times the bandwidth of SDRAM. y y y DDR2 accepts four consecutive 64-bit words per bus clock cycle. DDR2 includes a buffer between the data bus and the memory. DDR2 operates at 1.8 volts at bus frequencies between 200-533 MHz. The internal memory frequency is half that of the bus frequency (100-266 MHz).

DDR2

DDR3 doubles the data transfer rate of DDR2, for eight times the bandwidth of SDRAM (twice that of DDR2). DDR3 y y DDR3 accepts eight consecutive 64-bit words per bus clock cycle. DDR3 operates at 1.5 volts at bus frequencies between 400-1000 MHz. The internal memory frequency is one-fourth that of the bus

frequency (100-250 MHz). RDRAM is an alternative to DDR that was developed jointly with Intel. y y y RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) y y RDRAM transfers data either 16- or 32-bits at a time. RDRAM transfers two consecutive words in a single clock cycle. RDRAM uses a memory controller on each memory chip instead of on the motherboard or CPU. Data must pass from one memory module to the next in line. Continuity modules must be installed in unused memory slots. RDRAM operates at 2.4 volts at 400-800 MHz. Because of the higher frequencies, RDRAM modules always have heat spreaders to dissipate heat.

Note: SDRAM, DDR, and RDRAM are no longer used in new motherboards, although you might encounter each as you support older systems. DDR3 will eventually replace DDR2, and will be eventually replaced by DDR4 or DDR5. DDR increases the memory bandwidth by doubling the amount of data sent within a single clock cycle. Another method for increasing memory bandwidth is by providing multiple channels within the memory controller. y Dual-channel systems use two memory controllers, while triple channel systems use three memory controllers. Each memory controller can communicate with one or more memory modules at the same time. To operate in dual-channel mode, install memory in pairs; to operate in triple-channel mode, install memory in sets of three. Dual-channel systems theoretically double the bandwidth. However, in practice, only a 5-15% increase is gained. Dual-channel and triple channel support is mainly a function of the motherboard (i.e. the memory controller), not the memory itself. DDR, DDR2, and DDR3 can all work in dual-channel systems (depending on the memory supported by the motherboard); a triple channel system can only use DDR3. The memory controller is in the Northbridge chip on the motherboard. Newer processors move the memory controller onto the processor chip, allowing the processor to communicate with RAM without going through the front-side bus.

y y y

Memory comes in various form factors (or packages), with the form factor determining the number of pins and the size of the memory module. Generic form factor labels that you should be familiar with are: Form Description A SIMM (single in-line memory module) has pins on both sides of the module, but the pins are redundant on both sides. SIMM y y SIMMs were used with older memory modules (not SDRAM or DDR). SIMMs had a 32-bit data path, so you had to install them in pairs for a 64-bit bus.

DIMM

A DIMM (dual in-line memory module) has pins on both sides of the module, with each pin being unique.

y y

DIMMs have a 64-bit data path that matches the system bus width. RDRAM and DDR/2/3 are packaged into DIMMs, with each specification having a unique number of pins and notch position.

SODIMM

A SO-DIMM (small outline dual in-line memory module) is a smaller DIMM used in laptops. RDRAM and DDR/2/3 are packaged into DIMMs, with each specification having a unique number of pins and notch position. A RIMM (Rambus in-line memory module) is a memory module used by the RDRAM specifications.

RIMM

y y

A single channel RIMM has a 16-bit data path. A dual channel RIMM has a 32-bit data path.

Memory Characteristics
The best way to ensure you get the correct RAM for your system is to consult the motherboard documentation. In addition, there are several Web sites on the Internet where you can look up your system or scan your system to find the correct memory type to install. When selecting RAM, you will need to consider the following factors: Characteristic Packaging (form) Description When you are purchasing RAM for a system, the most important consideration is the packaging (or form). The packaging controls both the physical size of the memory module as well as the memory standard (DDR, DDR2, etc.). If you purchase the wrong type of RAM, it most likely will not fit. If it does, it might have different voltage requirements than what is supported by your motherboard. The capacity (sometimes called the size) refers to the storage capacity of the memory module (i.e. 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB). The total capacity of memory that you can install in your system is limited by: y y Capacity y The number of memory slots on the motherboard. The maximum total capacity that can be installed. For example, most systems will have a maximum of between 3 and 12 GB of RAM. The maximum module capacity. For example, the motherboard might only be able to accept up to 2 GB or 4 GB modules.

For example, if your motherboard had a total of three slots, with a maximum module size of 1 GB and a system maximum of 3 GB, if you had two 512 MB modules installed, you would only be able to add a single 1 GB module bringing the total up to 2 GB. You could also replace one or both of the 512 MB modules bringing the total to 2.5 or 3 GB respectively. For optimal performance, you should match the memory frequency (sometimes called the speed) with the frequency supported by the system bus/memory controller. Frequency y y y The motherboard front side bus restricts the maximum frequency. Memory frequency is equal to or is a multiplier of the front side bus. You can install slower memory in the motherboard, but this will degrade performance.

y y

y y

You can install faster memory in the motherboard, but it will only operate up to the maximum supported by the motherboard. Most memory modules include an SPD (Serial Presence Detect) chip that identifies its frequency. The BIOS uses the information in this chip to set the frequency automatically. On many systems, you can edit the BIOS manually to change the frequency. When you mix memory with different frequencies, all memory will operate at the lowest frequency.

The following link describes ratings that describe the frequency and bandwidth capabilities of memory. Memory Ratings Another factor that affects the performance of memory is the latency associated with accessing data in RAM. y With a read request, there is a delay between the time the data is requested and the time that the data is available on the module's output pins. This delay is called the CAS latency (CL). Older memory expressed the delay in nanoseconds, but DRAM uses a ratio based on the clock frequency to describe the delay. For memory modules of the same type and frequency, a lower CL number indicates less delay (i.e. "faster" RAM). Because CL is related to the frequency, you cannot directly compare the CL between modules with a different frequency. For example, a DDR2 module operating at 533 MHz with a CL of 6 has more delay than a DDR3 module at 667 MHz with a CL of 7. In addition to CAS latency, there are other memory characteristics that describe the delay for performing other types of operations. Collectively these values are referred to as the memory timings. For stable operations, the bus must take into account these latencies to keep the bus and the memory synchronized. Manufacturers test memory modules and rate them based on the operating frequency and the timing characteristics. Settings that produce stable performance are then encoded into the SPD module on the memory. The BIOS then reads this information to know how to configure memory settings on the motherboard. For many systems, you can manually modify the memory timings and frequency. Running RAM at a lower clock speed enables you to decrease the CAS latency setting; increasing the frequency must usually be compensated for by increasing the CL (and other) settings.

y y y

CAS latency/timing

y y

Some memory modules include error correction on the module itself. Two different approaches to error correction are used: y Error correction With parity, a 1 or a 0 is appended to each byte so that the total number of 1s is always either even or odd. Parity methods can detect errors in only one bit, but cannot fix them because they cannot determine the specific bit with the error. The parity error checking method is older and has almost been completely eclipsed by the new ECC method. Using Error Correcting Code (ECC), a value is appended to the end of each byte so that the value of the data can be compared and recalculated if an error occurs. Error Correcting Code is an improvement on parity techniques because

errors in more than one bit can be detected and corrected. Note: You might hear the terms parity and ECC being used interchangeably. Modern systems simply use ECC for error detection and correction. Keep in mind the following facts about error correcting memory: y Memory modules with ECC have extra memory chips on the module (typically 9 modules instead of 8). If the number of chips is divisible by 3 or 5, the module is likely ECC memory. ECC or parity memory must be supported by the motherboard. Because it is more expensive, ECC memory is typically used only in servers. ECC memory is slower than non-ECC memory. Do not mix ECC and non-ECC memory in a system.

y y y y

Buffered (or registered) RAM has a buffer that holds memory addresses or data before it is transferred to the memory controller. Buffered (registered) y y y y y Buffered RAM improves stability on systems with a lot of RAM (over 1 GB). Buffered RAM might slow system performance. ECC modules are typically buffered. Buffered RAM must be supported by the motherboard. Some motherboards require buffered memory.

Single-sided RAM has memory modules that are organized into a single logical bank; double-sided RAM has modules organized into two banks. y The computer can only access data in one bank at a time. Therefore, singlesided RAM allows access to all of the memory, while with double-sided RAM, the computer must switch between banks. Originally, double-sided RAM had modules on both sides of the circuit board, and single-sided RAM had modules on only one side. However, you can also have double-sided RAM with modules on only one side, where internally the memory is divided into separate banks. Single-sided memory of the same capacity as double-sided memory uses half the number of memory modules (modules are denser, with a higher individual capacity). Some older motherboards are unable to use double-sided memory, while some that allow double-sided memory can only use up to half the total memory when all memory slots are filled, or mixing single- and double-sided together might not be allowed.

y Single- or double-sided y

BIOS
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y What are the functions of the BIOS? What is the role of CMOS? How does it differ from the BIOS? Why does the CMOS require a battery? What might be some common reasons for editing the CMOS settings?

y y

What determines the keystroke to open a CMOS editor? How can you find this information? What functions are performed in the POST process?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.2 Explain motherboard components, types and features o BIOS / CMOS / Firmware  POST  CMOS battery 3.4 Explain the basics of boot sequences, methods and startup utilities o Disk boot order / device priority  Types of boot devices (disk, network, USB, other)

BIOS and CMOS Facts

You should know the following facts about the BIOS and CMOS: Component Description The BIOS is a program stored in a read-only memory (ROM) chip that the CPU automatically loads and executes when it receives power. Important things to know about the BIOS are: y y y Basic Input Output System (BIOS) y y y The BIOS program controls the startup process and loads the operating system into memory. The BIOS is an example of firmware. You should check for BIOS updates from manufacturers frequently. Updating the BIOS (called flashing the BIOS) makes new features available, such as allowing the BIOS to recognize newer hardware devices. Most BIOS chips are 64k in size, though there is 384k address space available for the BIOS to use. SCSI devices include a BIOS chip on the device. These devices have their own ROM chip called an option ROM. Some motherboards have two BIOS chips, one for the main BIOS and a second for a backup.

CMOS memory is a special RAM chip powered and maintained by a small battery that holds basic configuration data your computer needs in order to start. Important things to know about the CMOS are: y Complementary MetalOxide Semiconductor (CMOS) y To change the data stored in CMOS memory, use a CMOS editor program that is part of your BIOS. The CMOS battery can be a low-voltage dry cell, lithium mounted on the motherboard, or even AA batteries in a housing clipped on a wall inside of the case. The electric current is about 1 millionth of an amp and can provide effective power for years. If the voltage of the battery drops significantly, you may lose your CMOS settings every time you power-off or power-on your computer. If a CMOS battery fails, replace it and afterwards reenter the CMOS information.

During the computer's startup procedure, you can press one or more keys to open a CMOS editor so you can change the data stored in CMOS memory. This CMOS setup program is part of the BIOS program. The key or keys you press to open the CMOS editor depend on the BIOS manufacturer. The easiest way to find out which key to press is to read the screen as it boots or to consult the motherboard documentation. The most common keys are Delete, Insert, F1, and F2. Common reasons for editing the CMOS settings are: y y y To change the boot device order. To enable or disable motherboard devices. To add a password to the setup program to prevent unauthorized access. Note: If you set a BIOS password and then forget it, you will be unable to edit CMOS settings. To remove the password for most motherboards, move or remove a jumper, then replace it after a specific period of time. Removing the battery also works, but will remove all CMOS data, not just the BIOS password. To configure processor or memory settings (such as when you need to set operating speeds or when you want to overclock hardware settings). (In rare cases) To manually configure device properties for legacy devices.

y y

One of the main jobs of the BIOS is to help start the system. The following process is used when you turn a computer on: 1. Power is supplied to the processor. The processor is hard-coded to look at a special memory address for code to execute. 2. This memory address contains a pointer or jump program which instructs the processor where to find the BIOS program. 3. The processor loads the BIOS program. The first BIOS process to run is the power on self test (POST). POST does the following: 1. Verifies the integrity of the BIOS code. 2. Looks for the BIOS on the video card and loads it. This powers the video card and results in information being shown on the monitor. 3. Looks for BIOS programs on other devices, such as hard disk controllers and loads those. 4. Tests system devices, such as verifying the amount of memory on the system. 4. After POST tests complete, the BIOS identifies other system devices. It uses CMOS settings and information supplied by the devices themselves to identify and configure hardware devices. Plug and Play devices are allocated system resources. 5. The BIOS then searches for a boot drive using the boot order specified in the CMOS. 6. On the boot device, the BIOS searches for the master boot loader, then loads the boot loader program. At this point, the BIOS stops controlling the system as control is passed to the boot loader program. 7. The boot loader program is configured to locate and load the operating system. 8. As the operating system loads, additional steps are taken to load all additional programs and configure devices for use by the operating system.

Video
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y How does the video card affect the quality of the image on the monitor? Which type of DVI connector can be used to send either analog or digital signals? How does the GPU increase the video performance? What advantages are provided by SLI and CrossFire? What is the general function of HDCP? When should you be concerned with an HDCP video card or monitor?

What is the difference between ATSC and NTSC? Which format would you most likely choose if you wanted to watch broadcast TV in the United States?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.2 Explain motherboard components, types and features o I/O interfaces  Video 1.7 Distinguish between the different display devices and their characteristics o Connector types  VGA  HDMi  S-Video  Component / RGB o Settings  Refresh rate  Resolution  Multi-monitor 1.9 Summarize the function and types of adapter cards o Video  PCI  PCIe  AGP o Multimedia  TV tuner cards  Capture cards

Video Card Facts

When choosing a video card, consider the following factors: Factor Description Video cards must be compatible with the buses or slots on the motherboard. Common slot types used by video cards are: y y y Current video cards typically use AGP and PCI express slots. Video cards in PCIe slots usually require 16x slots. AGP video cards use either 4x or 8x slots. Older cards used PCI and VESA slots.

Bus type

Some motherboards include a built-in video card integrated on the Northbridge chip. This video card is actually part of one of the buses on the system (PCIe, AGP, or PCI). The video card includes a connector for attaching the monitor. Choose the video card with the connector(s) you need: y y A VGA monitor connects using a DB-15 connector. Video cards often list this connector as a D-sub connector. A DVI connector connects to an LCD monitor. o Most DVI connectors are DVI-Integrated (DVI-I) connectors that send either analog or digital signals based on the type of cable that is connected.

Monitor interface

y y

Older cards might have a DVI-A (analog) or DVI-D (digital) interface. You can use special conversion plugs if necessary to convert from VGA to DVI (or the other way around). However, you must have a special conversion box to convert from analog to digital signals. Many videos cards include an HDMI connector for connecting to an HD TV or monitor with an HDMI port. By purchasing a video card with dual heads (two output connectors capable of displaying video simultaneously), you can use dual monitors (as long as the operating system supports dual monitors). Many newer video cards include one VGA connector and one DVI connector. o

Video cards include a processor (called a graphics processing unit or GPU) that takes over video rendering from the CPU, thereby increasing video performance. y y Processing capabilities y y When selecting a video card, you have a wide choice of video processors. Different processors might improve performance or feature support. The use of this video processor is often referred to as video hardware acceleration. Typically, settings in the operating system control how much video processing is offloaded to the video card. In older systems, using hardware acceleration could lead to program or system instability. Decreasing the percentage of hardware acceleration often resolved the problem. Video cards also have a clock speed. Higher speeds typically mean better performance.

For increased performance, especially in games, you can install multiple video cards and link those cards together so that multiple GPUs draw a single screen. y y Multi-GPU y Scalable Link Interface (SLI) from nForce and CrossFire from ATI are two different methods for linking video cards. Cards are linked using a special bridge clip or through software (depending on the implementation). The motherboard and the video cards must each support the selected method (either SLI or CrossFire). The motherboard must have multiple 16x PCIe slots. In most cases you will need to install identical video cards, or at least video cards with very similar specifications.

Video cards have built-in memory. The amount of memory on the card effects performance as well as other characteristics of the display. y y y The amount of memory ranges from 32 MB up to 2 GB (or more). Onboard video cards (integrated on the motherboard) use a portion of the system memory for video processing. Newer video cards will use the following types of memory: o DDR, DDR2, and DDR3 memory is similar to system memory. This type of memory is cheaper and provides less performance features than using special graphics memory. o GDDR2, GDDR3, and GDDR5 is DDR memory designed

Memory

specifically for graphics. The quality of images and animations are determined by the following characteristics of display. The capability of your display depends on both the video card and the monitor support. y The resolution is the number of pixels displayed on screen. A higher resolution means that more information can be shown on the screen at a time. Modern standards range from 1024 (horizontal) x 756 (vertical) to 2048 x 1536 or even higher. The color depth is the number of different colors that can be displayed on the screen at a time. Color depth is expressed in bits (a higher bit count increases the number of colors that can be displayed). Common bit depths include: o 8-bit (256 possible colors) o 16-bit, also called high color (65,536 possible colors) o 24-bit, also called true color (16.7 million possible colors) o 32-bit, also called true color (16.7 million possible colors and alpha channel) The refresh rate is the number of times the entire screen repaints per second. Refresh rates are measured in hertz. A refresh rate of 70 Hz or lower may cause eye fatigue. A desirable range of refresh rate is 75 Hz to 85 Hz. The refresh rate you use is dependent upon the rate supported by the card as well as the monitor.

y Display quality

High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) support

HDCP is a method for copy-protecting digital media. The purpose of HDCP is to prevent the interception and copying of protected data streams as they are sent from a playback device (such as a DVD player) to a display device (such as an HD TV). y y When playing protected content from a PC, the DVD player, video card, and monitor (or TV) must all support HDCP. If you plan on watching protected content on your PC, or playing content from your PC to an external TV, make sure the video card supports HDCP.

Some video cards include features that allow them to receive video signals and output them to a TV source. y You can display the computer screen on a TV using the following methods: o Analog TVs use an S-video port for video input. o Digital TVs use the HDMI port for input. o Many newer TVs also include a DVI input, allowing you to connect to the DVI port on your computer. o You can also use an HDMI converter to convert a DVI connector to an HDMI connector. Video input allows your video card to accept a video signal from an external source, such as a DVD player or an external TV tuner box, and display it on the monitor. A TV tuner allows your video card to accept a cable TV input and change channels from within the computer. TV tuners can process one or more of

TV input and output

the following signals: o NTSC, PAL, and SECAM are analog TV signal standards. NTSC was used in North America but is being phased out. o ATSC signals are digital TV signals. When purchasing a new TV tuner, make sure it supports ATSC. A video capture card allows you to record the video signal that is coming into the computer from an external source. For example, you would use a video capture card to create digital copies of home movies stored on an analog tape, or a TV tuner with video capture would allow you to record TV shows. A video capture card might include both video and audio inputs. Note: Video capture for digital sources can also be done through a FireWire connection.

HDMI used in home theater systems have audio integrated with the video signal. If you connect your video card to a monitor or an HD TV using the HDMI port, only video content will be carried on the HDMI cable. Some video cards allow you to include audio with the video signal using one of the following methods: HDMI audio y With audio pass-through, an audio output cable is connected to the video card. The video card combines the audio signal with the video signal for HDMI output. This option is often called HDTV out. A graphics card with an onboard audio processor can decode and process audio and send it out the HDMI port. This option is often referred to as onboard sound.

DirectX is a set of Microsoft API (Application Program Interface) that improves graphic, animation and multimedia. y DirectX/OpenGL DirectX includes multiple components targeted to a different aspect of multimedia. For example, Direct3D is the 3D rendering component of DirectX. Applications (typically games) are written using features included in specific DirectX versions. To view content written to a specific DirectX version, your video card must also support that (or a higher) version.

y y

OpenGL is an alternative standard to DirectX that is used by some applications. Video cards support both DirectX and OpenGL.

Cooling
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y How does adequate cooling improve performance and extend the life of components? How does organizing and attaching cables and wires in and around a computer system help with internal airflow? Why should you keep the system case cover on during normal operations? When might you want to add liquid cooling to a computer? What is the difference between a heat sink and a heat spreader? What is the function of a thermal pad? When should it be used?

This section covers the following exam objectives:

1.5 Explain cooling methods and devices o Heat sinks o CPU and case fans o Liquid cooling systems o Thermal compound 2.2 Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes o Hardware related symptoms  Excessive heat  Odors

System Cooling Facts

The normal operation of computer components produces heat. As components get smaller and the operating frequencies increase, so does the amount of heat generated by each component. Overheated components might cause intermittent errors, and the consistently-high temperatures can eventually make components fail. The table below lists several methods you can use to cool the system. Component Characteristics Most newer motherboards include the following heat sensors: y y Heat sensors y Processor sensor, located on the circuit board underneath the processor. System case sensor, located somewhere inside the system, either on the motherboard or on a cable attached to the motherboard. Room temperature sensor, usually connected to the motherboard by a cable and mounted on a case slot.

Special software can monitor the temperature levels and be configured to send warnings when high temperature conditions exist. The computer case is actually a pressurized system with a carefully-designed path for air to flow. y y y y y Intake fans create airflow by either blowing or sucking airflow across the motherboard and components. Outtake fans pull warm air from inside the system. On many systems, the power supply fan performs either intake or outtake functions. The system case covers as well as expansion card covers must be on to ensure sufficient cooling. Otherwise, airflow and pressure will be negatively affected. Dust and debris must be kept to a minimum inside the case.

Fans

Fans are also used in conjunction with heat sinks to improve cooling. Hard drive coolers are often a set of fans that attach to hard drives. Heat sinks attach to components, increasing the surface area exposed to the air, essentially pulling heat from the components. Cooling can also be increased by adding a fan to the top of the heat sink to pull heat away from the heat sink. Common components that benefit from heat sinks include: y Processors. All new processors require a heat sink and fan. In addition, use a

Heat sink

y y y

thermal pad or thermal grease between the processor and the heatsink to improve heat transfer. Video card chipset. Motherboard chipset, especially when the motherboard has integrated video. Memory. Heat spreaders make contact with the memory chips to dissipate heat. Faster, high-performance memory often requires heat spreaders.

Rounded cables

Older internal IDE and SCSI cables are flat and can restrict the airflow inside the case. To maximize cooling, keep cables organized and consider using rounded cables to maximize airflow.

For high-performance and gaming systems, you can install a liquid cooling system to improve cooling of devices such as the processor, chipset, and hard drives. The liquid Liquid cooling cooling system replaces the heat sink and fan with a device that circulates a liquid coolant, much like a car's radiator. Room temperature Ventilation The outside air temperature should range roughly between 45 and 90 Fahrenheit. Maintaining a low room temperature ensures that heat generated by computers is dissipated, and also provides cool air that can be pulled into the system for cooling. To maintain proper air flow, keep any air intake or outlets free from obstructions. This might mean ensuring that nothing is close to the fans and vents on computers, laptops, monitors, and other devices.

Tip: Issues related to insufficient cooling are typically random errors or system lockups that are difficult to identify. One tool you can use to troubleshoot cooling problems is freeze spray. If a system is starting to fail due to overheating, spraying it with freeze spray reduces the temperature and could restore it to normal functionality. If the problem goes away after spraying a suspected component, implement additional cooling solutions for that component.

Serial, Parallel, and PS/2

As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y y What is the difference between serial and parallel communications? Theoretically, which form of communication (serial or parallel) provides faster communication? Generally speaking, which form of communication (serial or parallel) will provide communication over longer distances without amplification? What is the relationship between the serial port and the COM ports? Between the parallel port and LPT ports? What is the difference between SPP and EPP standards? What are three ways you can tell the difference between a keyboard and mouse PS/2 port? How do you configure a computer to use EPP?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y Select the correct port to use to install different peripheral devices. Install peripheral devices such as keyboards, serial devices, and parallel devices.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.2 Explain motherboard components, types and features o I/O interfaces  Serial

 Parallel  PS/2 1.9 Summarize the function and types of adapter cards o I/O  Serial  Parallel

Serial, Parallel, and PS/2 Facts

The following table describes the serial, parallel, and PS/2 interfaces for connecting devices. Interface Description You should know the following facts about serial devices: y y y y Serial y y y Data is transmitted one bit at a time. Data can be transferred greater distances using serial communication techniques. The maximum length for an RS-232 serial cable is 50 feet. Serial devices use COM ports for system resources. Remember that COM ports 1 and 3, and ports 2 and 4 are shared. If you install a serial device on both COM 1 and COM 3, the devices might cause a resource sharing problem. Serial ports on the back of a computer are always male connectors. The most common serial device is a modem. Some specialized printers might also use a serial interface. Many newer computers no longer include a serial port. To add serial ports to a computer, install an adapter card.

You should know the following facts about parallel devices: y y y y y Data is transmitted 8 bits (one byte) at a time (using 8 data transmission wires). Parallel devices use LPT ports for resources. Parallel ports on the back of a computer are always female connectors. Common parallel devices include printers and external disk drives. Data is transferred faster than with serial communications.

There are two common typUSB As you study this section, answer the following questions: Parallel Devices y y y y What are the differences between USB 1.1 and 2.0? What types of devices are typically self-powered? Bus-powered? What are the power requirements for a low-powered and high-powered bus powereddevice? Where do you typically connect the B end of a USB cable?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y y Identify typical USB connectors and ports. Connect devices such as a printer and a camera. Select and install USB devices based on customer requirements.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.2 Explain motherboard components, types and features o I/O interfaces  USB 1.1 and 2.0 1.9 Summarize the function and types of adapter cards o I/O  USB

es of parallel cables: y y An IBM Printer cable is a uni-directional cable with a 25-pin male DB25 connector at one end and a 36-conductor male Centronics connector at the other end. IEEE 1284 is a newer, bi-directional cable more commonly used. Connectors used are similar to the IBM printer cable, but with different connector genders possible. o The maximum specified length is 10 meters (approx. 30 feet). o Data can be transferred at up to 2 MB/s.

Parallel communication uses one of the following standards: y Standard Parallel Port (SPP) o Original parallel port standard. o Transfers data in a single direction (away from the computer). o 50 to 150 kilobytes per second. o Cables should be less than 10 feet in length. Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) o 500 kilobytes per second to 2 megabytes per second. o Supports bi-directional communications. o Used by non-printing devices. Extended Capabilities Port (ECP) o Requires an ECP chip on the system board. o This standard is especially good for achieving high data rates for input rather than output. o Supports bi-directional communications. o Supports DMA.

Most motherboards include a parallel port that supports all three modes. Edit the BIOS to configure the parallel port mode. IBM came out with a line of computers in 1994 called PS/2. This computer line introduced a small, fixed-pin adapter for both mice and keyboards. PS/2 adapters continue to be used extensively. Something to remember about PS/2 mice is that they must be plugged into your computer before it is turned on in order for the computer to recognize it.

PS/2

Serial, Parallel, and PS/2 Connections

The following table shows common connectors for serial, parallel, and PS/2 components. Connector Serial Connector Description You should know the following facts about serial cables and

connectors: y y y The maximum length for an RS-232 serial cable is 50 feet. Serial ports on the back of a computer are always male connectors. The original serial standard called for a 25-pin connector. However, because only 9 pins of the connector were used, manufacturers moved to a 9-pin connector.

There are two common types of parallel cables: y An IBM Printer cable is a uni-directional cable with a 25-pin male DB-25 connector at one end (top graphic on the left) and a 36-conductor male Centronics connector at the other end (bottom graphic on the left). IEEE 1284 is a newer, bi-directional cable more commonly used. Connectors used are similar to the IBM printer cable, but with different connector genders possible. o The maximum specified length is 10 meters (approx. 30 feet). o Data can be transferred at up to 2 MB/s.

Parallel Connectors y

You should know the following facts about parallel connectors: y y Parallel ports on the back of a computer are always female connectors. The IEEE 1284 specifies a daisy chaining standard that allows up to eight devices to be connected to a single parallel port.

PS/2 connectors are 6-pin mini-din connectors. The connector's sleeve has a notch to ensure proper alignment when inserted into the port and to prevent the pins in the connector from being bent. Both the keyboard and the mouse use the same connector, so it's important to connect the correct device to the corresponding port. y y y y Most motherboard faceplates include a small graphic indicating keyboard or mouse. The keyboard connector is typically towards the outside of the motherboard faceplate. The PC99 standard uses purple for the keyboard and green for the mouse. An older color scheme uses orange for the keyboard and purple for the mouse.

PS/2 Connectors

USB Facts
You should know the following facts about USB: y y y y y y USB is a serial interface that supports low- and high-speed devices. USB supports almost any kind of peripheral device, including keyboards, mice, scanners, digital cameras, printers, and storage devices. USB supports Plug-and-Play and hot swapping (adding and removing devices without rebooting-also known as hot plugging). USB allows 127 devices to be connected to a single computer (directly to the host or by hubs). All devices connected together share computer resources (IRQs, I/O addresses). The computer's BIOS must support USB and have USB enabled.

USB comes in multiple versions that perform at different rates, for various devices, as listed in the table below. Version 1.0/1.1 2.0 Speed Low-speed Full-speed High-speed Data Transfer Rate (megabits per second) Maximum Cable Length (meters) 1.5 Mbps 12 Mbps 480 Mbps 3m 5m 5m

Note: Version 2.0 is backwards compatible with version 1.1 devices. Most motherboards allow you to enable/disable USB support in the BIOS, or configure the USB version that will be used (1.1 or 2.0). The table below describes the types of USB connectors. Connector A Connector Description

Rectangular connector that generally plugs directly into the computer or a hub.

B Connector D-shaped connector that plugs into a hub, printer, or other peripheral device to connect the device to the computer. Most USB cables have an A connector on one end (to connect to the computer or hub) and a B connector on the other end (to connect to the device)

Mini Connector (4 pin)

Small square connector designed to plug in to devices with mini plugs such as a digital camera. Most USB cables with a mini connector have an A connector on the other end to connect to the computer

Mini Connector (5 pin) Small connector designed to plug in to devices with mini plugs such as a digital camera.

You can connect a USB device to a computer in two ways: y Directly to a USB port on a computer (it is common for a computer to have two USB ports). In addition, many motherboards include additional USB headers that can be used to attach additional USB ports. To an external USB hub. Hubs can be chained together to provide additional ports. A hub has a single B connector to connect to the computer, and multiple A connectors for attaching devices.

USB devices can be classified according to how they receive power. Device Type

Description

Devices that rely on their own power supply (in other words, you plug them into an AC outlet) Selfare self-powered devices (sometimes called active devices). All devices that draw more than powered 500 mA of power are required to be self-powered. USB cables have wires to carry both power and data. Bus-powered (sometimes called passive) devices get their power from the USB cable. Bus-powered devices are classified as low-powered or high-powered devices depending on the amount of power they draw from the USB bus. Bus powered y y Low powered devices use 100 mA or less High-powered devices use between 100 and 500 mA

Like USB devices, USB hubs can be bus-powered or self-powered. You cannot connect highpowered devices to a bus-powered hub (you can only connect low-powered or self-powered devices to a bus-powered hub). Therefore, self-powered hubs that provide 500 mA per port are recommended to ensure an adequate power supply to all bus-powered devices that you may wish to connect to the hub. Note: To install a USB device, you should typically install the software driver before attaching the device. When you plug in the device, it will be automatically detected and configured.

IEEE 1394 (Firewire)

As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y What are the additional functions of a six-wire IEEE 1394 over a four-wire IEEE 1394 cable? What is the maximum cable length of an IEEE 1394 cable? What are common devices that use IEEE 1394?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y Connect peripheral devices to a Firewire port.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.2 Explain motherboard components, types and features o I/O interfaces  IEEE 1394 / Firewire

Firewire Facts
The IEEE 1394 standard is a set of specifications for a high-performance serial bus. The generic IEEE 1394 standard is called HPSB (High Performance Serial Bus). Be aware that some companies market their IEEE 1394-based products under trademarked names, most notably: y y y Firewire, trademarked by Apple Computers, Inc. and the basis of the IEEE 1394 standard i.Link, trademarked by Sony Corporation Lynx, Texas Instruments

Firewire: y y y Uses a serial bus using twisted-pair wiring for data transport. Lets you connect up to 63 devices on one IEEE 1394 bus. Supports many kinds of isochronous devices (devices requiring additional bandwidth to accommodate streaming data), such as digital video cameras and recorders, hard drives, and network adapters. Supports Plug-and-Play and hot-swapping (you can add and remove devices without rebooting). Can provide power (up to certain limits) to devices. Supports peer-to-peer transfers. For example, data can be transmitted between a digital video camera and a recording device without going through a computer.

y y y

The following table describes the details of common IEEE 1394 standards. Version Description 1394 y y y y y y y Supports speeds of 100, 200, 400 megabits per second Maximum cable length is 4.5 meters (15 feet) Clarifies and enhances the original standard. Supports speeds of 800, 1600, and 3200 megabits per second Maximum cable length is 100 meters (328 feet) Supports peer-to-peer data transmission Devices like scanners and digital cameras can send data directly to a printer (no computer involvement required)

1394.A 1394.B

1394.3

You should know the following facts about IEEE 1394:

y y y y

An IEEE 1394 bus does not necessarily include a PC. In other words, various types of devices can potentially act as the root node. The devices on the bus decide the root node each time a device is added or removed from the bus. The maximum number of hops (other devices) between any two devices is 16. You cannot connect IEEE 1394 devices to form a loop. IEEE 1394 devices can be bus powered or self powered. IEEE 1394 cables with four wires are not self-powered; IEEE 1394 cables with six wires are selfpowered.

The following table shows the common IEEE 1394 cables and connectors. Connector Cable cross-section

6-pin connector

4-pin connector

Input Device Facts

Common interfaces used for connecting input devices include: y y y y 6-pin mini-DIN (PS/2 connector) for keyboard and mouse USB for keyboard, mouse, and other devices Infrared and wireless connections for keyboards, mouse, and other devices DB-9 (serial) connector for specialized input devices

The following table lists several considerations for selecting input devices. Device Type Considerations Keyboard Mouse Keyboards typically connect through a PS/2 or USB port. Many keyboards include special function keys that simplify playing music or browsing the Web. Some keyboards include a built-in USB port that can be used to connect other peripheral devices. A mouse typically connects through a PS/2 or USB port. A wireless mouse typically

transmits to a receiving station attached through a USB port. y y y Mechanical mice use a roller ball to detect motion. The roller ball must be cleaned periodically to ensure proper functionality. Optical mice use light rays to detect motion. Optical mice require less maintenance than mechanical mice. Motion-based mice can accurately detect mouse movement while in the air. This particular device can attach to a user's head and moves the cursor when the head moves. You can select mice with multiple additional buttons or a scroll wheel to add functionality. A trackball is a pointing device that is like an upside-down mechanical mouse where the user manipulates the pointer by rolling the ball.

y y

A touchscreen is a special monitor that allows input by tapping or writing with a stylus or fingers. Touchscreens are used in kiosks and portable devices such as PDAs and Tablet PCs. There are three basic types of touchscreens: y A capacitive screen uses a thin electrically charged layer placed over the monitor screen. When touched, the charge moves from the capacitive surface to the touching object. The screen location of the touch is calculated and sent to the computer. This method blocks some of the light emanating from the monitor. A resistive screen uses a glass panel covered with two metallic layers (one conductive and the other resistive) separated by a very narrow gap and mounted over the monitor screen. A protective layer is applied to the touch surface. When the screen is touched, the two metallic layers make contact and that location is calculated. This type of touchscreen also blocks some of the monitor's light emanation. A surface acoustic wave screen places tiny matching transducers across the screen surface from each other (one to send and the other to receive). When an object touches the screen surface, the signal is interrupted and that location is then calculated. This type of touchscreen does not visually impair the monitor.

Touchscreen

A barcode reader is a device that can scan barcodes. y Barcode reader Barcodes are most commonly used in retail environments at checkout stands. Shipping companies, hospitals, and other organizations use barcodes to track or inventory objects. Most bar code readers use a laser to scan the barcode, although some do use cameras or optical scanners. Older readers used a serial interface, while newer readers use USB or PS/2. Barcode readers include software that interprets the meaning of the barcode.

y y y

KVM switch

A KVM (keyboard, video, mouse) switch allows you to connect multiple PCs to a single set of input/output devices. KVM switches have multiple input groups, with each group accepting keyboard, video, and mouse connections from a single computer. A single output group connects to the shared input/output devices. Buttons on the KVM switch or keyboard shortcut combinations allow you to toggle the input/output devices between computers. y KVM switches are typically used in a data center where you manage multiple computers from a single central console.

y y

Local KVM switches must be within about 5 meters of the connected computers. Networked or remote KVM switches use special hardware devices that send keyboard, mouse, and video content through a network connection.

Display Devices
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y y y y y y What feature of a non-interlaced monitor makes it a better quality than an interlaced monitor? Which LCD display type typically has the fastest response time? What uses make a monitor with a slow response time a poor choice? Which LCD display type has the best color representation and viewing angle? What are two methods used for the backlight in LCD monitors? Which aspect ratio is used by high definition movies and television? What is the difference between 720p, 1080p, and 1080i? Which would you choose for full HDTV support? How can you tell the difference between a DVI-A and a DVI-D cable? Which connectors are used for an analog video signal? Which connectors provide only a digital signal? What are the advantages of dual link cables over single link cables? What is the difference between composite and component video? When might you see an F-type connector on a video card?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y y Identify digital and analog connectors by sight. Select the appropriate monitor based on customer requirements and system support. Configure display properties in Windows including dual monitor support.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.7 Distinguish between the different display devices and their characteristics o Projectors, CRT and LCD o LCD technologies  Resolution (e.g. XGA, SXGA+, UXGA, WUXGA)  Contrast ratio  Native resolution o Connector types  VGA  HDMi  S-Video  Component / RGB  DVI pin compatibility o Settings  Refresh rate  Resolution  Multi-monitor  Degauss

CRT Monitor Facts

CRT monitors use an electron beam that hits phosphor dots inside of a vacuum tube. While it is possible for a CRT monitor to have a digital connection, virtually all CRT monitors connect to the video card using a DB-15 (also called a D-sub) connector. When choosing a CRT monitor, keep in mind the following considerations. Be aware that the display qualities of your monitor depend on the capabilities of both the monitor and the video card. Consideration Description Screen size is often expressed in two different measures: y Screen size y The physical screen size (also called the actual size). This is the diagonal measure of the display tube. The effective viewing size identifies the largest image size that can be displayed. Because of how the CRT monitor works, portions of the display tube cannot be used for displaying the image.

Graphic artists, multimedia designers, and programmers often need much larger displays. Resolution The resolution is the number of pixels available on a display screen. Specifically, the resolution is described by the amount of pixels horizontally across the display by the amount of pixels vertically down the display. Monitors that support a higher resolution can display higher-quality graphics or have a larger screen area. There are two methods of controlling the illumination of the phosphor: y Display type A shadow mask consists of a metal screen full of holes that are aligned with each dot. The screen shields the electron beam from illuminating between dots and leaves an outline around each pixel. An aperture grill consists of a screen of ultra thin vertical and horizontal wires. This configuration allows more electrons through resulting in a richer color display. On an aperture grill monitor you might be able to see two horizontal lines running across the display. These lines are the wires that are used to dynamically change the grill opening.

Dot pitch

The dot pitch is the distance between pixels. This is measured in millimeters. The standard dot pitch in color monitors in about .15 mm to .30 mm. The smaller the dot pitch, the more room there is for higher resolutions and the sharper a picture may be. The refresh rate is the amount of time required for the CRT's electron beam to paint the screen from top to bottom. Increasing the refresh rate reduces screen flicker. Refresh rates are measured in Hz. Interlacing is drawing the screen in two passes; odd lines on the first and then the even lines on the second pass. Non-interlaced monitors produce the least amount of flicker. Additional monitor features include: y Green monitors that are Energy Star or Green Star compliant. These monitors use less than 30 watts and reduce power consumption by 99% when in sleep or suspended mode. Flat displays (tube monitors with a flatter glass tube). A flatter display results in an image with less distortion around the edges. Built in speakers or USB hub.

Refresh rate Interlacing

Additional features

y y

Note: CRT monitors have a 4:3 aspect ratio which matches the display ration of a television set. The magnetic field used for drawing the image on the screen can cause a buildup of magnetism on internal monitor components. This magnetic field can cause color distortions, especially around the edges. To correct this problem, use the degauss feature of the monitor. Degaussing creates an oscillating magnetic field for a short period of time. Most monitors perform degaussing automatically when they are turned on, but you can also manually initiate degaussing using the monitor's front panel controls.

LCD Monitor Facts

LCDs are flat panels that use a liquid crystal material and transistors to display images. TFT (thin film transistor) and active matrix are additional terms that are often used to describe LCD monitors. Currently, all LDC displays are TFT and active matrix displays. The following table describes various characteristics of LCD monitors. Factor Description As you compare LCD monitors, you will see the following characteristics that describe the characteristics of the display: y The contrast ratio refers to the difference in light intensity between the brightest white and the darkest black. An example contrast ratio is 1000:1. A higher initial number indicates a better quality picture. o The static contrast ratio indicates the difference that can be displayed at the same time. o The dynamic contrast ratio indicates the difference that the monitor is capable of producing. The response time indicates how quickly a pixel can go from black, to white, and back to black. The response time is indicated in milliseconds (ms). A quicker response time is needed when viewing moving images such as video or games. A response time that is too slow (above 8ms) results in ghosting or blurred images. Most manufactures have started using a grey-to-grey (G2G or GTG) measure of response time, which makes the response time faster than a whiteto-black response time. Brightness or luminance identifies the amount of light the monitor produces (how bright it is). Brightness is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2 also called a Nit), with a higher number indicating a brighter screen. A brighter screen is typically desired for watching movies, or on laptops where the screen is viewed in full sunlight. The viewing angle identifies the angle at which the image can still be seen. With LCD monitors, the image will be dimmer and colors distorted when viewed from an angle. The viewing angle is described with two numbers: horizontal angle and vertical angle, with a higher number being better. The pixel pitch is the distance between pixels. A lower number means a sharper image and possibly higher resolutions.

Display characteristics y

LCD monitors use one of the following technologies: y Twisted Nematic (TN) panels are the most common type used in computer monitors, especially in smaller sizes. TN panels have very good response times (2ms to 5ms), so are well-suited for games with a lot of motion. o TN panels have poor color reproduction due to the fact that only 6-bits per color can be displayed. They mimic true 24-bit color using dithering

Display type

and other techniques. TN panels have worse viewing angles and contrast ratios than the other display types. Vertical Alignment (VA) panels offer the best contrast ratios of the display types, and are well suited for movies that require good contrast. o VA panels have better color reproduction and wider viewing angles than TN displays, but with slower response times and a higher cost. o VA panels suffer from color shift that produces uneven colors across the display with loss of detail in dark scenes. In Plane Switching (IPS) panels have the best color reproduction quality and viewing angles of the display types, and are well suited for graphic design where full and accurate color representation is required. o IPS panels have relatively slow response times (6ms to 16ms), and have a slight purple tint in blacks when viewed from a wide angle. o IPS panels are the most expensive type of panel, and could be difficult to find. o

Because CRT monitors have better color reproduction than TN monitors and are cheaper than IPS monitors, CRT monitors are still used by many graphic artists. The LCD backlight provides the light that makes the individual pixels visible. The light itself is actually along the top, bottom, and/or sides, with a special layer that reflects the light throughout the display. There are currently two methods used for the backlight: Backlight method y Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp (CCFL) is currently the most common backlight source. CCFL backlights require an inverter to provide AC power to the backlight. Light Emitting Diode (LED) backlights provide brighter screens, lower power consumption, a wider color range, greater contrast, and mercury-free construction. LEDs use DC power, eliminating the need for an inverter.

The aspect ratio is the ratio of the width and the height. y y y Normal displays have a 4:3 aspect ratio (used in CRT displays). Widescreen displays have a 16:10 aspect ratio. HDTV screens have a 16:9 aspect ratio.

Aspect ratio

Note: If you watch HDTV content (DVD movies) on a 16:10 monitor, the display will either be stretched slightly or have black bars (areas without video content) on the top and the bottom. If you want to optimize DVD viewing from your computer, consider purchasing a monitor with a 16:9 aspect ratio. The resolution is the number of pixels, and is expressed using two numbers: the number of horizontal rows and vertical columns. It is common for CRT monitors to support a wide number of resolutions, but LCD monitors often have a native (optimum) display resolution. Although you might be able to change the resolution to a different setting, the results may not be satisfactory. Resolution Common resolutions are often described using a naming standard, although these standards encompass much more than just resolution size. y y y VGA = 640 x 480 SVGA = 800 x 600 XGA = 1024 x 768

y y y y y y

XGA+ = 1152x864 SXGA = 1280x1024 (5:4 aspect ratio) SXGA+ = 1400x1050 WSXGA+ = 1680 x 1050 UXGA = 1600 x 1200 WUXGA = 1920 x 1200

Resolutions with a W in the name are widescreen resolutions with a 16:10 aspect ratio. In addition to these standard resolutions, you can also purchase monitors with the 16:9 aspect ratio used by HDTV content. Increasingly, the difference between an LCD monitor and an HDTV is being blurred. You can purchase an HDTV that can also function as a monitor, or a monitor that can function as a TV. Resolutions used by HDTV are: y y 1280 x 720 1920 x 1080

HDTV support

Full HD content is designed for a resolution of 1920 x 1080 using progressive scanning (where each line on the screen is redrawn in order). Full HD support is therefore referred to as 1080p. Cheaper TVs and monitors at lower resolutions or using interlacing (where every other line is drawn with each pass) are not capable of displaying all of the video content in full HD. 720p (1280 x 720 progressive scan) and 1080i (1920 x 1080 with interlacing) identify displays that do not support full HD content, with both 720p and 1080i being comparable in quality. LCD monitors often include the following features for HDTV support: y y y y An HDMI input that accepts both video and audio input through the HDMI port Built-in speakers and audio-out to external speakers An HDTV tuner to allow you to watch TV and change channels when the monitor is used as a TV Support for HDCP to watch copy-protected content

Monitor size is typically described using a diagonal measurement. y CRT monitors will typically list the monitor size along with the viewable image size which is smaller than the total screen size. Because of how the CRT monitor is made, not all of the available screen size can actually display an image. LCD monitors use a single value for the screen size. LCD monitors can use the entire screen for displaying images.

Screen size

Because of the difference in effective viewing size, you can often purchase a smaller LCD monitor and get the equivalent viewing size of a larger CRT monitor. For example, you can replace a 19" CRT monitor with a 17" LCD monitor and have about the same effective viewing size. LCD displays are very delicate and occasionally a pixel fails to display properly (called a dead pixel). Dead pixels y y Having a few dead pixels can be common on many displays. Most manufactures have a minimum number of dead pixels that must exist

before they will consider an exchange. In addition, some place limitations on where the dead pixels must be located in order to qualify. If you are concerned about dead pixels, review the return policy before purchasing. Pressing lightly on the screen may revive the pixel.

Video Interface Facts

You should be familiar with the following video interfaces. Interface D-sub Description The D-sub connector, sometimes called a VGA connector, uses a DB-15 connector with three rows of pins. The D-sub connector on a video card provides analog output. You can connect the following monitors to a video card with a D-sub connector: y y Analog CRT monitor. LCD monitor that accepts an analog connection. Some LCD monitors have a D-sub connection, or you might need a cable with a D-sub connection on one end and a DVI-A connection on the other end to connect to the LCD monitor.

Cable

Female port DVI-A A DVI-A (digital video-analog) connection on a video card provides analog output. DVI-A connections are rarely (if ever) used for computers monitors, but might be used on some HDTV systems. You can connect the following monitors to a video card with a DVI-A connector: y Analog CRT monitor. Use a cable with a D-sub connection on one end and a DVI-A connection on the other end to connect to the monitor. LCD monitor that accepts an analog connection. Some LCD monitors have either a D-sub or a DVI-A connection.

Cable

DVI-D

A DVI-D (digital video-digital) connection on a video card provides digital output. DVI-D connections are rated as either single link or dual link: y Single link connectors have 3 rows of 6 pins with one additional larger horizontal pin. Single link can support 60 Hz up to 1920x1080 resolution. Dual link connectors have 3 rows of 8 pins plus the horizontal pin (often called a 25-pin, 24+1-pin, or 24-pin connector). Dual link can support 60 Hz up to 2048x1536 resolution.

Single link cable y

Dual link cable

Dual link allows for longer cable lengths and a higher video resolution. When choosing a video card, choose a card that supports dual link whenever possible. You can only connect a digital monitor to a DVI-D connector.

Female port

Connecting an analog monitor, such as a CRT monitor, is only possible by using a special converter box. If the video card only has a DVI-D connector and you have an analog-only monitor, it is often cheaper to purchase a new video card instead of the converter box. Note: CRT monitors with DVI-D connectors are possible but rare. This means that the CRT monitor accepts digital input.

DVI-I

A DVI-I (digital video-integrated) connection on a video card provides both analog and digital output. The DVI-I connection has all of the pins present in both the DVI-A and DVI-D connections. Most video cards and many LCD monitors have a DVI-I connection. You can connect the following monitors to a video card with a DVI-I connector: y Analog CRT or LCD monitor using a cable with a D-sub connection on one end and a DVI-A connection on the other end. LCD monitor with either a DVI-I or DVI-D connection.

Single link cable

y Dual link cable

Female port DMS-59 The DMS-59 connector is used to allow multiple video ports from a single connection. The DMS-59 connector: y Female port y y Is typically included on slimline video cards that can have only a single port. Sends out two separate DVI-I signals through the single connector. Uses a special cable that splits the signal into separate video interfaces. For example, the cable might split the signal into two DVI-I connectors, two D-sub connectors, or one DVI-I connector and one D-sub connector.

Composite video

A composite video connection on a video card provides analog, video-only TV output. Composite video connectors are RCA connectors (typically yellow). Composite signals combine three qualities of video into a single signal: y y The Y channel is for brightness or luminance U and V channels provide color information

Cable

Female port S-video

Use the composite connection to connect a TV, VCR, or video camera to the video card. Audio signals must be supplied separately. S-video (separate-video, Y/C, or S-VHS) connections are present on many video cards and supply analog, video-only TV output. The svideo connector is a 4-pin mini-din connector that has two separate channels, one for Y (luminance) and one for UV (color). S-video can easily be converted to composite video by combining the Y and UV channels into a single signal.

Cable

Female port HDTV (Component) An HDTV connector supplies analog, video-only TV output in three separate channels: R (red), G (green), and B (blue). The HDTV connector uses a 7-pin mini-din cable. Video cards with HDTV output typically include a conversion cable that converts the 7-pin connector into three RCA cables for connecting to an HDTV device. As with composite and s-video, audio must be supplied to the device separately. High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a digital video and audio connector used for high-definition digital audio and video. HDMI combines the audio and video signals onto a single cable. You might use HDMI connectors in the following configurations: y You can use a DVI-to-HDMI cable to connect the DVI-D output from a video card to a monitor or an HDTV device that has an HDMI connector. However, this configuration only supplies video, and not audio, to the display device. (DVI and HDMI are electrically equivalent, meaning that a simple pinto-pin adapter is all that is required to connect a DVI device to an HDMI port.) You can purchase a video card with an HDMI connector. Many of these video cards have an audio input port that accepts digital audio into the video card where the audio signals are combined with the video signals and sent out the HDMI port. In this configuration, the video card does not process the audio, but simply passes it through the video card from the external source and onto the HDMI output.

Female port HDMI

Cable connector

There are actually four different HDMI connector types, but the one shown is the most common. DisplayPort DisplayPort is an alternative to an HDMI connector. y DisplayPort uses a different signal format than DVI or HDMI. However, DisplayPort supports sending DVI or HDMI signals over the same port using a simple adapter. DisplayPort uses a digital-only signal. To connect a VGA monitor to a DisplayPort, you will need a special active converter that reformats the signal for analog devices. Like HDMI, DisplayPort can send audio signals over the same cable (if audio is supported by the video card and monitor). DisplayPort uses lower voltage than DVI and HDMI. DisplayPort is also an internal video interface used by laptop displays to interface with internal video cards. For manufacturers, the DisplayPort is royalty free, whereas including an HDMI connector requires a fee for each connector used. Manufacturers such as Dell and Apple are starting to use DisplayPorts in monitors and video cards, but

y y y

DisplayPorts are not yet used on HDTV sets. Cable TV (F-type) Video cards and monitors with a built-in TV tuner have an F-type cable TV connector. Most video cards that provide cable TV input also include audio output. However, most of these cards do not provide analog or digital monitor output. Note: Do not confuse video in, which can be supplied by composite, s-video, or HDTV connectors, with TV-tuner capabilities. The built-in tuner means that the card or monitor itself has the ability to accept multi-channel input and change the display by changing the channel. Without a built-in tuner, video input is limited to a single channel, and changing TV channels must be done at the source device before inputting into the video card.

Cable

Female port

Note: When connecting various devices to a computer video card, you can typically find converter cables to match the interface on the video card with the interface on the device. However, these cables do not convert from analog to digital signaling.

Device Installation
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y y y What type of hardware devices use DMA channels to communicate directly with RAM? When is manual configuration of a device necessary? What system rights are required to install devices? What is the role of the driver? What is the importance of driver signing? What should you be aware of when using a driver that is not signed? How do you safely remove a hot swappable component? How do you verify that a device is compatible with the version of Windows you are running before you purchase it? Why is it good practice to check the manufacturer's Web site for an updated driver, rather than using the driver included on the installation disk?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y y y y y Install devices using drivers included with Windows and drivers available on disc. Use Device Manager to verify the proper installation of devices. Safely remove hot swappable devices. Configure Windows to search Windows Update for updated drivers. Configure driver signing behavior in Windows XP. Update device drivers.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.1 Categorize storage devices and backup media o Removable storage  Hot swappable devices and non-hot swappable devices 3.3 Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS o Verification of hardware compatibility and minimum requirements o Device Manager

 Verify  Install and update devices drivers  Driver signing Demonstrate safe removal of peripherals

Hardware Device Facts

You should understand the following concepts that related to installing hardware devices: Concept Description A computer assigns system resources to hardware devices, and the computer uses these assignments to communicate with the device. You should be familiar with the following three categories of system resources: y IRQ (Interrupt Request) is the method used by different system devices to interact with the CPU; an IRQ allows a device to interrupt the CPU and request processing time. All new devices allow sharing of an IRQ; older (legacy) devices had to be assigned a unique IRQ. DMA (Direct Memory Access) channels are conduits used by high-speed devices to communicate directly with RAM, bypassing the CPU. o Devices such as hard drives, CD-ROM drives, tape drives, and sound cards use DMA channels to increase the speed of data transfers. o Devices must have a unique DMA channel. An I/O address (also known as a port address) allows two devices in a computer to send information to each other. o When a device wants to send information to another device, it addresses the data to the receiving I/O port number and sends it out on the system bus. o Each device in a computer must have its own I/O address.

y System resources

Newer systems use Plug and Play to automatically configure the resources used by each device. Be aware of the following when using Plug and Play: y y y y The device, the BIOS, and the operating system must support Plug and Play standards. All new devices and operating systems are Plug and Play compatible. Plug and Play allows for IRQ sharing. Plug and Play also ensures that DMA and I/O resources used by each device are unique. A legacy device is one that does not support Plug and Play. In older systems, you had to manually configure the resources used by each device. Troubleshooting of legacy systems often involved finding and resolving resource conflicts. Although a Plug and Play system attempts to assign configuration resources around the needs of legacy devices, legacy devices often interfere with a Plug and Play system's ability to properly assign resources.

Plug and Play (PnP)

A driver is a type of program that enables the operating system to interact with hardware devices. Driver y Plug and Play does not replace the need for a driver; the operating system still requires a driver to be able to configure and use the device.

Windows detects newly-installed devices and tries to find and load the driver automatically. o Many drivers are automatically included on the operating system installation CD/DVD. o Some drivers are preinstalled during the operating system installation. Windows will automatically use preinstalled drivers when they match new devices. o Windows can search the Internet for some drivers. o If Windows cannot find a suitable driver, you are prompted to identify alternate locations to search to find the correct driver. Signed drivers are drivers that include a digital signature. The digital signature proves that: o The driver comes from the reported publisher. o The driver has not been altered or modified. Drivers that have passed specific tests on Windows qualify for the Certified for Windows logo and are given a special digital signature.

An unsigned driver is one without a digital signature; a self-signed driver is one that includes a digital signature, but the identity of the entity that signed the driver cannot be verified. You can install unsigned or self-signed drivers.

In addition to drivers, many devices come with special software that interacts with the driver and the operating system to customize how the device works. Hot swappable devices are devices that can be added and removed without shutting down the computer (technically speaking, hot plug refers to automatically detecting and configuring devices that are added, while hot swap refers to the ability to both add and remove devices). y Hot swapping/plugging y y y Hot swapping must be supported by the BIOS, the bus type or controller, the device, and the driver/operating system. USB and Firewire devices are examples of buses and devices designed specifically with hot swap support. IDE drives are not hot swappable; some (most newer) SATA drives are hot swappable. When you connect a hot swappable device, Windows automatically detects the device, configures a driver (if one is not already installed), and enables the device. To remove a hot swappable component, use the Safely Remove Hardware feature to shut down the device before unplugging it from the system.

Device Installation Facts

Be aware of the following when installing devices: y Before purchasing or installing the device, verify that the device is compatible with the version of Windows you are running. You can: o Check the product documentation and look for the Certified for Windows Logo. o Check the Microsoft Hardware Compatibility List (HCL). o Contact the manufacturer to see if the device is compatible.

y y y y y

Obtain the latest driver before installation. If possible, instead of using the driver included on the installation disc, check the manufacturer's Web site for an updated driver. Read the product documentation and follow the instructions for installation. Always follow the manufacturer's instructions for installing and configuring a device. For USB devices, you will typically install the driver prior to connecting the device. For internal and non-hot swappable devices, turn off and unplug the system before installing the device. Windows will automatically configure a device if: o The device is fully Plug and Play capable. o There are no resource conflicts or other problems. o Windows finds a suitable driver in its driver database. o The driver is signed and from a trusted publisher. On Windows 2000/XP, the installation of unsigned drivers depends on the unsigned driver system settings: o Ignore/Silently Succeed configures the system to disregard signing information and install all drivers without prompting. o Warn displays a message and asks permission before installing the driver. o Block prevents unsigned driver installation. For Windows Vista, unsigned and self-signed drivers must be manually approved (Warn is the default and only setting). However, you cannot install unsigned drivers on x64 versions of Windows Vista.

On Windows 2000/XP, to change the driver signing settings, open the System Properties: o Click Start, then Control Panel and double-click on the System applet. o Click Start, then right-click My Computer and select Properties. Driver signing options are on the Hardware tab of the System Properties. Click the Driver Signing button to modify the settings. Note: When you log on using your administrative account, changes made to the Driver Signing Options dialog box will only affect your account on that computer, unless you select Make this action the system default.

y y

Use the Add Hardware applet in the Control Panel to install legacy devices. You must be a member of the Administrators or Power Users group, or you must have been given sufficient rights, to install drivers. Users can install devices without administrator privileges if the driver has already been installed.

Use Device Manager to view installed devices and their status. y To open Device Manager: o Click Start, then right-click My Computer and select Manage to open Computer Management. Select the Device Manager snap-in. (You can also open Computer Management from Administrative Tools in the Control Panel.) o Click Start, then right-click My Computer and select Properties. On the Hardware tab, click the Device Manager button. (On Windows Vista/7, after selecting Properties you will need to select the Advanced system settings link to open the System Properties.) o Click Start, then Run and type devmgmt.msc. Use the device icon to identify the status of the device: o If the icon for the device is not there, then Windows did not detect the device. Try scanning for new hardware or rebooting the system to detect the device. o A normal icon means the device was configured, the appropriate driver was installed, and the device is working properly.

An icon with a yellow exclamation mark means the device was detected, but could not be configured properly. In this case, make sure you have the latest driver for the device. o An icon with a red X means the device is disabled. To identify the system resources used by a device, view the device properties and use the Resources tab. To view all resources used by the computer: o In Device Manager, click the View menu and select Resources by type or Resources by connection. o Run Msinfo32. o

Sound Card Connectors

Sound cards provide input and output ports for connecting external audio-related devices to the computer. Some of these devices and ports are listed below: Port Mini TRS Description Mini TRS ports on the sound card accept 3.5mm plugs for analog audio input and output. The number of ports on the sound card depends on the type of input/output support such as the number of speaker channels, or microphone or line in support. Ports are often labeled with text or graphic indicate the type of input or output expected. Standardized color coding might also be helpful in determining the proper connection. Female ports y y y y y Pink = Mic In (Mic Level) Light blue = Line In (Line Level) Lime green = Line Out, front speakers or headphones Black = Line Out, rear speakers Orange = Line Out, center and surround speakers

Cable

Although these colors are standard, be sure to consult the sound card documentation for specific details. Toslink A Toslink connector is used with digital optical input or output for S/PDIF audio.

Cable Female port RCA An RCA connector on a sound card is usually used for coaxial digital input or output for S/PDIF audio. Note: While RCA connectors can be used for analog audio, RCA connectors on a sound card are normally used for S/PDIF digital audio.

Cable

Female port DB-15 A DB-15 connector on a sound card is used to connect to MIDI devices or game joysticks.

Cable

Female port Firewire Some sound cards include one or more Firewire ports. These ports function as normal Firewire ports for connecting a variety of devices.

Cable

Female port HDMI A sound card with an HDMI port is capable of sending HD audio to an HDMI device. Some sound cards are able to output video, or combine a video signal from a video card and output the combined audio/video signal through the HDMI port.

Female port

Sound Card Facts

A sound card is an expansion card (or a component of the motherboard) that manages sound input and output. Because computers use digital data, sound cards must convert analog sound into digital data, and digital data into analog sound. The following components are used to do this: y y y The Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) converts analog sound into digital data. The Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is an on-board processor that reduces the CPU load. The Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) converts digital data into analog sound (in preparation to be played on speakers).

When purchasing a sound card, be aware of the following considerations: Component Bus support Channels Description Many newer motherboards have a built-in sound chipset. You can also add audio through an expansion card in a bus (such as PCI or PCIe). Sound is split into multiple channels, which can increase the sound quality, making it more realistic. Some standard channel configurations are as follows:

y y y y

2 channel audio is stereo. Examples of 2 channel audio include standard TV and radio. 4 channel audio is quadraphonic audio, an early attempt at surround sound. 6 channel, also known as DTS (Digital Theater System). 5.1 channel audio, also known as surround sound, has 5 audio channels (delivered on 5 strategically placed speakers) and 1 effects channel (delivered via a subwoofer). The commercial name for this technology is Dolby digital. 7.1 channel has 7 audio channels (delivered on 7 strategically placed speakers) and 1 effects channel (delivered via a subwoofer). This is the first technology providing error correction. The commercial name for this technology is SDDS (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound).

The sampling rate is the number of analog signal samples taken over a period of time. Sample rates are expressed in cycles per second, called hertz (1,000 hertz (Hz) = 1 kilohertz (kHz)). A high sampling rate gives a more accurate representation of the sound. Examples of different sampling rates include: y y y y y y Sampling rate 8 kHz (telephone) A sampling rate of 8 kHz is adequate for conversation because the human voice's full range is about 4 kHz. 22 kHz (radio quality) 44 kHz (CD quality) This sample rate can accurately reproduce the audio frequencies up to 20,500 hertz, covering the full range of human hearing. 48 kHz (Digital TV, DVD movies) 96 kHz (DVD audio) 192 kHz, used by: o LPCM (Linear Pulse Code Modulation), a DVD-music production format. o BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc-ROM) and HD-DVD (High-Density-DVD), two competing next-generation optical disc formats providing HD video and high density data storage.

Higher sample rates require more bits of data. For example: y y y y y 8-bit sound cards use a sampling size of 256. 16-bit sound cards use a sampling size of 65,536. 20-bit sound cards use a sampling size of 1,048,576. 24-bit sound cards use a sampling size of 16,777,216. 32-bit sound cards use a sampling size of 4,294,967,296.

Note: The bit portion of a sound card's sampling size does not correspond with the bus size. Additional features on sound cards provide higher quality or added functions. Some typical sound card features are listed below: y y DirectSound 3D allows a computer to play audio in surround sound. EAX is a high definition sound technology originally developed for video games. This technology provides such realistic nuances that audio can actually cue gamers. THX is a sound quality standard, originally created for film, now available on sound cards. This is a sound card feature that allows computers to present theater quality sound output. Dolby Digital is a technology that broadcasts sound at a frequency the human ear

Feature support

can hear and diminishes collateral sound. This is a sound card feature that allows computers to present higher quality sound output. DTS (Digital Theater Systems) Digital requires an optical reader to decode physical data and send it to a computer for processing. This is a sound card feature that allows computers to present theater quality sound output. MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a protocol for recording and playing audio created on digital synthesizers. This feature allows the computer to become an integrated component to a musical instrument.

Analog output jacks allow you to play sound on your computer on external devices: y y Analog input and output The speaker out connector sends signal to external speakers. This signal is amplified and the computer controls the sound level that is sent. The line out connectors send audio to other sound devices. This signal is unamplified.

Analog input jacks allow you to record audio through the sound card. y y The line-level (line in) connector receives signals from CD players and musical instruments coming from the line-out port of the other device. The mic-level (microphone in) connector receives signals from microphones.

Most audio devices, such as stereo consoles, TVs, and speakers require analog audio. Newer devices, such as some CD players, DVD players, and HDTVs, are capable of processing digital audio signals. Digital audio support in a sound card: y y y Allows you to play digital audio directly from an internal CD player. Allows for compression of audio data to support Dolby Digital or DTS surround sound. Can use fiber optic cables to eliminate electrical interference.

Sound cards support digital audio in the following ways: Digital audio y An internal connector on the sound card connects to a digital audio output connector on a CD/DVD drive. Through this connection, you can play CDs directly through the sound card. An internal connector on the sound card sends HD audio, such as from a DVD or Blu-ray disc, to an audio pass-through on a video card. This allows the HD audio signal to be combined with the video signal through an HDMI connector. Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format (S/PDIF) is a consumer standard for digital audio. These external connectors allow input and output between other digital audio-capable devices.

In addition to audio input and output ports, some sound cards also include the following ports: Additional ports y y y Midi/joystick port to interface with Midi sound devices or game controllers. Firewire. Some high-end audio cards include HDMI video processors and video output, combining the features of an audio card with a video card. The sound card might

have 1 or 2 HDMI ports (for input and/or output).

Sound card drivers and other software save digital audio into several different file types. Common file types include: y y y y y y y y WAV (Windows standard), a widely used and compatible file type. AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format), the Macintosh equivalent of the WAV. AU (UNIX standard), supported by most Web browsers. MP3 (MPEG-1 Layer 3), a highly effective audio compression standard. AAC (Advanced Audio Coding), also known as MPEG-2, a compression expected to replace MP3. RA or RAM (Real Networks), developed for streaming audio files. Requires proprietary software. WMA (Windows Media Audio), a highly compatible standard developed to compete with Real Audio. MIDI, not a true audio file, but contains data to reproduce sounds through electronic synthesis.

Storage Device Facts

The following table describes common storage devices: Device Type Description A floppy disk is a single, flexible magnetic disk that is a little thicker than paper. The disk is protected by a thin outer sleeve. A read head spins the floppy to take information from the read hole in the center of the floppy. Some of the advantages of floppy disks are: y y y They are portable They used to be universal They can be used as a boot device

Floppy disk

Some of the disadvantages of floppy disks are: y y y y They have a small capacity (1.4 MB) They are slow They are magnetic Many newer computers don't have floppy drives anymore

A hard disk is a thick magnetic disk encased in a thicker protective shell. A hard disk consists of several platters, each of which requires a read/write head for each side. All of the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm to prevent them from moving independently. Each platter has track and track locations that cuts across the platters called a cylinder. Hard disk Some of the advantages of hard disks are: y y They have lots of storage (starting at 16 GB up to several TB) They are significantly faster than floppy disks

The cost per MB is cheap

Some of the disadvantages of hard disks are: y y y Many hard disks are internal devices, though you can get external enclosures They are prone to failure They are vulnerable to physical damage (i.e. when dropped)

Optical discs such as CDs and DVDs are a storage medium that use lasers for both reading and writing information. Optical discs store information through pits in their reflective coating. As the disc spins, the optical drive sends laser optics to the disk, and receives the stored information through the deflected output. Some of the advantages of optical discs are: y Optical discs y y y y They are great for music and video (they play in audio or video devices that aren't computers) They are portable and universal They are cheap You can buy CDs that are recordable They have a long shelf life and are relatively sturdy

Some of the disadvantages of optical discs are: y y y They are slower than hard disks They have a small capacity (650 MB for audio CDs, 4.7 GB for DVDs) There are some compatibility issues between disc formats and readers

Flash devices store information using programmable, non-volatile flash memory. Common flash devices are MMC, SD, memory sticks, and USB thumb drives. Some of the advantages of flash devices are: y y y y y y The memory is re-programmable They can retain content without power Are optimal for use in devices like cameras They are highly portable They have a larger capacity than floppy disks and CDs. Some have even more capacity than DVDs They have relatively fast memory access

Flash devices

Some of the disadvantages of flash devices are: y y Solid state drives Their storage capacity is not yet comparable to the capacity of hard disks Different card formats require different readers

A solid state drive is a flash device with a storage capacity similar to a small hard drive. Solid state drives are used as replacements for hard disk drives for storing operating system, application, and data files.

Some advantages of solid state drives: y y y y y They are faster than hard drives They have no moving parts so they last longer They have lower power consumption than hard drives (good for laptops) They are less susceptible to physical damage (from dropping) and immune from magnetic fields They are smaller and lighter than hard drives

The main disadvantage currently for solid state drives is cost--they are several times more expensive than comparable hard drives. However, their advantages make them a good choice, especially for portable devices. Tape drives (also called digital linear tape or DLT drives) store data on magnetic tapes, similar to audio cassette tapes. Tape drives are most commonly used for data backups, such as taking a backup of all hard drives in a system. Some advantages of tape drives: y y Tape drives y Tapes can typically store large amounts of data. Tapes can be changed, allowing you to save data from different sources on the same drive. Tapes are relatively inexpensive and small enough for long-term storage.

Some disadvantages of tape drives: y y Access to data on tape is typically slower than reading or writing to other storage types, making them not well suited for instant, interactive access. Data must be read from tape sequentially. The tape must be cued to the exact location on tape when data must be retrieved.

The term removable storage refers to the ability to easily connect and disconnect storage devices or storage media from a computer (as compared to internal or fixed storage). Floppy disks, optical discs, flash devices, eSATA drives, and tapes are examples of removable media. Hard disks and solid state drives are typically not removable media as they are installed internally in the computer.

Storage Device Interface Facts

Storage device interfaces allow internal and external devices to interact with the storage device by providing an interface through which information can be transferred. The following table describes the most common storage device interfaces: Interface Description PATA (also called EIDE, IDE, and ATAPI) is a parallel ATA interface. ATA is the standard interface for transferring data from storage devices such as hard disk drives and CD-ROM drives. PATA: y Is the most common and the least expensive interface for hard disks and CD/DVD drives.

Parallel ATA (PATA)

y y

Allows two devices per channel. Most motherboards include two built-in channels. Uses parallel communication (meaning devices share the same data transfer channel).

Some disadvantages of PATA interfaces are: y y y They have a maximum speed of 133 MB/s. Because both devices share the same channel, devices must be configured properly to avoid conflicts. They are being phased out and replaced.

Serial ATA is computer bus technology primarily designed for transfer of data from a hard disk. SATA: y y y y y y Is the successor to PATA. Uses serial communication (meaning each device is on its own channel). Is faster than PATA. Provides built-in support for disk protection methods. Provides for easy configuration--just connect the device to the SATA port. Supports external devices through the External SATA (also called eSATA) standard. eSATA is faster than USB and Firewire.

Serial ATA (SATA)

SCSI is a standard for transferring data between devices on internal and external computer buses. Though SCSI devices are most commonly used for tape storage devices and hard disks, they can also be used for devices such as CD-ROM drives, scanners, and printers. SCSI: Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) y y y y y Is typically used in servers that have high availability and speed requirements. Connects multiple devices onto a single bus or chain. Provides better performance than PATA or SATA. Is relatively difficult to configure. Devices must be configured with a device ID, and the bus must be terminated. Is more expensive than PATA/SATA.

You can connect storage devices through the USB and Firewire buses. Storage devices that can be connected to the USB or Firewire bus include: USB/Firewire y y External hard drives and CD-ROM drives. Flash memory card readers.

USB and Firewire devices are highly portable and easy to connect. Removable storage devices are typically connected through eSATA, USB, or Firewire ports. A hard drive enclosure allows you to connect a PATA or SATA hard drive to the USB or Firewire port of your computer, making the hard drives a form of portable storage.

Optical Media

As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y y y How much data does a CD typically hold? DVD? Blu-ray disc? What does the book color of the compact disc formats identify? What is the difference between DVD-R and DVD+R? An optical drive speed is identified as 24x10x70. What does each of the numbers indicate? A DVD drive and a Blu-ray drive can both read data at 4x speeds. How do the drives compare in speed and the amount of data that can be transferred? What is the difference between dual layer and dual sided discs? How are Blu-ray drives made compatible with both Blu-ray and CD/DVD discs? What is the difference between BD-R and BD-RE discs?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.1 Categorize storage devices and backup media o Optical drives  CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray o Removable storage  External CD-RW

y y

CD Format Facts
CD-ROM is just one type of compact disc format. Each format is a different way to organize the data stored on the disc. The format allows the disc to be used for a specific purpose. For a CD drive to play a CD created using a particular format, it must be compatible with that format. Compact disc formats are categorized by book color.

Book Color Redj

General Purpose Audio CDs

Specific Standard(s) CD-DA--A typical audio CD CD-ROM--The original data CD standard. Several variations of the original data CD-ROM standard exist, but they are largely specific to particular operating systems. ISO 9660--A more standardized format than the original CDROM standard. Unlike other standards based on the original CD-ROM standard, this standard is not operating systemspecific. The predecessor to the ISO 9660 standard was called the High Sierra format. CD-ROM XA--An extension to the ISO 9660 standard. Allows multiple types of data (audio, data, video) to be put on the same CD. CD-I--A proprietary standard for creating CDs with built-in interactivity. These are not CDs with interactive software programs on them. Video CD--A standard for structuring digitized MPEG video files. CD-R--The standard for recordable optical CDs. CD-RW--The standard for re-writeable optical CDs.

Yellowj

Data CDs (CD-ROM generally refers to a data CD created using a Yellow book standard. Several specific standards exist.)

Greenj Whitej

Interactive CDs Video CDs Multi-session CDs (Defines standards for recording data to a CD in more than one increment.)

Orangej

Note: A typical data CD-ROM disc holds approximately 650 MB of data.

DVD and Blu-ray Facts

DVD (Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc) is an optical media standard that can be used to store large amounts of different types of data (computer data, video, audio). y Recordable DVDs use two different formats for recording data: DVD-R/RW and DVD+R/RW. o DVD+R is a variation of DVD-R and is generally considered more robust. o Most DVD drives can read and write either format. Older drives or older DVD players might only support DVD-R. Unlike CDs, which contain data only on a single side, DVDs can contain data on both sides of the disc. o A DVD with a single side of data can hold about 4.7 GB. o A double sided disc can hold about 9.4 GB. Some DVDs can store data in two different layers on the same side. o The outer layer is semi-transparent, allowing the laser to read data from the inner layer. o Dual layer discs can hold up to 8.5 GB of data. o Double sided, dual layer disc are possible (but rare), and can hold up to 17 GB. o Most newer drives can read both single and dual layer discs. Older drives might not support dual layer discs, and dual layer recordable discs cost more than single layer discs. DVD speeds use a multiple of 1.35 MBps (1x = 1.35 MBps, 2x = 2.7 MBps, etc.).

Blu-ray Disc (BD) is a new optical disc format that is capable of greater storage capacity than DVDs. y y y y y y y y Blu-ray was originally developed for high definition video (and expanded content on movie discs), but can also be used for data storage. Blu-ray uses a blue laser instead of the red laser used with CDs and DVDs. The blue laser light has a shorter wavelength, which allows data to be packed more tightly on the disc. A single layer Blu-ray disc holds 25 GB; a double layer disc holds up to 50 GB. Experimental 20 layer discs can hold up to 500 GB. Blu-ray discs can be read-only (BD-ROM), recordable (BD-R), or rewritable (BD-RE). A 1x Blu-ray drive reads data at 4.5 MBps. For HD video, the minimum playback requires 2x speeds. Most Blu-ray drives include a second read laser for reading CDs and DVDs. Without this additional laser, Blu-ray drives would not be able to read CDs or DVDs. Blu-ray is intended to eventually replace DVD. A competing standard, HD DVD, was used by many movie distributors. Blu-ray has become the accepted HD video standard as the last movie studio stopped distributing HD DVD movies.

Optical Drive Facts

When selecting an optical drive (CD or DVD), consider the following factors. Factor Description Select the drive with the type of interface connection you need. Optical drive interfaces include: Interface y y y y PATA SATA SCSI For external drives, USB is the most common with some Firewire drives available

The most important consideration when choosing an optical drive is the types of discs that will be used with the drive as well as the function the drive will perform: y y y y Will the drive be used for both CDs and DVDs? Is Blu-ray support required? Will the drive be used for read-only discs (ROM)? Will the drive be used for recording (CD-R, DVD-R)? Will the drive be used for rewriting (CD-RW, DVD-RW)?

Drive function

Today, you can typically purchase a drive that supports both CDs and DVDs and can both read and record without much additional cost. Drive speed is measured in multiples of the data transfer supported on the first drives. y y y 150 KBps for CD 1.35 MBps for DVD 4.5 MBps for Blu-ray

A single drive might have multiple speed ratings based on the following factors y y y Media type (CD, DVD, or Blu-ray) The operation being performed (record, rewrite, or read) The DVD format supported (such as DVD-R or DVD-RW)

Speed

Speeds often report the speed as a single set of numbers such as 24x10x70. When multiple numbers are listed together, the first number indicates the record speed, the second number is the rewrite speed, and the last number is the read speed. If the drive does not perform rewrite functions, the middle number will be omitted. Tip: To remember what each number represents, just remember that the highest number is the read speed and the lowest number is the rewrite speed. When selecting the drive, identify the disc formats the drive supports. y y On older CD drives, you had to identify whether the drive could read various CD book standards. On DVD drives, you need to verify whether the drive supports the DVD+R or DVD-R standards.

Format

The loading type identifies how discs are inserted into the drive: y Loading type y Tray loading drives are the most common. When you open the drive, a tray comes out of the drive. Slot-load drives do not have parts that open and close. Instead, a motor inside the drive pulls the disc into the drive. This type of drive allows you to mount the drive vertically instead of horizontally. Some older CD drives required a disc caddy. You would load the disc into the caddy and then insert the caddy into the drive.

Cache

Drives that are used to burn or record discs often include a buffer that is used during the recording process. The cache (or buffer) includes data that is waiting to be written to disc. Using a drive with a larger cache ensures that the drive has a constant stream of data during the recording process.

Note: If the drive runs out of data that is ready to be recorded onto disc, a buffer underrun condition will result. When this happens, the recording process will fail, resulting in a wasted disc (called a coaster). Drives might also include additional features such as: y y y Bundled recording software. Slimline drives are half the size of standard drives. LightScribe is a feature that allows the drive to burn an image onto the top of a disc to create a disc label. LightScribe requires a LightScribe capable drive and special discs.

Additional features

Be aware of the following when working with optical drives: y When you place a disc in the drive, it can take several seconds for the drive to recognize the new disc and spin up to speed. If you receive a message saying that the drive is not accessible after trying to access a recently inserted new disc, wait a few seconds and try again. If you install a new hard drive, the drive letter for your optical drive might change. Software programs or shortcuts that rely on the old drive letter will likely not run properly until they have been told the correct drive letter for the drive. Access time is a general measure of drive performance. Like hard drives, average access time includes average seek time and average latency time. However, it also includes average spin up/down time. This is the time required for a drive to spin up or down to the proper speed to read the data from that particular location of the disc.

Use the following precautions to protect discs: y Some recordable discs use a foil placed on the top of the disc instead of imbedding the foil inside the plastic. Be very careful when working with these types of discs. A scratch or even some types of markers can damage this layer. To help prevent scratching, keep the disc in its case when not being used. To minimize the effect of scratches that might be generated while wiping a disc, wipe the disc from the center to the edge in straight lines (like the spokes of a wheel). Keep the disc away from direct sunlight and other sources of heat.

y y y

File System
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y y What is the difference between a partition and a volume? How can a single physical disk be divided into multiple logical storage units? How can a single volume span multiple disks? What is the relationship between a file and a directory? What advantages does NTFS have over FAT32? When might you choose FAT32 over NTFS? When can't you use NTFS in Windows?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 3.3 Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS

o o o

File systems  FAT32 vs. NTFS Directory structures Files  Extensions  Attributes  Permissions

File System Facts

A file system is a means for organizing and storing data and information on a storage device. The file system and the operating system work together to ensure data availability, integrity, and accessibility. The following table gives a description for the four main components of a file system: Component Description A partition is a logical division of a storage device associated with a hard disk drive. Multiple partitions can be assigned to a single device in which case a drive letter is assigned to represent each partition. Multiple letters do not always mean that there are multiple devices, just multiple partitions. Some reasons why you may consider partitioning your hard drive are: y Partition y y y y Assigning the boot system to a different partition than application and data files can help many computers run more smoothly and minimize damage in a system crash. It is sometimes necessary or useful for the swap file to be stored on its own partition. Some operating systems can't run on a large partition. Creating a separate partition for your operating system can help it run properly. Assigning log files to be stored on distinct partitions can help minimize the effects of a system crash due to excessively large log files. Distinct operating systems can be assigned to run on assigned partitions to allow a dual boot system setup.

Volume

A volume is a single accessible storage area within a file system. A volume can encompass a single partition or span across multiple partitions depending on how it is configured and what operating system you are using. Volumes are identified by drive letters. Note: Unallocated space is space on a partition that has not been assigned to a volume. You cannot store or read data in unallocated space.

Directory

A directory (also called a folder) is a container in a volume that holds files or other directories. It is used to logically sort and organize data to keep related files grouped together. Most operating systems use a hierarchal filing structure. A file is a one-dimensional stream of bits treated as a logical unit. They are the most basic component that a file system uses to organize raw bits of data on the storage device itself. The file name is made up of the directory path plus the file name. An extension can also be added to the filename to identify the file type and the program used to create, view, and modify the file.

File

When configuring your hard drive, you must choose a file system that will be implemented on your computer. The following table explains the characteristics of the file systems supported in Windows systems:

Property Partition size File name length File size Amount of files Volume size

FAT32 2 terabytes*

NTFS 256 terabytes

Long File Names Unicode (255 characters, spaces) (255 characters, anything but /) 4 gigabytes 268,435,437 2 terabytes* 16 terabytes 4,294,967,295 256 terabytes

*FAT32 partitions/volumes can be up to 2 terabytes in size. However, the largest partition size you can format in Windows 2000/XP/Vista is 32 GB. Windows can read partitions up to the 2 terabyte size, but cannot create them. Operating systems up to and including Windows 98/ME support only the FAT32 file system. For newer Windows systems (Windows 2000/XP and later), you will likely choose NTFS over FAT for hard drives to take advantage of additional features not supported by FAT such as: y y y y y y y The ability to format larger partition sizes in Windows. Smaller cluster sizes for more efficient storage with less wasted space. File and folder permissions to control access to files. Encryption to hide the contents of a file. Compression to reduce the amount of space used by files. Disk quotas to restrict the amount of disk space that files saved by a user can use. Volume mount points that allow you to map disk space on another partition into an existing volume.

Formatting is the process of preparing a partition to use a specific file system. Be aware of the following facts regarding formatting: y y y y y y When you format a disk, you identify the file system type and identify the cluster size used to store data. Reformatting removes the existing file system and replaces it with the new file system type. Reformatting a drive deletes all existing data. If your system or disk supports multiple operating systems, be sure to select a file system supported by all necessary operating systems. NTFS is not recommended for disks smaller than 10 MB. You can install Windows 2000 or XP on a FAT32 partition; however, you can only install Windows Vista/7 on an NTFS partition. By default, Windows XP can only format removable flash devices with FAT32. To format with NTFS in Windows XP, configure the settings for the drive to optimize for performance, then try formatting. (Windows Vista/7 allows formatting of removable devices with NTFS without these steps.) When using NTFS on removable devices, you must use Safely Remove Hardware before removing the flash device to prevent file corruption.

Managing Files
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y What do file extensions indicate? What are common extensions for word processing documents?

y y y

What is the difference between how .exe and .com files execute and how .bat files execute? How can attributes add a level of security to files and folders? What attributes are supported by NTFS that are not supported by FAT32?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y y y Assign attributes to folders and files. Compress a drive, folder, or file. Edit Folder Options to show hidden or protected files, or to show compressed and encrypted files in different colors. Change the default application used for a file extension.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 3.3 Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS o Directory structures  Create folders  Navigate directory structures o Files  Creation  Extensions  Attributes  Permissions

File Extension Facts

A complete filename is made up of a file path combined with the name of the file itself. Extensions can be included in a filename to indicate a file type. The extension identifies: y y y What the file is What it contains What program is used to create and modify the file

The main types of filename systems are: y y Long file names supported with FAT32 allows 255 characters including spaces Unicode supported with NTFS allows 255 characters including all characters except for /

You should be familiar with the following file types and their extensions: File Type Program files Batch files System files Extension .exe .com .bat .dll (dynamic link library) .drv (device driver) .vxd (virtual device driver) .rtf .txt .doc

Document files

.wpd .ppt .pdf Image files .gif .jpg .png .bmp .mp3 .wma .zip

Audio files

Windows Installer files .msi Compressed files

Be aware of the following: y Executable files (.exe, .com) are program files that can be run. Batch files (.bat as well as other extensions) also run and execute a series of commands, but typically launch another program to interpret the commands in the batch or script file. A file extension association identifies the program that is used to create a file. When you open a file that has an associated program, the program is launched and the file is opened within the program. When you install an application, file extension associations are created automatically for the file types the application uses. If you try to open a file type that is not associated with a program, you will be prompted to identify the program to use to open the file. By default, Windows hides the extension for files with associations. Use the settings in Folder Options to show file extensions for known file types. To change a program associated with a file extension: o In Windows 2000/XP, use the File Types tab in Folder Options. o In Windows Vista/7, use Default Programs in the Control Panel, or edit the properties of the file.

y y y y y

Attribute Facts
A file attribute is metadata that gives certain qualities to a file after the attribute has been assigned. The following table lists common NTFS file attributes: Attribute Read only (R) Hidden (H) System (S) Archive (A) Encrypted Compressed Note: A file can either be encrypted or compressed, but not both. Indexing The index attribute specifies how a file is indexed. Indexing allows a system to quickly Description The R attribute marks a file as read-only meaning that the file cannot be altered by subsequent users. The H attribute hides a file within the file system so it cannot be viewed or accessed by users that do not have access to its specific filename. The S attribute identifies a file as a system file that cannot be deleted. The A attribute identifies if a file has been modified since the last backup. The encrypted attribute encrypts a file. The compression attribute causes a file to be compressed to save space on the hard drive.

locate files using additional extensions assigned by the user. NTFS permissions control access to folders and files through the Windows operating system. y y y y NTFS permissions are only available for files on a partition formatted with NTFS. Each file has an access control list (ACL) that identifies users or groups and the actions they can perform on the file. Permissions are saved as an attribute of the file. Moving NTFS files to another NTFS partition preserves the permissions; moving NTFS files to a non-NTFS partition removes the permissions.

Permissions

Be aware of the following regarding file attributes: y y The FAT32 file system only supports the following attributes: R, H, S, and A. To change file or folder attributes, edit the properties of the file or folder, or use the Attrib command from the command prompt. (You cannot change permissions with the Attrib command.) When you copy files from an NTFS partition to a FAT32 partition, attributes not available under FAT32 do not remain with the file. With Windows XP and Vista, Windows hides operating system files, even if the hidden attribute is not set for the file. Use Folder Options to show protected operating system files, or to show compressed or encrypted files in a different color.

y y y

RAID
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y How does a RAID 0 configuration improve disk read and write performance? With a RAID 0 configuration, what happens to your data if a drive in the set fails? What is the minimum number of disks required for a RAID 5 configuration? What advantages does RAID 5 have over RAID 1? What is JBOD? How does it differ from RAID?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.2 Explain motherboard components, types and features o Contrast RAID (levels 0, 1, 5)

RAID Facts
Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID), also called Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, is a disk subsystem that combines multiple physical disks into a single logical storage unit. Depending on the configuration, a RAID array can improve performance, provide fault tolerance, or both. The following table describes common RAID levels. RAID Level Description

RAID 0 (striping) A stripe set breaks data into units and stores the units across a series of disks by

reading and writing to all disks simultaneously. Striping: y y y y Provides an increase in performance. Does not provide fault tolerance. A failure of one disk in the set means all data is lost. Requires a minimum of two disks. Has no overhead because all disk space is available for storing data.

This is the fastest of all RAID types. However, note again that it does not provide fault tolerance. A mirrored volume stores data to two duplicate disks simultaneously. If one disk fails, data is present on the other disk, and the system switches immediately from the failed disk to the functioning disk. Mirroring: y y y y Provides fault tolerance for a single disk failure. Does not increase performance. Requires two disks. Has a 50% overhead. Data is written twice, meaning that half of the disk space is used to store the second copy of the data. Overhead is 1 / n where n is the price of the second disk. RAID 1 is the most expensive fault tolerant system.

RAID 1 (mirroring)

A RAID 5 volume combines disk striping across multiple disks with parity for data redundancy. Parity information is stored on each disk. If a single disk fails, its data can be recovered using the parity information stored on the remaining disks. RAID 5: y y Provides fault tolerance for a single disk failure. Provides an increase in performance for read operations. Write operations are slower with RAID 5 than with other RAID configurations because of the time required to compute and write the parity information. Requires a minimum of three disks. Has an overhead of one disk in the set for parity information: (1 / n - 1) o A set with 3 disks has 33% overhead. o A set with 4 disks has 25% overhead. o A set with 5 disks has 20% overhead.

RAID 5 (striping with distributed parity)

y y

Be aware of the following facts about RAID: y Some RAID controllers support combined levels of RAID. For example, RAID 0+1 is a striped array that is mirrored. Other combined configurations that might be supported include RAID 1+0, RAID 5+0, and RAID 5+1. For all RAID configurations, the amount of disk space used on each disk must be of equal size. If disks in the array are of different sizes, the resulting volume will be limited to the smallest disk. Remaining space on other drives can be used in other RAID sets or as traditional storage. While some RAID configurations provide fault tolerance in the event of a disk failure, configuring RAID is not a substitute for regular backups.

Another term that is sometimes used with disk arrays is JBOD (just a bunch of disks). JBOD is not a RAID configuration, but like RAID configures multiple disks into a single logical storage unit.

y y y

y y y y

A JBOD configuration creates a single volume using space from two or more disks. Spanning is another term for JBOD because the volume spans multiple physical disks. Data is not striped between disks, but rather just saved to one or more disks (depending on how the operating system decides to save each file). On a new JBOD configuration, data is typically saved to the first disk until it is full, then additional data is saved to the second disk and so on. Disks used within the spanned volume can be of different sizes. JBOD uses the entire space available on all disks for data storage (no overhead). There are no performance or fault tolerance benefits with JBOD. If one drive fails, you might be able to use disk recovery tools to recover data from the remaining disks.

Disk Optimization
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y What tasks does Disk Cleanup perform? Why does fragmentation take place? How does defragmenting improve how a system performs? How is a lost cluster different from a cross-linked file? Which utility could you use to detect and mark bad clusters?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y y Perform Disk Cleanup. Defragment a hard disk. Check a hard disk for errors.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 2.5 Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques o Scheduling preventative maintenance  Defrag  Scandisk  Check disk

Disk Optimization Facts

Optimizing your hard disk drive can improve your computer's overall performance. The following table lists some features you can upgrade to optimize your hard disk performance: Utility Description Upgrade to the fastest hard disk possible. Hard disk drives come in a variety of different rotation speeds such as: Upgrade the hard disk y y y 5400 RPM (not desired) 7200 RPM (minimum) 10,000 RPM

Upgrade the

Upgrading your disk interface will greatly improve the throughput of data to and from your

disk interface hard disk drive. y If you are using IDE, make sure that your motherboard supports the ATA 133 standard. Remember, if your motherboard has an ATA 133 interface, but your drive is only an ATA 100, your system will only be able to transfer data at 100 mbps. For optimal performance, consider upgrading your IDE interface to SATA. This will upgrade your speed to 150 or 300 Mbps.

A mostly full drive can run slower than a mostly empty one. The following table contains various methods you can use to clean up a disk drive: Utility Description Disk Cleanup helps manage disks by locating and disposing of files that can be safely removed from the disk by: y y Disk Cleanup y y y Emptying the Recycle Bin. Deleting temporary files such as those used by Internet Explorer or for application installation. Deleting installation log files. Deleting Offline files. Compressing old files.

You can type Cleanmgr at the command prompt to run Disk Cleanup. Disk Defragmenter optimizes the performance of your hard drive by joining fragments of files that are in different locations on your hard drive into a single location. y y Some files, such as certain system files, cannot be moved. To improve defragmentation, disable programs that run in the background like screen savers and virus software. Any disk access while Disk Defragmenter is running (whether to read from or write to the disk) will slow down the defragmentation process. The more information that is on the drive, the more time it will take to defragment the drive.

Disk Defragmenter

Run Defrag at a command prompt to run Disk Defragmenter in a text mode. Check Disk is a utility that verifies the file system integrity of a hard disk. Errors that can be checked and fixed by Check Disk include: y Check Disk y y Lost clusters are a series of used clusters on the hard disk drive that are not associated with a specific file. A cross-linked file occurs when two files claim the same cluster. Check Disk will identify cross-linked files and correct their cluster associations. Orphaned files are files that exist on the hard drive but which are not associated with a directory in the index. Normally Check Disk can re-associate the file with the correct directory. A bad sector is a portion of the hard disk that cannot be used. Bad sectors are marked so that they are no longer used. Any used bad sectors are redirected to another sector. Note: The NTFS file system automatically detects bad sectors as

the system operates saving and reading files. You can run Check Disk by typing Chkdsk at a command prompt. y y Use Chkdsk with the /f switch to automatically fix errors without scanning for bad sectors. Use the /r switch to scan and fix bad sectors and other errors.

Note: Because Check Disk replaces the ScanDisk utility that was available in Windows 9x/Me, Check Disk is sometimes referred to as Scan Disk.

Libraries
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y How does a library differ from a regular folder in Windows Explorer? Folders in which locations can be included in a library? A single folder can be added to how many different libraries?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y Create a library in Windows 7. Add folders to a library.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 3.2 Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces o Windows Explorer  Libraries in Windows 7

Library Facts
Libraries is a new feature in Windows 7 that groups files and folders, stored both locally and on network locations, into a single logical folder. When you open a library, you see the files and folders associated with that library as if they were in a single folder, even though the library contents might exist in several different locations in the file system. y y y Default libraries included in Windows 7 are Documents, Music, Pictures, and Videos. These default libraries organize files of a specific media type. You can create your own libraries. To add folders to a library: o Edit a library s properties and click Include a folder. o Right-click a folder, select Include in library. Each library can hold multiple folders. A single folder can be added to multiple libraries. Library contents are indexed for easy search. You can share a library to make its contents available on the network.

y y y

Networking Overview
As you study this section, answer the following questions:

y y y y

In what ways does a network benefit a company? What is the main drawback to implementing a network? Why are protocols important for networking? What are the advantages of a client/server network when compared to a peer-to-peer network? What factor usually causes LANs to have a higher bandwidth than WANs?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 4.1 Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices and protocols o Bandwidth and latency o Basics of workgroups and domains o LAN / WAN

Networking Facts
A network is a group of computers (often called nodes or hosts) that can share information through their interconnections. A network is made up of the following components: y y y y Computer systems (nodes or hosts). The transmission medium provides a path for electrical signals between devices. Network interfaces are devices that send and receive electrical signals. Protocols are rules or standards that describe how hosts communicate and exchange data.

Despite the costs of implementation and maintenance, networks actually save organizations money by allowing them to: y y y y Consolidate (centralize) data storage Share peripheral devices like printers Increase internal and external communications Increase productivity and collaboration

One way to classify networks is based on the role network devices play: Network Type Description In peer-to-peer networking (also called workgroups), each computer controls access to its own resources. Security controls on each computer identify who can have access to the computer's resources. Advantages of peer to peer networks include: y y Easy implementation Inexpensive

Peer-to-peer Disadvantages of peer to peer networks include: y y y y Difficult to expand (not scalable) Difficult to support Lack centralized control No centralized storage

Windows 7 includes a new feature called a HomeGroup. The HomeGroup is a simple way

to create a peer-to-peer network for sharing files and printers. In client/server networking, shared resources reside on special computers called servers. Other computers, called clients connect to the server to access resources. Security controls on the server identify which clients can have resource access. Advantages of client/server networks include: y y y y Client/server Disadvantages of client/server networks include: y y Server operating systems are expensive Requires extensive advanced planning Easily expanded (scalable) Easy support Centralized services Easy to backup

Windows computers use the concept of a domain for client/server networking. The domain identifies a group of computers with the same security and administrative boundaries. Active Directory is a service that provides a centralized database of resources within a domain. Another way to classify networks is based on size. y A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network in a small geographic area, like in an office. A series of connected LANs, or a LAN connected across several buildings or offices, is called an internetwork. A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a group of LANs that are geographically isolated but connected to form a large internetwork.

The network bandwidth is a rating of how much data can be sent over a network. In general, LANs have higher bandwidth, while WANs have lower bandwidth (slower speeds) because of the distances involved.

Protocols
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y What is the difference between a protocol and a protocol suite? What is the most common protocol suite used by computers today? Why? What are three e-mail protocols? How are they different? How can you tell if your browser is using SSL? How is FTP different from HTTP? When would you use FTP over HTTP? What is a secure alternative to Telnet?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 4.1 Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices and protocols o Protocols (TCP/IP, NETBIOS)

Protocol Facts

A protocol is a rule that identifies some aspect of how computers communicate on a network. For two computers to communicate, they must be using the same protocols. Protocols are grouped into protocol suites, or sets of related protocols that are meant to be used together. Common protocol suites include: Protocol Description TCP/IP TCP/IP is the protocol suite used on the Internet and on most networks. Nearly all computers today use TCP/IP for communication. NetBIOS is the term used to describe the combination of two protocols: NetBEUI and NetBIOS. NetBIOS was used in early Windows networks. Because NetBIOS is a non-routable protocol, it was often combined with TCP/IP to enable internetwork communications. Beginning with Windows 2000, NetBIOS is no longer required. However, NetBIOS might be needed if the network includes clients running previous versions of Windows. Be aware of the following facts regarding protocol suite support and features: y y Virtually all operating systems today provide native (built-in) support for TCP/IP. Most older versions of some operating systems used a different protocol as the default protocol suite. For example, older NetWare servers used IPX/SPX, while Mac OS systems used AppleTalk. Older operating systems without native TCP/IP support enabled TCP/IP communications by either installing the protocol stack or through a process known as encapsulation or tunneling. With this process, non-TCP/IP packets are re-packaged as TCP/IP packets at the sending device. The receiving device strips off the TCP/IP headers to reveal the original packets.

NetBIOS

The following table lists several protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite. Protocol HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Description HTTP is used by Web browsers and Web servers to exchange files (such as Web pages) through the World Wide Web and intranets. HTTP can be described as an information requesting and responding protocol. It is typically used to request and send Web documents, but is also used as the protocol for communication between agents using different TCP/IP protocols. HTML is a data format that is used to create hypertext documents that can be viewed from multiple platforms. Although HTML is not technically a programming language, it has become a common language used for programming information in a format that is readable by web browsers. It consists of a series of tags that define the attributes of displayed text and images.

HyperText Markup Language (HTML)

SSL secures messages being transmitted on the Internet. It uses RSA for Secure Sockets Layer authentication and encryption. Web browsers use SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) to ensure safe Web transactions. URLs that begin with https:// trigger your Web (SSL) browser to use SSL. HyperText Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer or HTTPS is a secure form of HTTP that uses SSL as a sublayer for security. HTTP over SSL (HTTPS) FTP provides a generic method of transferring files. It can include file security File Transfer Protocol through usernames and passwords, and it allows file transfer between dissimilar (FTP) computer systems. FTP can transfer both binary and text files, including HTML, to

another host. FTP URLs are preceded by ftp:// followed by the DNS name of the FTP server. To log in to an FTP server, use: ftp://username@servername. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) SMTP is used to route electronic mail through the internetwork. E-mail applications provide the interface to communicate with SMTP or mail servers. IMAP is an e-mail retrieval protocol designed to enable users to access their email from various locations without the need to transfer messages or files back and forth between computers. Messages remain on the remote mail server and are not automatically downloaded to a client system.

POP3 is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite and used to retrieve e-mail from a Post Office Protocol 3 remote server to a local client over a TCP/IP connection. With POP3, e-mail (POP3) messages are downloaded to the client. Remote Terminal Emulation (Telnet) Secure Shell (SSH) Domain Name System (DNS) Telnet allows an attached computer to act as a dumb terminal, with data processing taking place on the TCP/IP host computer. It is still widely used to provide connectivity between dissimilar systems. Telnet can also be used to test a service by the use of HTTP commands. SSH allows for secure interactive control of remote systems. SSH is a secure and acceptable alternative to Telnet. DNS is a system that is distributed throughout the internetwork to provide address/name resolution. For example, the name www.mydomain.com would be identified with a specific IP address.

Addressing
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y What is the difference between a MAC address and an IP address? Which address can you assign to a computer? How does the IP address indicate both the network and the node address? What is used to identify each part of the address? What is the address class of IP address 133.66.155.189? What is the default subnet mask for the IP address 166.88.1.45? What is the network address? What is the host address? What happens to the MAC address when you move a computer to another network?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 4.1 Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices and protocols o Basics of configuring IP addressing and TCP/IP properties (DHCP, DNS) o Basics class identification

Addressing Facts
Network devices use addresses to identify other devices. These addresses are used to send and receive packets of electronic data over the network. The addresses used depend on the physical make-up of the network as well as the protocol suite being used. Each network device is identified using a physical address. For Ethernet networks, the physical device address is the MAC address.

y y y y

The MAC address is a unique hexadecimal identifier burned into the ROM (physically assigned address) of every network interface. The MAC address is a 48-bit, 12-digit hexadecimal number (each number ranges from 0-9 or AF). The address is often written as 00-B0-D0-06-BC-AC or 00B0.D006.BCAC, although dashes, periods, and colons can also be used to divide the MAC address parts. The MAC address is guaranteed unique through design. o The first half (first 6 digits) of the MAC address is assigned to each manufacturer. o The manufacturer determines the rest of the address, assigning a unique value which identifies the host address. A manufacturer that uses all of the addresses in the original assignment can apply for a new MAC address assignment.

y y y

Although some network cards allow you to change the MAC address (or specify one of your own choice), this is rarely done in practice. When you change the network card, the host will have a new physical device address. When you move a device to another network, the physical address remains the same (as long as the network card has not been changed).

In addition to the physical device address, two logical addresses are also used: y y The logical network address identifies a network segment (called a subnet). All devices on the same network segment share the same logical network address. The logical host address identifies a specific host on the network. Each device must have a unique logical host address.

The format for the logical addresses used depends on the protocol suite. With TCP/IP, the logical network and logical host addresses are combined into a single address called the IP address. An IP address: y y Is a 32-bit binary number represented as four octets (four 8-bit numbers). Each octet is separated by a period. IP addresses can be represented in one of two ways: o Decimal (for example 131.107.2.200). In decimal notation, each octet must be between 0 and 255. o Binary (for example 10000011.01101011.00000010.11001000). In binary notation, each octet is an 8-digit number. IP addresses include both the network address and the host address. A subnet mask is used to differentiate the network and host addresses. Each IP address has a default class that includes a default subnet mask value. The class defines the default network address portion of the IP address. Address Range 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 Default Class Default Subnet Mask A B C D E 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 N/A N/A

y y y

y y

Note: The address range from 0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255 is reserved for broadcast messages to the current network. The address range from 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 is reserved for loopback addresses to the local host. For example, an IP address of 192.168.6.11 is a Class C address and has a default mask of 255.255.255.0. The network address is 192.168.6.0 and the host address is 11. Instead of using the default subnet mask, you can use custom subnet masks to define different network addresses. This process is called subnetting.

Network Configuration
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y y y What is the transmission medium for wireless networks? What is the difference between half-duplex mode and a full-duplex mode? What are the main differences between a hub and a switch? What makes a switch a better choice for many networks? Which device would you use to connect two network segments with different subnet addresses? What type of device connects hosts using different transmission media on the same subnet? What letters are used in Ethernet standards to identify copper cables? Which networking types are most readily available in every part of the country? How does DSL provide support for both analog and digital data on the same telephone line?

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 4.1 Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices and protocols o Full-duplex, half-duplex o Hub, switch and router 4.3 Compare and contrast the different network types o Broadband  DSL  Cable  Satellite o Dial-up o Wireless o Cellular

Networking Device Facts

Depending on the implementation, the following hardware devices are used on a network: Component Description The networking medium provides the path for signals to pass between two devices. Media y y y Copper cables use electrical signals. Fiber optic cables use light pulses. Wireless networks use radio waves with the air being the transmission medium.

Network adapter

A network adapter creates the signals that are sent along the networking medium. y The term network interface card (NIC) typically describes an adapter that uses a

y y

cable medium (such as copper or fiber optic cables). A modem (modulator/de-modulator) converts binary data to an analog signal. A wireless network adapter sends radio waves.

Hub

A hub provides a central connection for multiple media segments on the same subnet. The hub repeats a signal received on one port out all other ports. Hubs operate in half-duplex mode because the path between devices is shared, meaning that devices can only send when no other devices are sending data. A switch provides a central connection for multiple media segments on the same subnet. The switch receives a signal on one port, and forwards that signal only to the port where the destination device is connected.

Switch

y y

Switches use the MAC address to send frames to the destination device. Switches can operate in full duplex mode where a device uses a different channel for sending and receiving, and where the transmission paths are dedicated to only the communicating devices. When possible, use switches instead of hubs.

A router connects two network segments that have a different subnet address. y Router y y A router has multiple network connections, with each connection being on a different subnet. Routers use the IP address within a packet to move packets between networks. Routers maintain a list of known networks and the next router in the path to reach the destination network.

Bridge

A bridge connects two segments within the same subnet that use different media types. For example, use a bridge to connect wireless clients to wired clients on the same network.

Networking Standards Facts

Many different networking standards exist that define the hardware and data signal format for networked devices. You should be familiar with the following networking standards: Method Description Ethernet is the most common local area networking standard for wired networks. y y y Ethernet Ethernet can use copper and fiber optic cables. Ethernet uses network interface cards, hubs, switches, and routers to connect devices. Ethernet standards identify the transmission speed and the cable type. The letter T identifies twisted pair cables; the letters F, S, L, and E are used for fiber optic. For example: o 10BaseT operates at 10 Mbps over twisted pair cables. o 100BaseFX operates at 100 Mbps over fiber optic cables. o 1000BaseSX operates at 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) over fiber optic cables. o 10GBaseT operates at 10 Gbps over twisted pair cables. Data transfer rates are between10 Mbps (older Ethernet networks) to up to 10 Gbps. 100 and 1000 Mbps are the most common.

Wireless networking uses radio waves for sending network data within a local area network. y y Wireless y y y Radio frequency wireless standards are defined by various IEEE committees (802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n). In an ad hoc network, two computers communicate directly with each other through their wireless network adapters. In an infrastructure network, a central device called a wireless access point controls communication between devices. An access point with an integrated bridge allows wireless clients to communicate with wired clients on the same network. An access point with an integrated router allows wireless clients to communicate with hosts on different networks (such as the Internet).

A dialup connection uses a modem connected to the phone line to communicate with another host through a wide area connection. y y Dialup Dialup connections use the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Phone lines are sometimes referred to as POTS (plain old telephone service). Multiple standards define how to send digital data over the analog phone lines at various speeds and compression ratios. Standards include: V.24, V.32bis, V.34, V.42, V.44, V.90, and V.92. Dialup connections are available anywhere a dialup telephone line exists. When you configure a dialup connection, you identify the phone number of a computer on the other end. Data transfer rates include 28.8 Kbps, 33.3 Kbps, and 56 Kbps. The V.44 standard adds compression, allowing effective data transfer rates above 56 Kbps. Dialup connections cannot be used for both voice (phone calls) and data at the same time.

y y y

DSL provides broadband digital data transmission over existing telephone lines. y y Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) DSL divides the telephone line into multiple channels. One channel is used for analog voice, while the remaining channels are used for digital data. A DSL router (sometimes called a DSL modem) connects the computer to the telephone line. The telephone line must be configured by the telephone company to work with DSL. There are many DSL standards (such as ADSL, SDSL, and HDSL), collectively referred to as xDSL. Depending on the type of DSL used, you can use the same line for simultaneous voice and data. Special splitters help prevent the voice data from interfering with the digital data. DSL is not available to every location; the end location must be within a fixed distance of telephone switching equipment.

y y

Cable networking uses a cable TV connection to create a wide area connection to the Internet. Cable y y A cable modem (router) connects the computer to the cable network for sending networking signals. The same cable line is used to carry networking and cable TV signals, although

in some cases a separate line is installed for Internet access. Cable networking requires the installation of a cable TV line to your location (if one does not exist).

Cellular networking uses a digital mobile phone for Internet access. y y Cellular y y Mobile phones with digital data plans use cellular calls to connect to the Internet. You can install a cellular adapter in a notebook computer to provide cellular access. Cellular networking is a truly mobile solution; you can often be moving and still have Internet access without manually having to reconnect. Internet access is limited to areas with cell phone coverage. Coverage will be dictated by the service provider's network. Roaming charges might apply, while some areas will not have coverage.

Satellite networking uses radio signals sent and received from a satellite. Satellite networking: y y y y y y Uses a transmitter with an antenna (dish) directed skywards to a satellite. Requires direct line of sight (dish placement is crucial). Is subject to mild atmospheric and weather conditions (fog or slight wind can disrupt service). May have a long delay time (latency) between requests and downloads. Can be a portable solution for cars or trucks with an attached satellite dish. Provides nearly 100% global coverage.

Satellite

Some satellite Internet access solutions are limited to download only. Another solution, such as dialup, is required to provide upload capabilities. Regardless of the physical method used to create the network and to send signals between devices, all devices will also implement TCP/IP to communicate on the Internet. TCP/IP is implemented on top of, or in addition to, the standards that define how the physical connections are made.

Networking Media
As you study this section, answer the following questions: y y y y y y y y y What are the advantages of using coaxial cable? Disadvantages? Which coaxial cable grade is usually used with cable and satellite TV? Why are wires twisted together in twisted pair cables? What is the difference between STP and UTP cabling? What is the difference between Cat3 and Cat5 cable? Which connector type and cable grade is used to connect a cable modem to the Internet connection? What advantages do fiber optic cables offer over twisted pair or other media choices? What are the disadvantages to implementing fiber optic cables? What is the difference between single mode and multi-mode cables? How can you tell the difference between an ST and an SC connector?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks:

y y

Select the appropriate network card, cable, and connector type for a given network. Install a network card.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 4.2 Categorize network cables and connectors and their implementations o Cables  Plenum / PVC  UTP (e.g. CAT3, CAT5 / 5e, CAT6)  STP  Fiber  Coaxial cable o Connectors  RJ45  RJ11

Coaxial Cable Facts

Coaxial cable is an older technology that is usually implemented with a bus topology. It is composed of two conductors, which share a common axis, within a single cable. Coaxial cable is built with the following components: y Two concentric metallic conductors: o The inner conductor, which carries data signals. It is made of copper or copper coated with tin. o The mesh conductor is a second physical channel that also grounds the cable. It is made of aluminum or copper coated tin. The insulator, which surrounds the inner conductor, keeps the signal separated from the mesh conductor. It is made of PVC plastic. The PVC sheath, which is the cable encasement. It surrounds and protects the wire. It is made of PVC plastic.

y y

Coaxial cable has the following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages y y y y y Highly resistant to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Highly resistant to physical damage Expensive Inflexible construction (difficult to install) Unsupported by newer networking standards

Disadvantages

The table below describes the different coaxial cable grades. Resistance Rating 50 ohms 75 ohms

Grade Uses RG58 RG10Base2 Ethernet networking (also called Thinnet) Cable TV and cable networking

59 Cable TV, satellite TV, and cable networking RG-6 RG-6 has less signal loss than RG-59, and is a better choice for networking applications, especially where longer distances (over a few feet) are involved. RG-8 10Base5 Ethernet networking (also called Thicknet) 75 ohms 50 ohms

Note: When using coaxial cables, it is important to use cables with the same resistance (impedance) rating. The table below describes the types of connectors used with coaxial cable. Connector F-Type Description y y y Twisted onto the cable Used to create cable and satellite TV connections Used to connect a cable modem to a broadband cable connection

BNC y y Molded onto the cable Used in 10Base2 Ethernet networks

Twisted Pair Facts

Twisted pair cables support a wide variety of fast, modern network standards. Twisted pair cabling is composed of the following components: y y Two wires that carry the data signals (one conductor carries a positive signal; one carries a negative signal). They are made of 22 or 24 gauge copper wiring. PVC or plenum plastic insulation surrounds each wire. Plenum cable is fire resistant and nontoxic; it must be used when wiring above ceiling tiles. PVC cable cannot be used to wire above ceilings because it is toxic when burned. Two wires are twisted to reduce the effects of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and crosstalk. Because the wires are twisted, EMI should affect both wires equally and can be cancelled out. Multiple wire pairs are bundled together in an outer sheath. Twisted pair cables use RJ-45 connectors and can be classified according to the makeup of the outer sheath: o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) has a grounded outer copper shield around the bundle of twisted pairs or around each pair. This provides added protection against EMI. o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) does not have a grounded outer copper shield. UTP cables are easier to work with and are less expensive than shielded cables.

y y

Twisted pair cable has the following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages y y Inexpensive compared to other media types Easy to install and manage

y Disadvantages y y

Very common (media and tools are easy to obtain) Most susceptible to EMI of all the media types Cables are more easily damaged than other types

The table below describes the different unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable types (categories). Type Phone cable Cat 3 Cat 5 Cat 5e Cat 6 Connector Description RJ-11 Used to connect a modem to a phone jack in a wall outlet to establish a dial-up Internet connection Has two pairs of twisted cable (a total of 4 wires) Designed for use with 10 megabit Ethernet or 16 megabit token ring Supports 100 megabit and 1 gigabit Ethernet and ATM networking Similar to Cat 5 but provides better EMI protection. Supports 1 and 10 gigabit Ethernet (gigabit connections require the use of all four twisted pairs) Supports high-bandwidth, broadband communications

RJ-45 RJ-45 RJ-45 RJ-45

Note: While Category 3 and Category 5 cabling may appear similar physically, they are electrically different. Category 5 cabling is twisted much tighter than Category 3 cabling. This reduces cross talk and enables Category 5 wiring to support much faster data transmission rates. The table below describes the two types of connectors used with twisted pair cables. Connector RJ-11 Description y y y y y y y y Has 4 connectors Supports up to 2 pairs of wires Uses a locking tab to keep connector secure in outlet Used primarily for telephone wiring Has 8 connectors Supports up to 4 pairs of wires Uses a locking tab to keep connector secure in outlet Used for Ethernet and some token ring connections

RJ-45

Note: You should use a crimping tool to attach connectors to UTP cable. Each type of UTP cable can be substituted for any category below it, but never for a category above. For example, Cat 6 can be substituted for a task requiring Cat 5e; however, neither Cat 5 nor Cat 3 should be used for this particular task.

Fiber Optic Facts

Fiber optic cabling is composed of the following components: y The core carries the signal. It is made of plastic or glass.

y y

The cladding maintains the signal in the center of the core as the cable bends. The sheathing protects the cladding and the core.

To connect computers using fiber optic cables, you need two fiber strands; one strand transmits signals, and the other strand receives signals. Fiber optic cabling offers the following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages y y y y y y y Totally immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Highly resistant to eavesdropping Supports extremely high data transmission rates Allows greater cable distances without a repeater Very expensive Difficult to work with Special training required to attach connectors to cables

Disadvantages

Multi-mode and single mode fiber cables are distinct from each other and not interchangeable. The table below describes multi-mode and single mode fiber cables. Type Description y Single Mode y y y y y y Transfers data through the core using a single light ray (the ray is also called a mode) The core diameter is around 10 microns Supports a large amount of data Cable lengths can extend a great distance Transfers data through the core using multiple light rays The core diameter is around 50 to 100 microns Cable lengths are limited in distance

Multi-mode

Fiber optic cabling uses the following connector types: Type Description y y y y y Used with single and multi-mode cabling Keyed, bayonet-type connector Also called a push in and twist connector Each wire has a separate connector Nickel plated with a ceramic ferrule to insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray deflection As part of the assembly process, it is necessary to polish the exposed fiber tip to ensure that light is passed on from one cable to the next with no

ST Connector

dispersion y y SC Connector y y Used with single and multi-mode cabling Push on, pull off connector type that uses a locking tab to maintain connection Each wire has a separate connector Uses a ceramic ferrule to insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray deflection As part of the assembly process, it is necessary to polish the exposed fiber tip Used with single and multi-mode cabling Composed of a plastic connector with a locking tab, similar to a RJ-45 connector A single connector with two ends keeps the two cables in place Uses a ceramic ferrule to insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray deflection Half the size of other fiber-optic connectors Used with single and multi-mode cabling Composed of a plastic connector with a locking tab Uses metal guide pins to ensure it is properly aligned A single connector with one end holds both cables Uses a ceramic ferrule to insure proper core alignment and prevent light ray deflection

y y LC Connector y y

y y MT-RJ Connector y y y

Computing Facts
As a PC technician, it is very important that you understand the common components of a computer. The following table contains the three basic elements that make up a computer: Term Hardware Definition The physical components that work together to make a computer system or network. Hardware components include:

y y y y

Keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer Connectors and cables Drives Circuit boards

Computer programs that perform specific tasks. Software components include: y y y Operating System Program applications Hardware drivers (special programs that tell the operating system how to use the hardware)

Software

Firmware

Software that has been permanently placed in a hardware component. An example of firmware is a BIOS chip.

Computers perform the functions listed in the following table: Function Description The process of sending data to the computer. Input devices include: Input y y y Mouse Keyboard Touchscreen

The event of a program being loaded, retrieved, transmitted, or executed. Major processing components include: Processing y y CPU (Central Processing Unit) RAM

The act of keeping or maintaining data. Storage devices include: y y y y Hard disk drive Floppy disk drive Optical drives (CD-ROM, DVD) Flash drives

Storage

The process of the computer presenting, displaying, or otherwise giving data. Output devices include: Output y y y Video Audio Printing

Networking and Communications

Networking is a specialized form of input and output that entails using media (cable) and devices (routers, switches) to link multiple computers into an interconnected unit.

Modern PC repair and maintenance is facilitated by increasing componentization and standardization. y Because of componentization, a working PC is a combination of many different parts. Each component, also called a Field-Replaceable Unit (FRU), can be replaced when faulty or upgraded to provide additional functionality. Replacing a single component is cheaper than replacing the entire PC. And in most cases, replacing the component is easier and cheaper than repairing the component. Because of standardization, components from many different manufacturers are interchangeable. As long as the component meets the standards, you can be reasonably confident that it will work in the system.

Power Supply Facts

You should be aware of the following facts about power supplies: y y Power supplies must be matched to the motherboard and case form factor. If you have an ATX motherboard, purchase an ATX power supply. The power supply converts AC current to DC current. o AC (alternating current) is the type of current distributed through wall sockets. With AC, the voltage alternates (at a quick rate) between a negative and a positive charge. This type of current is good for appliances requiring a high current. o DC (direct current) is the type of current used inside a computer. Negatively charged particles being drawn toward a positive charge create a direct current flow. This type of predictable reliable current is ideal for an application where a lower current is required. Power supplies provide + 3.3 volts, +/- 5 volts, and +/- 12 volts (DC power). Most modern components require +12 volt output. Each separate voltage output circuit is referred to as a rail. To avoid overloading one circuit, many newer power supplies have multiple +12 volt rails. Much like a circuit breaker in a house, separate rails allow you to distribute the power load between multiple circuits to prevent any one circuit from becoming overloaded. Each rail can power multiple devices. Most power supplies have the capacity to receive both 110 and 220 volt power just by toggling a switch (typically red) on the power supply casing. You can use this switch when using the power supply in other countries. When troubleshooting, make sure this switch is set to the correct voltage. o 110 volts is used in the United States. o 220 volts is used in many parts of Europe. Power supplies are rated in watts. The watt describes how much work or how much power can be supplied to various devices. The more devices you have in your computer, the more wattage you will require. You can calculate the system's wattage requirements with the following method: o Find the wattage requirements of each individual circuit by multiplying volts by amps (W = V x A). o Add the circuit wattage requirements together to find the total system wattage requirement. Power supplies include a fan that helps to cool the system. o On older ATX systems, the fan direction blows air into the case and across the CPU. o Newer (all current) ATX systems reverse the fan direction to pull air from inside the case (blow air out). o System case fans help improve airflow. Current ATX cases typically pull (cooler) air in from the front, where the power supply and additional fans at the rear blow the (warmer) air out. An ATX power supply provides soft power. This is a condition where the motherboard always has power, even when the computer is turned off. This feature enables the operating system to power off the system and enables other features such as power on for network or other events.

y y

The power supply includes connectors for powering various computer components. When choosing a power supply make sure it includes the necessary connectors for your motherboard. Specifically, some motherboards and processors require an extra 4-pin and/or 8-pin connector in addition to the main 20- or 24-pin power connector. Power supply connectors are standardized following the ATX specifications. However, some computer manufacturers, such as Dell, produced power supplies with proprietary connectors. In some cases, the connectors are the same as ATX connectors, but the wiring positions might be different. When replacing a power supply, identify whether a standard ATX or a proprietary power supply is required.

System Case Facts

The size of the system case is often determined by the motherboard form factor. The following table contains the primary motherboard types with which you should be familiar: Form Factor

Characteristics The ATX form factor is the most common form factor for full-sized computers. y y ATX boards measure 12" x 9.6". The CPU sits at the back top below the power supply. The power supply blows air into the case or pulls air from the case to cool the processor. The power cable runs from the system case power switch to the system board. The power supply can use a soft switch or soft power (the operating system can turn the computer off).

ATX y y

A mini-ATX motherboard is a slightly smaller variation of the full ATX size that measures 11.2" x 8.2". MiniATX y y The main difference between ATX and mini-ATX is the number of bus and possibly memory slots on the motherboard. Mounting holes for both are located in the same place, making them interchangeable in most cases. A case that supports an ATX motherboard can also support a mini-ATX motherboard.

MicroATX

The micro-ATX form factor is an even smaller version of the ATX standard, with a maximum size of 9.6" x 9.6". Mounting holes are in the same position as ATX motherboards. Note: The terms mini-ATX and micro-ATX are often used interchangeably, and some micro-ATX boards could be smaller than the maximum size.

The mini-ITX standard is the smallest variation of the ATX standard, with a maximum Mini-ITX motherboard size of 6.7" x 6.7". The mini-ATX standard also includes standards for a power supply that provides less than 100 Watts. NLX is an older form factor used for slimline desktop-style computers. NLX is an improvement over an even earlier LPX form factor. NLX: y y y y Uses a riser card in the middle of the system board (expansion slots are located on the riser card rather than the system board). The riser card does not have built-in ports for audio, joystick, USB, network, and modem. Supports AGP video cards. Includes the ability to mount the motherboard so it can slide in or out of the system case

NLX

easily. The BTX form factor was designed to give developers better options for managing system performance and balancing thermal management. With BTX: y BTX y y The processor is at the front and turned on an angle to increase air flow across the processor. A thermal module or shroud fits over the processor to move heat directly out of the system. Many BTX cases are also ATX compatible.

Although BTX was developed as an improvement to ATX, it has not gained widespread adoption. BTX is implemented mainly by computer manufacturers such as Dell. System cases come in the following basic types: Type Description Desktop cases sit horizontally and are usually used for low-end systems that are not meant to be upgraded (i.e. there may be few or no expansion slots). Specific sizes include: Desktop y y Desktop Slim line

Tower cases can be as high as two feet tall. They have extensive room for expansion. Tower size classifications include: Tower y y y Minitower typically have 1-2 drive bays for expansion Midsize typically have between 2-4 drive bays Full-size may have between 6-10 drive bays for expansion

Small form factor computers use mini-ITX or custom motherboards to reduce the size of the system. Some SFF cases might be classified as minitowers with 1-2 drive bays. Others Small form factor (SFF) might include all computer components in the shape of a ball or integrated within a monitor as a single unit. Notebook Notebook cases are generally proprietary and often vary among models.

When you purchase a system case, you will typically get the following components: y y y y y y System case Power supply (although the power supply might also be separate) Case fans Plastic or rubber feet that attach to the bottom of the case Metal screws for attaching the motherboard Additional external connectors (such as audio, USB, and Firewire) that connect to motherboard headers

Portable Devices
As you study this section, answer the following questions:

y y y y y y y y y

Why do processors for laptop computers not require the large heat sink and fan combinations that are used in PCs to dissipate heat? What types of devices do notebooks use instead of a mouse? How do you transfer data from a PDA to a desktop computer? What is the function of the docking station? What kinds of components are typically built into a notebook computer? How do you add devices to a portable device? What is the battery memory effect that is present in Ni-cad batteries? What advantages do NiMH batteries have over Li-Ion batteries? How should you dispose of notebook batteries?

After finishing this section, you should be able to complete the following tasks: y y Identify notebook external components. Add peripheral devices to notebook computers using USB, PCMCIA, and ExpressCard slots.

This section covers the following exam objectives: y 1.10 Install, configure and optimize laptop components and features o Expansion devices  PCMCIA cards  PCI Express cards  Docking station o Communication connections  Bluetooth  Infrared  Cellular WAN  Ethernet  Modem o Power and electrical input devices  Auto-switching  Fixed input power supplies  Batteries o Input devices  Stylus / digitizer  Function keys  Point devices (e.g. touch pad, point stick / track point)

Portable Device Facts

Notebooks and other portable devices differ from desktop systems in three major ways: y Portable devices are built to be lighter and easier to carry. The smaller form causes components to be placed in closer proximity, which has historically caused technical development to lag behind that of desktops. Portable devices often run on battery power. Individual components are engineered to minimize the power consumption in order to maximize battery life. Because the devices are built to be carried around, they also must withstand more wear and tear.

y y

Be aware of the following classifications for portable devices: y A notebook (or laptop) is a portable version of a desktop system. It often has similar hardware and runs similar software.

y y

A Tablet PC is a notebook that includes a touchscreen to allow input by tapping on the screen, dragging objects, or through handwriting recognition. A stylus is a special pen designed to be used by these touchscreens for input. Tablet PCs might run special versions of the operating system to enable touchscreen input. A PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) is a hand-held device, typically with a small touchscreen. A PDA uses special hardware and software that provides basic productivity applications (e-mail, word processing, spreadsheets). A smart phone is a phone that includes functions of a PDA. As functions are added to smart phones, the line between smart phones and PDAs is disappearing. A netbook is a notebook computer with a smaller form factor (10-11 inch screen or smaller) and custom hardware designed to maximize battery life (from 6-11 hours on a single charge). Originally, netbooks used a special operating system that often did not support all of the features of a normal desktop operating system. Increasingly, netbooks can run a regular version of the operating system, although the reduced hardware might still limit their usefulness to e-mail, word processing, and multimedia. Netbooks typically do not have integrated CD/DVD drives.

The following table describes various components in a notebook system. Component Description Processors built especially for laptop computers have lower power consumption requirements and produce less heat than desktop processors. y Processor y y On most systems, you can configure the processor to use a lower bus speed when running from battery power, thereby conserving battery life. Many mobile processors are capable of automatic throttling to turn off extra cores or reduce the speed to conserve energy. Processors do not have the large heat sink and fan combinations to dissipate heat. Rather, heat is controlled by minimizing power consumption and small fans that draw away heat.

Laptop memory uses SODIMM packages with SDRAM, DDR/DDR2/DDR3, or RAMBUS memory. These modules are sometimes called MicroDIMMs. Memory Many notebooks come with a base amount of memory built onto the motherboard and one or two additional slots. When replacing notebook memory, make sure the size of modules you purchase are supported by the system. Notebook keyboards are smaller than standard keyboards. Keys are often a bit smaller and closer together. Keys such as the number pad and some function keys might be left off, but are accessible by pressing a special Fn key to provide alternate functions for regular keys. You can use a USB port to connect an external keyboard; some laptops include a PS/2 port. Instead of a mouse, notebooks use one (or more) of the following devices: y Pointing devices y y y Pointing sticks are small knobs in the center of the keyboard. Pushing on this knob moves the cursor. The touchpad is located below the keyboard. Moving your finger across the pad moves the mouse. You can also tap the touchpad to click the mouse. Buttons below the keyboard replace mouse buttons for clicks, double-clicks, and right-clicks. A digitizer pad is used in laptop and PDA systems to receive input. Input is written

Keyboard

onto the pad with a stylus pen, then those motions are transferred into data that is processed by the system. You can also use the PS/2 connector or a USB connector to connect an external mouse.

Touchpads are more common than pointing sticks. Notebooks with a pointing stick often come with a touchpad as well. Be aware of the following facts about screens and video cards: y y Video y y y XGA screens have the normal 4:3 aspect ratio. WXGA screens use a widescreen aspect ratio. Some screens promise brighter display for crisper viewing or better viewing outdoors. The video controller is either integrated onto the motherboard or it might be a separate board that can be replaced. Video memory typically shares a portion of the system memory, although some notebooks have dedicated video memory. Most notebooks have an external video port that you can use to display the screen on a projector or a monitor. To show the display on the external monitor, change the display settings in the operating system or use the Fn keyboard combination.

Most notebooks include built-in networking devices such as an Ethernet port, a modem port, wireless, Bluetooth, and/or infrared. y Wireless networking capabilities are often provided by a small card that plugs into an internal mini-PCI slot (located under the keyboard or accessible through the back). The wireless antennae might be a wire that extends around the screen. You can use USB or PCMCIA cards to add missing or malfunctioning networking features.

Networking

Internal hard disks Docking station

Internal hard disks are typically 2.5" and very thin compared to desktop hard disks. PATA, SATA, and increasingly solid state drives are used in portable devices. A docking station lets you use the notebook systems as a desktop system. The docking station includes special ports that connect to the back of the notebook and let you use normal-sized external mouse, keyboard, monitor, and speakers. Portable devices typically do not have free internal bus slots that you can use to add components to the system. Instead, components are typically added in the following ways: y Removable drive bays. Laptop vendors produce removable devices (such as floppy, CD/DVD, hard disks, or batteries) that fit into special slots. These slots are typically custom made for the laptop vendor and model. USB or Firewire ports. You can plug external devices in to USB or Firewire ports. PCMCIA and PCI Express (ExpressCard) card slots. Slide cards into the slot to add functionality.

Additional devices

y y

Most external laptop components are hot swappable. Be sure to use Safely Remove Hardware before removing a hot swappable component. Be aware that using additional devices with your laptop system can increase heat output and discharge the battery faster.

Expansion Card Facts

A PC Card is a credit card sized expansion bus that conforms to PCMCIA standards. PC Cards come in a number of configurations with varying characteristics and functions. You should know the following facts about PC Cards: y y y PC Cards can be used by devices like modems, network cards for wired or wireless networks, CD-ROMs, sound cards, SCSI host adapters, IEEE 1394 controllers, USB controllers, and others. PC Cards connect to the 16-bit or 32-bit card host I/O bus on the laptop motherboard. PC Cards can also be categorized by physical standard, as is illustrated below:

Card Type Description Type I Type II Type III y Now obsolete, were typically used for memory (such as SRAM and Flash). Typically used for I/O (such as modem and LAN). Typically used for rotating mass storage (hard drives and optical drives).

PCMCIA dimensions, excluding thickness, are the same for each type of card and each card type has a 68-pin connector. Thinner cards fit into the thicker ports, but not vice versa. For example, a Type I card will fit into Type II and III ports while a Type III card requires two Type II ports. CardBus is a name given to 32-bit PCMCIA cards following the PCMCIA 5.0 or later standards.

The PCMCIA standards are being replaced by a new standard, PCI Express or ExpressCard. y y y ExpressCard slots connected directly to the PCIe or USB bus. ExpressCard offers up to 2.5 Gbps on the PCIe bus, or 480 Mbps on the USB bus. ExpressCard slots are either 34mm or 54mm wide. There are two card form factors: o ExpressCard/34 are rectangular cards that are 34mm wide. These cards fit into either 34mm or 54mm slots. o ExpressCard/54 are L shaped cards that are 34mm wide at the connector end, but 54mm wide on the outside edge. These cards fit only into 54mm slots. Cards use either PCI Express or USB 2.0 standards (the slot supports both). ExpressCards can be used for all types of devices, similar to PCMCIA. An ExpressCard can even be used for a graphics card to attach an external monitor.

y y

Many newer laptops have ExpressCard slots but not PCMCIA slots. Some laptops have both, while some have neither (assuming that all external devices will connect through the USB ports).

Notebook Power Facts

Notebook systems are designed to use as little power as possible. Common ways notebook systems save power are: y y y y Turning off any drives that aren't currently being used Stepping down the bus speed in the CPU Turning off the monitor after a period of inactivity Putting the computer to sleep or turning it off automatically

When your laptop is plugged into the wall, it is receiving power through an adapter that converts the AC power from the outlet to DC power usable by the computer. Most adapters can be used on both 110 and 220 AC volt power sources. The energy received through the adapter is divided between running the notebook system and charging the battery. Remember that most adapters are not interchangeable between laptops because laptops require varying amounts of voltage and amperage and also have different plugs. Before connecting a laptop to an adapter, look at the information listed on the adapter to make sure that it supplies the correct amount of voltage and amperage necessary for your specific laptop and has a plug that will fit properly. Failing to use the correct adapter can cause a laptop to: y y y Receive insufficient power to turn on. Receive insufficient power to charge the battery. Receive an excess of power that will fry the system.

When a laptop is not plugged into the wall, it receives its power from the battery. Batteries wear out over time so you should expect to replace your battery every few years. It is best to never let a battery run extremely low because the life of a battery significantly decreases if it loses all of its charge. The following table lists the battery types that might be used in portable devices: Battery Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad) Characteristics y Develops a memory and begins to store less power as it is repeatedly recharged. To avoid battery memory problems, completely drain the battery before recharging it. Takes up more physical space than Lithium Ion batteries. Very heat sensitive. No longer used on new laptops. Does not develop a memory. 40% longer lifetime than Nickel Cadmium. Greater charge capacity than Nickel Cadmium. Less toxic than Nickel Cadmium. Slightly more expensive than Nickel Cadmium. Does not develop a memory. A rechargeable battery with twice the capacity of a nickel-cadmium battery with significantly increased stability and safety. Takes up less physical space and weigh less than Nickel Cadmium or Nickel

y y y Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) y y y y y y y y

Lithium Ion (LiIon)

y y y y Fuel Cell y y y y

Metal Hydride batteries for comparable power output. Has a shorter lifespan than Nickel Metal Hydride. Not heat sensitive like Nickel Cadmium. Cannot be overcharged. More expensive than Nickel Cadmium or Nickel Metal Hydride. A growing technology that is still developing and is recently being implemented into the small electronic device market. Not truly a battery. Offers instant power and uses replaceable cartridges. Rather than being recharged (taking hours), when its charge becomes low, the fuel is merely replaced (taking seconds).

Batteries contain dangerous and regulated chemicals. Always dispose of batteries according to the manufacturer's directions. Disposing of batteries improperly might also be illegal.